Batteries

14 pages, 4321 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on Fire Suppression of Lithium-Ion Battery Module with Different Extinguishing Agents in Confined Space

by Yanbo Jia, Chaohui Shi, Lei Zhang, An Tao, Sen Hu and Huang Li

Batteries 2026, 12(7), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12070229 (registering DOI) - 25 Jun 2026

Abstract

In order to investigate the suppression effect of different extinguishing agents on lithium-ion battery fires in real confined spaces, a comparative experiment was conducted using aerosols, heptafluoropropane, and perfluorohexanone. In tests without any fire suppression measures, the peak heat release rate reached up [...] Read more.

In order to investigate the suppression effect of different extinguishing agents on lithium-ion battery fires in real confined spaces, a comparative experiment was conducted using aerosols, heptafluoropropane, and perfluorohexanone. In tests without any fire suppression measures, the peak heat release rate reached up to 69.09 kW, and a total of 8.05 MJ of heat was generated along with multiple deflagration events. Moreover, the heptafluoropropane and perfluorohexanone both effectively extinguished the flames with extinguishing times of 12 and 20 s, respectively. The aerosol agent caused a significant contraction of the flames, but it was unable to achieve complete extinguishment. Regarding cooling performance, the heptafluoropropane decreased the front surface temperature of the battery by 147 °C, while perfluorohexanone achieved a reduction of 230 °C. Additionally, the liquid-phase adhesion characteristics of perfluorohexanone enabled sustained cooling. A comprehensive comparison indicates that the perfluorohexanone agent exhibits outstanding performance in flame extinguishment, cooling efficiency, and the suppression of thermal propagation. Heptafluoropropane demonstrates rapid fire suppression and is suitable as a fast-response agent, whereas the aerosol requires a multi-discharge design to achieve reliable performance. Based on these findings, it is recommended that energy storage systems adopt a composite suppression strategy for fire protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Health Algorithms and Thermal Safety Modeling)

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26 pages, 12683 KB

Open AccessArticle

Advanced Classification of Lithium-Ion Battery Defects Using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy and Machine Learning

by Tobias G. Bergmann, Xinyang Liu-Théato, Binbin Zhu and Lea Leuthner

Batteries 2026, 12(7), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12070228 (registering DOI) - 25 Jun 2026

Abstract

Metallic particle contaminants have been shown to have a detrimental effect on the reliability, performance and capacity of lithium-ion battery cells. In addition, they pose a significant safety risk. Typical contaminants, such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al), often enter the [...] Read more.

Metallic particle contaminants have been shown to have a detrimental effect on the reliability, performance and capacity of lithium-ion battery cells. In addition, they pose a significant safety risk. Typical contaminants, such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al), often enter the cell via mechanical abrasion from production equipment, as burrs during electrode cutting, or through environmental exposure during handling. In such instances, the degradation mechanisms are known to accelerate, dendrite formation is increased, and, in the most unfavourable circumstances, thermal runaway is the likely outcome. Contaminants that do not affect cell behavior during formation and the initial cycles, yet only compromise safety at a subsequent stage, are of particular concern. Affected cells are known to pass end-of-line testing and make their way into the market as latent safety risks. Consequently, there is an urgent requirement for non-destructive diagnostic methods that are capable of identifying latent defects. The issue under discussion is approached in the present paper through the utilization of an innovative methodology that integrates the distribution of relaxation time (DRT) analysis of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) data with machine learning techniques. The objective of this integrated approach is to facilitate the detection of critically contaminated pouch cells with a high degree of sensitivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Storage System Aging, Diagnosis and Safety)

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11 pages, 10594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Thermal Runaway Features of Lithium-Ion Batteries with Different Aging Histories for Energy Storage Under Conditions of Overcharging

by Xinhai Li, Wei Lin, Wei Hou and Zhiying Ding

Batteries 2026, 12(7), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12070227 (registering DOI) - 25 Jun 2026

Abstract

In this study, we investigate the effect of aging on the thermal runaway characteristics of 314 Ah lithium iron phosphate batteries with different cycles (0, 400, and 1000 cycles), with the batteries being overcharged to thermal runaway with a 0.5 C charging rate. [...] Read more.

In this study, we investigate the effect of aging on the thermal runaway characteristics of 314 Ah lithium iron phosphate batteries with different cycles (0, 400, and 1000 cycles), with the batteries being overcharged to thermal runaway with a 0.5 C charging rate. The results indicate that aging significantly reduces the severity of thermal runaway for a battery. Fresh batteries exhibited intense jet fires with a peak temperature of 501.4 °C, while aged batteries produced only heavy smoke without obvious flames, with peak temperatures dropping to 401.2 °C. Aging leads to the thickening of the SEI film, increased internal resistance, and an unstable voltage response, extending the thermal runaway trigger time from 1979 s to 4039 s, but with a lower trigger temperature. The negative tab consistently remained the core heat accumulation point, with temperature differences of 10–30 °C compared to other wall surfaces, and the core temperature during thermal runaway exceeded 500 °C. The transition from casing rupture to jet fire occurred within only 2 s, indicating an extremely short safety response window. Through this research, we provide critical insights for the aging assessment and thermal safety management of energy storage batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Health Algorithms and Thermal Safety Modeling)

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21 pages, 4390 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Method for Determining the Specific Heat Capacity of Cylindrical Li-Ion Batteries

by Sotir Sotirov and Nadezhda Kafadarova

Batteries 2026, 12(7), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12070226 (registering DOI) - 25 Jun 2026

Abstract

This study presents a novel and accessible method for determining the specific heat capacity of cylindrical lithium-ion batteries without the need for specialized equipment for cell disassembly, climatic chambers, or expensive calorimeters. The proposed approach does not require disassembly of the cell. Since [...] Read more.

This study presents a novel and accessible method for determining the specific heat capacity of cylindrical lithium-ion batteries without the need for specialized equipment for cell disassembly, climatic chambers, or expensive calorimeters. The proposed approach does not require disassembly of the cell. Since specific heat capacity is a key parameter in thermal modeling and is often unavailable in manufacturer datasheets, the method addresses an important practical gap. The measurement principle is based on recording the change in surface temperature caused by a short 30 s discharge pulse of 9 A. A thermographic camera captures infrared images at fixed time intervals, while an electromechanical module rotates the battery around its longitudinal axis, providing an accurate estimation of the average surface temperature during and after the pulse. The resulting temperature–time profiles are used to evaluate heat losses and compute the specific heat capacity. To validate the methodology, experiments were conducted on an aluminum cylinder of identical dimensions to an 18650 cell, made of Al 6082-T6 (Cp ≈ 896 J·kg⁻¹·K⁻¹). The results show a maximum deviation of 2.68% from the reference value, confirming the reliability of the proposed method for determining the specific heat capacity of cylindrical Li-ion batteries. Full article

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51 pages, 14827 KB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Polyacrylamide-Based Hydrogels as Electrolytes for Stable and Dendrite-Free Zn Anodes: Challenges, Strategies, and Perspectives

by Dongqi Gu and Yanfang Liang

Batteries 2026, 12(7), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12070225 (registering DOI) - 24 Jun 2026

Abstract

Rechargeable zinc-based batteries (ZBBs) have attracted considerable attention for use in large-scale energy storage systems due to their inherent high safety, low cost, and environmental friendliness. However, the practical applicability of ZBBs is limited by challenges related to the anode—such as uncontrollable zinc [...] Read more.

Rechargeable zinc-based batteries (ZBBs) have attracted considerable attention for use in large-scale energy storage systems due to their inherent high safety, low cost, and environmental friendliness. However, the practical applicability of ZBBs is limited by challenges related to the anode—such as uncontrollable zinc dendritic growth, the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), and corrosion—which lead to significant polarization, capacity degradation, and unsatisfactory Coulombic efficiency of the ZBBs. Polyacrylamide (PAM)-based hydrogels have emerged as promising electrolyte materials to address these challenges due to their superior mechanical properties, flexibility, high ionic conductivity, and structural designability. Considering the rapid increase in research attention regarding this topic, we comprehensively summarize recent progress in PAM-based hydrogels as electrolytes for ZBBs in this study. First, we discuss the key challenges associated with Zn anodes in ZBBs, together with corresponding optimization strategies. Next, we detail the fundamental structure, properties, and synthesis of PAM-based hydrogels. Then, the relationships among synthetic methods, nano/microstructures, and electrochemical properties are systematically reviewed and discussed. Finally, prospects for the rational design and application of PAM-based hydrogels in ZBBs are summarized. Full article

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21 pages, 5242 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Three-Stage Reaction-Process-Corrected Equivalent Circuit Model for Predicting External Short-Circuit Current in Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Xingzhen Zhou, Chenhui Gao, Weige Zhang, Caiping Zhang, Qinhe Huang, Lei Zhang, Yusheng Li, Ling Chen, Dongzhong Hu and Jinhan Qiu

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060224 (registering DOI) - 21 Jun 2026

Abstract

Accurate prediction of external short-circuit (ESC) current is important for battery safety analysis and protection design, but conventional equivalent circuit models have difficulty reproducing the strongly nonlinear current evolution under ESC conditions. This study proposes a reaction-process-corrected second-order RC model for ESC current [...] Read more.

Accurate prediction of external short-circuit (ESC) current is important for battery safety analysis and protection design, but conventional equivalent circuit models have difficulty reproducing the strongly nonlinear current evolution under ESC conditions. This study proposes a reaction-process-corrected second-order RC model for ESC current prediction, based on ESC experiments on a 37 Ah commercial NCM pouch cell at different initial SOCs. The ESC process is described by three successive stages: bottleneck control, concentration-difference control, and separator pore closure. To represent the transport-related resistance deviation during this process, an additional correction resistance R_x and a queued-charge descriptor Q are introduced into the equivalent circuit framework. A segmented closed-loop simulation strategy is then developed to update R_x and predict the ESC current. Using the 50% SOC case as an unseen validation case, the proposed model captures the main nonlinear characteristics of ESC current, including rapid initial decay, secondary rebound, and subsequent attenuation. The proposed framework improves the physical interpretability of equivalent-circuit-based ESC simulation while retaining engineering simplicity, providing a practical approach for safety-boundary assessment and protection-oriented battery system design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Intelligent Management Technologies of New Energy Batteries)

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34 pages, 4254 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advancements in Electrolytic Zn–MnO₂ Batteries: Mechanistic Insights into Mn²⁺/MnO₂ Deposition/Dissolution and Applications to Scalable Energy Storage

by Masaharu Nakayama, Wataru Yoshida and Yasuhiro Shioji

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060223 (registering DOI) - 19 Jun 2026

Abstract

Aqueous zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn–MnO₂) batteries are undergoing a paradigm shift from traditional ion-insertion mechanisms to a reversible deposition/dissolution process. By leveraging a two-electron transfer (Mn²⁺/MnO₂), this electrolytic system achieves a high theoretical capacity of 616 mAh g [...] Read more.

Aqueous zinc–manganese dioxide (Zn–MnO₂) batteries are undergoing a paradigm shift from traditional ion-insertion mechanisms to a reversible deposition/dissolution process. By leveraging a two-electron transfer (Mn²⁺/MnO₂), this electrolytic system achieves a high theoretical capacity of 616 mAh g⁻¹ and a theoretical operating voltage of 1.99 V. However, the accumulation of dead Mn, electrically isolated inactive phases, and dynamic interfacial pH fluctuations remain critical barriers to cycle life and practical energy density. This review systematizes a trinitarian strategy to overcome these bottlenecks, focusing on interfacial engineering, redox mediator-assisted recovery, and advanced electrode architectures. We evaluate how anion engineering and pH-buffering stabilize reaction pathways, and how diverse mediators (e.g., halogens, metal ions, and organic molecules) chemically rescue inactive manganese. Furthermore, we examine the integration of 3D carbon networks and low-cost hybrid electrodes to sustain high-areal-capacity deposition. To elucidate these complex mechanisms, we highlight multiscale analytical approaches combining synchrotron X-ray techniques and density functional theory (DFT). Finally, we outline a roadmap for applications ranging from grid-scale flow batteries to flexible wearable electronics. This work provides a comprehensive perspective on realizing sustainable, safe, and high-performance zinc-based energy storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Aqueous Zinc-Based Batteries)

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21 pages, 6472 KB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature-Dependent Discharge Capability of High-Power LFP Battery Cells for Starter Battery Applications

by Florian Wätzold, Anton Schlösser, Sven Beger, Daniela Schröder and Julia Kowal

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060222 - 19 Jun 2026

Abstract

This study investigates the temperature-dependence performance of high-power lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cells for automotive starter batteries. Temperature effects on high-power LFP cells are contextualised based on pertinent literature in order to compare the typical capacity behaviour of lead–acid batteries with LFP. Experiments [...] Read more.

This study investigates the temperature-dependence performance of high-power lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cells for automotive starter batteries. Temperature effects on high-power LFP cells are contextualised based on pertinent literature in order to compare the typical capacity behaviour of lead–acid batteries with LFP. Experiments were conducted on five cylindrical LFP cell types in a thermal chamber across ambient temperatures from +45 °C to −30 °C using a 9 C discharge regime aligned with automotive standards. Electrical and thermal behaviours were analysed, including energy yield, power output, and surface temperature monitored by sensors and thermal imaging for room temperature. Energy output decreased exponentially with temperature but remained above 70% for most LFP cells at −18 °C, while only one cell type was functional at −30 °C. Thermal analysis at ambient temperature confirmed homogeneous temperature distribution without hotspots and low overall heating (from 2 °C to 14 °C), indicating no need for additional cooling for starter battery applications. A conservative power analysis indicated that 4 kW at −30 °C would require a 28P4S 26650 configuration, representing a lower-bound estimate. We argue that even this conservative figure suggests a potential for weight reduction compared with lead–acid systems. Energy-based Pb-equivalence factors of approximately 1.2 at −18 °C and 3 at −30 °C were derived. A preliminary guideline for cell dimensioning based on measurements at 25 °C is proposed to address discrepancies between data sheet specifications and actual performance for pack configuration based on required power. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Batteries, Supercapacitors, Fuel Cells and Combined Energy/Power Supply Systems, 2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 10379 KB

Open AccessArticle

Target-Mean State-of-Charge Control for Maximum Utilization of Heterogeneous Reconfigurable Battery Systems Under Constant-Bus Constraints

by Mateusz Sztuka, Mohammad Musameh, Asma Ali, Nicholas Richardson, Alessandro Di Nuovo and Walid Issa

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060221 (registering DOI) - 18 Jun 2026

Abstract

Cell degradation in second-life battery packs introduces heterogeneous capacity and internal resistance mismatch, reducing the effectiveness of conventional balancing approaches and limiting available pack runtime. Although equal state of charge (SoC) does not necessarily imply equal usable capacity, SoC-based control remains attractive for [...] Read more.

Cell degradation in second-life battery packs introduces heterogeneous capacity and internal resistance mismatch, reducing the effectiveness of conventional balancing approaches and limiting available pack runtime. Although equal state of charge (SoC) does not necessarily imply equal usable capacity, SoC-based control remains attractive for runtime-oriented operation. This paper proposes a target-mean controller for heterogeneous reconfigurable battery packs under constant-bus constraints that aims to improve runtime and achieve the cutoff-defined theoretical maximum capacity utilization limit. Using only real-time cell SoC measurements and legal switching actions, the controller selects the configuration that best reduces deviation from the pack-average SoC while preferentially loading cells above the mean. The online action selection requires no active balancing hardware, no explicit capacity or state of health (SoH) estimation, and no offline optimization; experimentally measured capacities are used only for calibrated Coulomb-counting SoC estimation. Simulation results on a heterogeneous five-cell reconfigurable battery pack show that the proposed controller reaches the cutoff-defined 90% theoretical utilization limit in the full-initial-SoC cases, while also extending runtime and reducing switching activity by up to 11.75% relative to the comparison methods. Hardware validation on a five-cell prototype further confirms this trend, achieving 89.12% experimental utilization, zero final SoC spread, and higher delivered energy than both comparison methods. A stepped-load hardware test further achieved 88.19% utilization from current integration, corresponding to 97.99% of the cutoff-defined 90% theoretical limit. The results suggest that, for heterogeneous second-life packs, SoC-based reconfiguration control can achieve both runtime improvement and near-maximum utilization without the added complexity of explicit SoH-aware balancing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Advanced Battery Technologies for Future Integrated Transportation–Energy Systems)

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14 pages, 2882 KB

Open AccessArticle

Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Templated Three-Dimensional Porous Si/SiO₂ Core–Shell Cylindrical Hybrid Anode Material for Lithium-Ion Batteries

by SeYi Kwon and Jun-Ki Lee

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060220 - 18 Jun 2026

Abstract

Silicon (Si) is a leading anode candidate for next-generation lithium-ion batteries owing to its high theoretical capacity (~4200 mAh/g), but its >300% volumetric expansion during lithiation causes particle pulverization, loss of electrical contact, and continuous solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) reformation, resulting in rapid [...] Read more.

Silicon (Si) is a leading anode candidate for next-generation lithium-ion batteries owing to its high theoretical capacity (~4200 mAh/g), but its >300% volumetric expansion during lithiation causes particle pulverization, loss of electrical contact, and continuous solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) reformation, resulting in rapid capacity fade. Here, we report a single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT)-templated porous Si/SiO₂ core–shell cylindrical hybrid anode synthesized by combining block copolymer-directed sol–gel assembly with controlled magnesiothermic reduction. SWNT bundles act as a three-dimensional structural template that directs the formation of a continuously interconnected cylindrical porous network, a geometry difficult to obtain by conventional particle-based compositing. The controlled, partial magnesiothermic reduction intentionally preserves residual amorphous SiO₂ within the porous shell as an electrochemically inactive mechanical buffer that suppresses Si volume expansion and stabilizes the electrode. A side-by-side comparison with a fully reduced, SiO₂-free counterpart of identical architecture isolates the role of the SiO₂ buffer in achieving long-term cycling stability. The SWNT-porous Si/SiO₂ hybrid delivers a reversible capacity of 1133 mAh/g in the first cycle and retains 90% of its initial capacity after 200 cycles at 1 C with 99.7% Coulombic efficiency, together with a rate capability of 482 mAh/g at 5 C. Post-cycling cross-sectional analysis confirms minimal electrode-level swelling (~2 μm) after 200 cycles, demonstrating the structural efficacy of the SWNT-templated porous architecture combined with the SiO₂ buffer for structurally stable Si anodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries—Silicon Anodes for Next-Generation Batteries: Materials, Design Strategies, Performance, and Future Directions)

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18 pages, 2468 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Safety Characteristics for Prismatic Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on a Refined Model

by Pengfei Yan, Fang Wang, Tianyi Ma, Liduo Chen, Gaiyun He, Liqiong Han and Zhipeng Sun

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060219 (registering DOI) - 17 Jun 2026

Abstract

As the global automotive industry is transitioning toward sustainable development, new energy vehicles (NEVs) have experienced rapid global growth due to their environmental friendliness and high efficiency. Global sales of NEVs are projected to reach 50 million units by 2030. Nevertheless, safety incidents [...] Read more.

As the global automotive industry is transitioning toward sustainable development, new energy vehicles (NEVs) have experienced rapid global growth due to their environmental friendliness and high efficiency. Global sales of NEVs are projected to reach 50 million units by 2030. Nevertheless, safety incidents caused by impacts on traction batteries remain a major factor restricting the development of NEVs. Prismatic batteries, which account for over 90% of the traction battery market owing to their high energy density and structural robustness, nevertheless continue to face significant safety challenges under mechanical loading conditions. Typical failure modes involve structural damage induced by external compressive forces during severe vehicular collisions, which can subsequently result in the tearing of internal electrode layers and rupture of the separator, thereby initiating internal short circuits and leading to severe incidents. Accordingly, this research focuses on the mechanism of structural damage transmission for prismatic lithium-ion batteries under compression conditions. By integrating a refined mechanical model, it further elucidates the structural failure mechanisms and conducts a microscopic analysis of the damaged battery structure to investigate the effects of varying damage levels on battery safety performance, providing significant guidance for the safety and reliability of new energy vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion and Emerging Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

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16 pages, 4815 KB

Open AccessArticle

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)-Integrated Separator for Improving the Cycle Stability of Lithium–Ion Batteries

by Apurba Ray, Neil Wood, Emre Guney, Bilal Tasdemir, Kamil Burak Dermenci, Maitane Berecibar and Bilge Saruhan

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060218 - 16 Jun 2026

Abstract

To date, lithium–ion batteries (LIBs) are considered one of the most promising and market-leading energy storage systems due to their high theoretical capacity and energy density. However, poor thermal and cyclic stability, low electrolyte uptake, and the possibility for frequent short circuits of [...] Read more.

To date, lithium–ion batteries (LIBs) are considered one of the most promising and market-leading energy storage systems due to their high theoretical capacity and energy density. However, poor thermal and cyclic stability, low electrolyte uptake, and the possibility for frequent short circuits of typical separators and evolution of several gases during long cycle operation pose several problems for LIBs. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have attracted widespread interest as a promising material for improving the cycle stability and safety of rechargeable batteries due to their inherent surface and structural properties such as high specific surface area, high porosity, and ionic conductivity. In this work, the aim is to provide detailed descriptions of the synthesis routes and parameters for obtaining various MOFs such as Zr-MOF-808 and Ni-MOF-74 nanoparticles and the fabrication of those MOF-integrated separators. To optimize the crystallinity, morphological and compositional characteristics, and several material characterizations such as XRD, SEM, and EDX have been applied. Afterwards, the synthesized MOF-integrated glass fiber (GF) separators have been developed for lithium–ion battery (LIB) applications. To investigate the electrochemical performance and the effect of MOF integration into the separators, electrochemical studies in the form of galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) have been evaluated by preparing CR2032-type half-coin cells. This MOFs-integrated GF-separators and synthesized LiNi_0.6Mn_0.2Co_0.2O₂ (NMC622) cathode materials-based coin cell LIB exhibited higher cycle stability than bare GF-separator based LIB. This novel approach and extensive research suggest that development of MOF-integrated separators could significantly improve cycle stability by reducing the internal cell degradation for next generation energy storage devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries: Interface Science in Batteries)

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14 pages, 6584 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Correlation Between Mechanical Impact and Long Term Performance Degradation in Li-Ion Batteries

by John Sherman and Anthony Bombik

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060217 - 15 Jun 2026

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are subject to mechanical abuse both in electric vehicles and consumer electronic applications when dropped, which can lead to capacity degradation even if the cells survive the impact. This study investigates the impact of mechanical damage on the electrochemical performance [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are subject to mechanical abuse both in electric vehicles and consumer electronic applications when dropped, which can lead to capacity degradation even if the cells survive the impact. This study investigates the impact of mechanical damage on the electrochemical performance of LIBs, focusing on capacity retention and internal resistance changes. The batteries were subjected to dynamic mechanical impact using varying impact energies (3J, 5J, and 7J) while measuring internal resistance and capacity before and after the impact. Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) was employed to assess internal resistance and capacity degradation across multiple cycles. Our results demonstrate that even minor mechanical damage can cause significant performance decay, especially after several cycles. The study also reveals that the state of charge (SOC) prior to impact has a minimal effect on the survival rate of the cells but influences the extent of damage observed. Post-impact analysis using optical microscopy indicates structural damage, including separator tears and delamination, contributing to capacity fade. This work highlights the importance of considering intermediate mechanical damage in LIB safety and performance assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Batteries: Battery Health, Aging and Degradation Mechanisms)

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22 pages, 3279 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enabling Holistic Tracking and Tracing in Battery Cell Production: Data Management and Applications

by Lennart Kuhr, Sajedeh Haghi, Matthias Leeb, Alexander Schoo, Mark Mennenga, Arno Kwade, Rüdiger Daub and Christoph Herrmann

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060216 - 14 Jun 2026

Abstract

The battery cell production, a cornerstone of the net-zero vision, is a multifaceted process chain involving diverse processes, spanning from batch to continuous to single-unit steps. The quality of the battery cell as the final product is affected by various product and process [...] Read more.

The battery cell production, a cornerstone of the net-zero vision, is a multifaceted process chain involving diverse processes, spanning from batch to continuous to single-unit steps. The quality of the battery cell as the final product is affected by various product and process parameters along this process chain. In the era of Industry 4.0, data-driven approaches have emerged as a promising solution to navigate these complexities and derive effective quality management practices. A key prerequisite for the successful implementation is the availability of accurate data. A tracking and tracing system in battery cell production provides the foundation to acquire such data. It supports the development of a digital twin of the product, enabling real-time monitoring of key performance indicators, in-line quality control, resource optimization, and compliance fulfillment, among others. This article presents an implementation methodology and discusses the key aspects to consider for upscaling such a system focusing on data management, including relevant parameters, data acquisition, and storage, as well as data structuring and mapping. It highlights the advantages of using ontology-based data descriptions, enabling semantically mapped production environments. Lastly, this article explores potential use cases facilitated by a traceability system, emphasizing its potential to realize intelligent, data-driven production. Full article

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9 pages, 2398 KB

Open AccessCommunication

A Rechargeable Zinc–Copper Voltaic Battery Built from Cost-Effective Electrodes and Electrolytes

by Jose Fernando Florez Gomez, Songyang Chang, Irfan Ullah, Juan C. Velez Reyes, Lisandro Cunci, Gerardo Morell and Xianyong Wu

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060215 - 13 Jun 2026

Abstract

The zinc–copper (Zn-Cu) voltaic battery is the first battery made in human history, but the Cu²⁺ dissolution issue leads to the reaction’s irreversibility. To tackle this challenge, solid-state electrolytes, ion exchange membranes, and functional electrolytes have been proposed to mitigate the Cu [...] Read more.

The zinc–copper (Zn-Cu) voltaic battery is the first battery made in human history, but the Cu²⁺ dissolution issue leads to the reaction’s irreversibility. To tackle this challenge, solid-state electrolytes, ion exchange membranes, and functional electrolytes have been proposed to mitigate the Cu²⁺ dissolution; however, these approaches incur limitations like cell complexity, high cost, and anode corrosion. Herein, we develop a simple yet effective strategy to mitigate Cu²⁺ dissolution and build a rechargeable voltaic battery from cost-effective materials, including commercially available micro-copper powders and non-corrosive zinc acetate electrolyte. Importantly, the near-neutral Zn(Ac)₂ electrolyte provides some amounts of hydroxide and facilitates the Cu₂O/Cu solid–solid conversion reaction, thereby inhibiting the generation of soluble Cu²⁺ ions. As a result, the Zn-Cu battery exhibits a reversible capacity of ~130 mAh g⁻¹, a feasible voltage of 0.87 V, and a stable cycling life over 100 cycles. Our work provides a feasible strategy for developing rechargeable and cost-effective Zn-Cu batteries. Full article

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18 pages, 3409 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rescaling Capacity and Power Rating of Spent LIB for Second-Life Application

by Ote Amuta and Julia Kowal

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060214 - 12 Jun 2026

Abstract

The adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as secondary rechargeable batteries across many industries, including consumer electronics, electromobility, industrial tools, and electrical energy storage, is on the rise. As lithium-ion batteries approach the end of their life, there is a need to assess them [...] Read more.

The adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as secondary rechargeable batteries across many industries, including consumer electronics, electromobility, industrial tools, and electrical energy storage, is on the rise. As lithium-ion batteries approach the end of their life, there is a need to assess them for the possibility of a secondary application or reuse for a less demanding application. The extra connections of individual cells, BMS, temperature sensors, and other components to form a compact battery pack pose a challenge for second-life assessment, which usually prefers to separate individual cells for testing before discarding very bad cells for recycling and grading cells with substantive capacity based on their remaining capacity. This is a high cost for the second-life assessment. This work seeks to investigate an approach that avoids dismantling the battery pack into individual modules, cells, and BMS by including a BMS feature that allows the capacity and power ratings to be rescaled onboard after its first use. A set of cells with different chemistries was used in this work: a nickel–cobalt–aluminium oxide cathode with a silicon-doped graphite anode (NCA-GS), a nickel–cobalt–aluminium oxide cathode and graphite, and a lithium–nickel–manganese–cobalt oxide (NMC) cathode with a graphite anode (NMC-G) with various ageing states and behaviours. Their internal resistance and capacity at the beginning and end of life were compared. The scaling factor was obtained by finding the square root of the ratio of the internal resistance at EOL to that at BOL. With the current obtained by multiplying the cycling current rate by the rescaling factor, the surface temperature profile of the aged cells during cycling became the same as the temperature at the beginning of life. The relaxation voltage after discharge to 0% SOC and charge to 100% SOC was used to set the low and high cut-off voltages, respectively. This contributed significantly to reduced ageing and to a lower temperature rise in the spent cells. This set the stage for rescaling or derating battery systems without separating the individual cells, which is a huge cost for second-life use of lithium-ion batteries. BMS can be designed with configurable voltage and current limits, so that when repurposed for a second life, only a simple configuration or firmware update may be necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second-Life Batteries: Challenges and Opportunities)

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25 pages, 8139 KB

Open AccessArticle

Inconsistency Diagnosis of Power Batteries Based on End-Cloud Collaboration

by Bin Ma, Yajin Liu, Dongyang Ma, Guoliang Liu, Changjian Ji and Bosong Zou

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060213 - 10 Jun 2026

Abstract

In electric vehicles, power batteries consist of numerous individual cells connected in series or parallel. Variations in manufacturing, operating conditions, and aging can lead to differences among these cells. Such inconsistencies can compromise the battery pack’s performance, safety, and overall service life. Therefore, [...] Read more.

In electric vehicles, power batteries consist of numerous individual cells connected in series or parallel. Variations in manufacturing, operating conditions, and aging can lead to differences among these cells. Such inconsistencies can compromise the battery pack’s performance, safety, and overall service life. Therefore, accurately diagnosing inconsistencies among battery cells is of great significance for enhancing the reliability of the battery system and ensuring the operational safety of the vehicle. To address the limited computational resources available in vehicles, this paper proposes an end-cloud collaborative fault diagnosis framework and validates its effectiveness using real-world vehicle driving data. On the cloud side, a deep learning-based reconstruction network is developed to enable high-precision reconstruction of cell voltages. On the vehicle side, a second-order equivalent circuit model is used to represent battery dynamics. An adaptive forgetting factor recursive least squares method is introduced for online estimation of the model parameters, enabling accurate local prediction of individual cell voltages. Using the cloud-reconstructed and vehicle-predicted cell voltages, the extreme difference value of voltage for each cell is computed. A comprehensive diagnosis of inconsistency faults is then performed by fusing the extreme difference in voltage results from both the cloud and vehicle sides via the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF); threshold judgment is conducted based on the fused results, and the Cumulative Sum (CUSUM) algorithm is designed to identify cell inconsistency faults. Experimental results show that the proposed method effectively detects battery inconsistency faults and demonstrates strong engineering applicability and practical potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Management and Sustainable Development of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Automotive Applications)

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19 pages, 7583 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Operation to SOH Estimation: Analysis of Lithium-Ion Capacitors Based on Passive EIS for E-Bus Application

by Tarek Ibrahim, Muhammad Usman Tahir, Mohamed Abdel-Monem, Erik Schaltz, Vaclav Knap, Daniel Ioan Stroe and Tamas Kerekes

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060212 - 10 Jun 2026

Abstract

Real-time monitoring of lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) is crucial for ensuring reliability and predictive maintenance in dynamic applications such as electric transportation. However, traditional electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques are complex and costly for onboard diagnostics due to their reliance on external excitation signals [...] Read more.

Real-time monitoring of lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) is crucial for ensuring reliability and predictive maintenance in dynamic applications such as electric transportation. However, traditional electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques are complex and costly for onboard diagnostics due to their reliance on external excitation signals and dedicated hardware. Therefore, this paper presents an innovative framework for online state of health (SOH) estimation that bypasses these limitations by utilizing fast Fourier transform (FFT)-based passive impedance extraction directly from operational current and voltage signals. From experimental data, the equivalent circuit model (ECM) is developed, as well as its parameters, such as ohmic resistance, charge-transfer resistance, and Warburg diffusion. These parameters are identified through the extraction of impedance points in the low frequency region through FFT and the series resistance point using ohmic measurement, then performing a periodic curve fitting to these points. These curve fittings provide extracted ECM parameters. These parameters are used with a trained model to estimate the SOH of the monitored cell and are updated online. The proposed method was experimentally validated on five LIC cells aged under various C-rates (1C, 4C, 7C) and temperatures (35 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C), showing consistent impedance evolution with capacity fade. Validation of the utilized machine learning models, such as Polynomial Regression (PR), principal components analysis (PCA), and random forest (RF) regression, achieved SOH prediction errors as low as 2.23% compared to experimental results. The developed framework is particularly suitable for applications such as flash-charged electric buses but is broadly applicable across other energy storage systems as well. This advanced method enables real-time diagnostics without hardware modification, offering significant potential for integration into existing battery management systems (BMSs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Management Systems Based on Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 10891 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Multiphysics Responses of Pouch Lithium-Ion Batteries Under Quasi-Static Compression and Dynamic Impact

by Long Ying, Shanglong Xiao, Yulong Zhang, Jianquan Xu, Jieliang Fan and Jiashen Lin

Batteries 2026, 12(6), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries12060211 - 8 Jun 2026

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries are prone to internal short-circuits and subsequent thermal runaway under compression and impact loads during electric vehicle crashes, posing a critical safety challenge for the industry. However, existing studies lack systematic comparative analysis between quasi-static and dynamic loading conditions. In this [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries are prone to internal short-circuits and subsequent thermal runaway under compression and impact loads during electric vehicle crashes, posing a critical safety challenge for the industry. However, existing studies lack systematic comparative analysis between quasi-static and dynamic loading conditions. In this study, ternary pouch lithium-ion batteries were used as research objects. A test platform for the synchronous acquisition of mechanical load, electrical voltage and thermal temperature was established. Quasi-static compression and drop-weight impact tests were conducted to investigate the effects of indenter diameter, impact velocity and state of charge (SOC) on the multiphysics responses of batteries. The results show significant differences in failure modes between the two loading conditions: quasi-static loading causes progressive plastic deformation and stable short-circuit voltage decay, while dynamic loading is likely to induce brittle shear fracture and soft short-circuit voltage rebound. Dynamic loading reduces peak load by 61.5% and raises peak temperature by up to 46.7%, while also decreasing failure displacement and advancing time-to-peak. Additionally, a high SOC (50% and 100%) alters the heat-release pathway during thermal runaway, leading to deviations in surface temperature measurements. These findings provide critical experimental support for the crash safety design of power batteries and the formulation of thermal runaway prevention and control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Energy Storage System Aging, Diagnosis and Safety)

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