Chemistry, Volume 7, Issue 3 (June 2025) – 22 articles

This work successfully prepared the Co₃O₄ NPs via simple galvanostatic deposition followed by annealing at 400 and 800 °C for two hours. The galvanostatic deposition was carried out from a modified Watts bath. We used Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to examine the oxide’s characterization properties. The nature of the oxide formed was strongly dependent on the annealing temperature. The powder formed at room temperature (25 °C) is a mixture of Co(OH)₂ and metallic Co. However, at 400 and 800 °C, and according to the XRD patterns, the powder consists of the Co₃O₄ phase and a slight quantity of Co(OH)₂ phase. The average particle size measured by TEM ranged from 14.85 nm at room temperature to 90.19 nm at 800 °C. Moreover, the study examined how the operating deposition parameters affected the galvanostatic deposition process. Furthermore, these baths provide NPs, that demonstrate antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria as well as antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger. Full article

Urban solid waste (USW) is a promising alternative source of valuable chemical compounds. It is considered an adsorbent material due to its chemical structure, porosity and electronic charge available to form chemical bonds and can be recovered or transformed for use in bioprocesses and industrial applications. This is the case with cigarette butts (CBs), which consist of thousands of substances that can be chemically converted for various purposes. This work showed high efficiency in the production of cellulose mass from the recycling of CBs, a patented technology in operation at the company Poiato Recicla—SP. The lignin-like solid (LLS)—a material obtained from the recycling of cigarette butts (CBs) by catalytic transfer hydrogenation (CTH), under non-rigorous conditions—showed high efficiency in its conversion into molecules of great interest. In the bio-oil obtained, characterized by analyses such as GCMS and RMN 2D HSQC, a mixture of predominantly hydrocarbons (many of them with cyclic and/or branched chains) was identified in almost all the experiments. This method demonstrates the potential of the TCH process for SSLs and completes the recycling chain designed for CBs, promoting their complete conversion into chemical compounds of greater interest. Full article

Mn(III)– and Co(III)–salen complexes (Mn-1 and Co-2) have been synthesized by a simple one-pot procedure through oxidation of Mn(II) and Co(II) precursors in air. X-ray structural analysis reveals that both complexes adopt similar coordination modes, including a typical square planar metal/salen coordination sphere, which is further occupied by two axial ligands, i.e., an acetate anion and a water molecule. Despite their structural similarity, they are not isomorphous given their distinct cell parameters. In the solid-state structures, both complexes exist as hydrogen-bonded dimers through hydrogen bonding interactions between the axially coordinating water molecules and outer O₄ cavity from another molecule of the complex. The reductive activity of both complexes has been explored. While the reaction of Mn-1 with potassium triethylborohydride was unsuccessful, leading to a complicated mixture, the use of Co-2 furnished the formation of a novel product (CoK-3) that was isolated as red crystals in reasonable yield. CoK-3 was characterized as a heterometallic dimer involving the coordination of a K⁺ ion within the O₄ cavity of a semi-hydrogenated salen/cobalt complex while the cobalt center has been reduced from Co(III) to Co(II). In addition, an attempt at reducing Co-2 with pinacolborane resulted in the isolation of crystals of Co-4, whose structure was determined as a simple square planar Co^II–salen complex. Finally, three complexes (Mn-1, Co-2 and CoK-3) have been investigated for their cytotoxic activities against two human breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB 468) and a normal breast epitheliel cell line (MCF-10A), with cisplatin used as a reference in order to discover potential drug candidates that may compete with cisplatin. The results reveal that Co-2 can be a promising drug candidate, specifically for the MCF-7 cancer cells, with minimal damage to healthy cells. Full article

The preparation of stable dispersions of MoS₂ by ultrasonic aqueous and/or organic media containing amphiphilic molecules is an attractive and widely applicable method to form MoS₂ fine particles while suppressing its aggregation. In this study, we developed a series of polymers with pendant sulfide moieties as a new dispersant, under the hypothesis that it would interact with sulfur atoms on MoS₂ surfaces. First, we designed a sulfide group-substituted methacrylate derivative (ESMA) with the hypothesis that it would interact with the MoS₂ surface through sulfur-sulfur interactions. Then, we synthesized well-defined polymers with pendant sulfide groups by living radical polymerization (ATRP). Next, 0.5 wt% MoS₂ was added to a DMSO solution containing 1 wt% of the obtained polymer (polyESMA), and the mixture was treated with a bath-type ultrasonicator for 3 h to obtain a MoS₂ dispersion. We found that stable dispersions of MoS₂ in a fine particle state, although not in the form of single-layer or few-layer nanosheets, could be readily formed in DMSO using polyESMA as a polymeric dispersant. Furthermore, we synthesized polymeric dispersants with different molecular weights and investigated the relationship between the structure of the dispersant and the dispersion stability. Full article

A novel polyhedron-based anionic Er-MOF with three types of cages and abundant open metal sites (OMSs) and Lewis base sites (LBSs) has been successfully synthesized. The inorganic secondary unit possesses a rarely reported six-connected three-nucleated rare-earth cluster, and the overall framework shows a new (3,3,6)-connected topology. The Er-MOF has good fluorescence selectivity and anti-interference performance with Fe³⁺ and Cu²⁺. In addition, benefiting from the anionic framework, nanoscale cavity and small window size of the Er-MOF, the composite RhB@Er-MOF has been synthesized by in situ encapsulation of the cationic dye Rhodamine B (RhB). It can provide dual-emitting fluorescence that facilitates self-calibration in sensing. The RhB@Er-MOF has higher accuracy than the Er-MOF with regard to the fluorescence-selective and anti-interference performance of Fe³⁺ and quenching coefficient K_sv values of 1.97 × 10⁴ M⁻¹, which are attributed to its self-calibration function that can eliminate environmental interference. The fluorescence quenching mechanism was explained by our experiments and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Furthermore, RhB@Er-MOF can achieve the visual and rapid selective detection of Fe³⁺ by a smartphone RGB color analysis application, resulting in the dual-signal output performance of the material. Full article

Lysosomes are widely present in eukaryotic cells and play an extremely important role in cell growth and development, and their dysfunction is closely related to a variety of diseases. The development of a precise lysosomal targeting strategies is of great significance for the detection of lysosomal physiological functions and the diagnosis and treatment of related diseases. Morpholino ring modification has become a commonly used lysosomal targeting strategy, but its effects have not been systematically evaluated. This review summarizes the effects of morpholine rings in fluorescent probes in recent years. The results show that morpholine rings as lysosomal targeting groups have excellent structural adaptability, but their localization effect is influenced by the log p value and charge of the overall molecule, and this effect has structural differences. In addition, since the morpholino ring is essentially an acidic microenvironmental targeting moiety, it carries the risk of off-targeting to other acidic sites. Full article

Cobalt–zeolite composite catalysts (Co–zeolite) and their heterogeneous catalytic systems have garnered significant research attention owing to their superior catalytic activity and cost-effectiveness. The speciation of cobalt within these catalysts—either through impregnation onto the zeolite framework or structural incorporation within the aluminosilicate matrix—is critically governed by the employed synthesis methodology, which subsequently dictates their distinct catalytic advantages in targeted reaction systems. Compared to homogeneous catalytic systems, heterogeneous Co–zeolite configurations demonstrate enhanced structural integrity that effectively mitigates cobalt leaching, thereby improving catalyst recyclability while minimizing environmental contamination. This review systematically examines recent advancements in Co–zeolite fabrication techniques and their catalytic performance across diverse applications, including Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, nitrogen oxide abatement, hydrogenation processes, and oxidative transformations. Particular emphasis is placed on elucidating the metal-framework interactions, with analysis of synergistic effects arising from multi-valent cobalt speciation and bimetallic cooperativity between cobalt and secondary transition metals. This work critically evaluates current challenges in Co–zeolite catalyst design. Finally, we propose future research directions focusing on a precise identification of active species and mechanistic elucidation, innovative synthesis strategies for cobalt speciation control, machine learning-guided catalyst optimization, and the advancement of eco-friendly catalysts. Full article

This review focuses on research on machine learning-enabled two-dimensional (2D) materials, exploring the progress and prospects of this interdisciplinary field. At a fundamental level, machine learning algorithms incorporate imaging systems to build highly accurate viewing frameworks for material analysis. Two-dimensional materials have a rich set of optical properties, including light absorption and emission, anisotropy, photoluminescence, and nonlinear optical effects, which machine learning can accurately understand through image characterization, spectral fusion, and quantitative analysis. Meanwhile, the preparation process and post-processing are key aspects in the growth regulation of 2D materials, and machine learning helps optimize the experiments by analyzing the growth kinetics for fine control. Related research has spawned many academic achievements, gradually penetrating electronics, energy, and other industrial applications. The innovation of imaging technology and the deepening of multidisciplinary integration are expected to unlock more emerging applications and expand the application boundaries of 2D materials. Full article

This review focuses on photocyclization reactions involving alkenes and arenes. Photochemistry opens up synthetic opportunities difficult for thermal methods, using light as a versatile tool to convert stable ground-state molecules into their reactive excited counterparts. This difference can be particularly striking for aromatic molecules, which, according to Baird’s rule, transform from highly stable entities into their antiaromatic “evil twins”. We highlight classical reactions, such as the photocyclization of stilbenes, to show how alkenes and aromatic rings can undergo intramolecular cyclizations to form complex structures. When possible, we explain how antiaromaticity develops in excited states and how this can expand synthetic possibilities. The review also examines how factors such as oxidants, substituents, and reaction conditions influence product selectivity, providing useful insights for improving reaction outcomes and demonstrating how photochemical methods can drive the development of new synthetic strategies. Full article

MIL-101(Cr), a widely studied chromium-based metal–organic framework material consisting of chromium metal ions and terephthalic acid ligands, has attracted much attention due to its ultra-high specific surface area, large pore size, and excellent thermal, chemical, and aqueous stability. The outstanding properties and abundant unsaturated Lewis acid sites of this material have shown promising applications in aqueous phase adsorption, gas storage, separation, catalysis, drug delivery, and sensing. In this paper, we systematically review the synthesis technology and performance optimization strategy of MIL-101(Cr), discuss the advantages and limitations of various synthesis methods, such as traditional hydrothermal method, microwave-assisted hydrothermal method, template method, and solvent-thermal method, and summarize and analyze the optimization strategy of MIL-101 from the aspects of physical modification and chemical modification. In addition, this paper summarizes the latest application progress of MIL-101(Cr) in gas adsorption and separation, wastewater purification, pollutant removal, catalysis, and pharmaceutical delivery, and points out the current challenges and future development directions, to provide guidance and inspiration for the industrial application of MIL-101(Cr) and the development of new materials. Full article

Phlorotannins, bioactive compounds isolated from brown seaweeds, have garnered significant attention in recent years for their wide-ranging therapeutic properties, particularly their anti-inflammatory effects. Recent studies have identified phlorotannins as potent inhibitors of inflammatory pathways such as NF-κB, MAPK, JAK/STAT3, and NLRP3. Specifically, phlorotannins derived from seaweeds like Ecklonia cava, Ishige okamurae, and Sargassum horneri have been shown to inhibit the gene and protein expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and other inflammatory mediators in both in vivo and in vitro conditions. Despite these promising findings, no commercial drugs derived from seaweed phlorotannins have yet been developed to treat inflammatory diseases, and reports of clinical trials remain rare, even in the context of functional food applications for chronic inflammatory conditions. To address this knowledge gap, the authors reviewed peer-reviewed research articles published in 2020 or later, focusing on the anti-inflammatory potential of phlorotannins. The insights provided in this review are expected to be valuable for industries such as functional food research groups and others involved in developing anti-inflammatory therapeutics. Full article

Direct Z-scheme heterojunctions are known for their unique carrier mobility mechanism, which significantly improves photocatalytic water splitting efficiency. In this study, we use first-principles simulations to determine the stability, electrical, and photocatalytic properties of a SnC/SnS₂ heterojunction. Analyses of the projected energy band and state density demonstrate that the SnC/SnS₂ heterojunction exhibits an indirect band gap of 0.80 eV and a type-II band alignment. Analysis of its work function shows that the SnC/SnS₂ heterojunction has a built-in electric field pointing from the SnC monolayer to the SnS₂ monolayer. The band edge position and the differential charge density indicate that the SnC/SnS₂ heterostructure exhibits a Z-scheme photocatalytic mechanism. Furthermore, the SnC/SnS₂ heterojunction exhibits excellent visible-light absorption and high solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of 32.8%. It is found that the band gap and light absorption of the heterojunction can be effectively tuned by biaxial strain. These results demonstrate that the fabricated SnC/SnS₂ heterojunction has significant photocatalysis potential. Full article

Zinc-halogen batteries are usually based on two-electron transfer reactions from X⁻ to X₂. However, the halogen is capable of being further oxidized to higher valence states, thereby achieving the higher capacity of zinc- halogen batteries. Here, a six-electron reaction based on I⁻/I⁺ and Br⁻/Br⁰ is activated successfully by introducing KI into the electrolyte. ZIF-8-derived porous carbon (ZPC), serving as the host of halogen, effectively suppresses polybromide/polyiodide shuttle owing to the chemisorption/physical adsorption. Additionally, the adsorption of I⁻ on the surface of the zinc anode effectively inhibits the growth of dendrites and the formation of by-products. Consequently, zinc-bromine batteries exhibit outstanding electrochemical performance, including a specific capacity of 345 mAh g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ and an excellent capacity retention of 80% after 3000 cycles at 2 A g⁻¹. This strategy provides a novel way for enhancing the electrochemical performance of zinc-halogen batteries. Full article

In this study, a statistical analysis of results reported in the literature was conducted through a 2ⁿ experimental design on the synthesis of bifunctional catalysts used in the production of lighter fuels, aiming for optimization while considering factors such as support (bentonite and vermiculite), acidity modifier (zirconium and cerium), metal (tungsten and molybdenum), metal content (5% and 10%), promoter (nickel and cobalt), and heteropolyacids (tungstophosphoric acid and molybdophosphoric acid), identifying their influence on textural properties and catalytic performance. Regarding the textural properties, vermiculite proved to be the most favorable support due to its high porosity. It was also established that the implemented metals impart positive characteristics to the catalysts due to their various properties; however, incorporating large amounts led to an adverse effect by clogging the pores. Catalytic performance was analyzed in isomerization and cracking reactions, which were enhanced by the use of cerium due to the presence of Brønsted acid sites and molybdenum for its stability. In this way, the statistical analysis conducted in this study was crucial for identifying the influence of key factors on the textural properties and catalytic performance of bifunctional catalysts. Using a 2ⁿ experimental design allowed for a systematic evaluation of variables reported in the literature, such as support, acidity modifiers, metals, metal content, promoters, and heteropolyacids. Full article

Hyperuricemia, induced by monosodium urate (MSU) crystals that accumulate in articular joints and periarticular soft tissues, can impair macrophages. Possible causes of macrophage injury include uric acid-induced oxidative stress or inflammation. This study examined the dried fruits of guava (DFG) as a complementary medicine with urate-lowering properties, utilizing THP-1 macrophages to determine if high uric acid-induced cellular damage could be mitigated through the reduction of oxidative stress and inflammation via treatment with a phytochemical extract. The active extract was prescreened using a xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibition assay coupled with fractionation and component analysis. The DFG extracts were used to identify, through an in vitro study of THP-1 cells. The results indicated that the DFG extracts with the highest total flavonoids (12.08 ± 0.81 mg/g DW) exhibited the XO inhibition activity. High-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry analysis showed that DFG extract contained 85.32% flavonoids, including quercetin and kaempferol derivatives. Furthermore, fractionation results of DFG extracts indicated a significant reduction in MSU-induced cytotoxicity in THP-1 cells obtained from the 75% ethanol-eluted fraction (Fr-75). Additionally, kaempferol, an active compound in Fr-75, effectively mitigated MSU-induced NF-κB and NLRP3 gene overexpression. These findings suggest that the prepared Fr-75 is a promising hyperuricemia therapeutic candidate. Full article

A ligand exchange reaction between [Ru₂(npc)₂(O₂CMe)₂] (1; npc = 1,8-naphthyridine-2-carboxylate) and trifluoroacetic acid yielded the diruthenium naphthyridine complex with two trifluoroacetate ligands, [Ru₂(npc)₂(O₂CCF₃)₂] (2), which was structurally characterized by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, elemental analysis, infrared spectrum, and synchrotron single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The crystal structure of 2 adopts a paddlewheel-type structure in which two npc and two O₂CCF₃ ligands are coordinated in a cis-2:2 arrangement around the Ru₂ core. The temperature-dependent magnetic susceptibility measurements indicated that 2 has (i) an S = 1 spin state for the Ru₂⁴⁺ core and (ii) a large D value of 243 cm⁻¹; characteristic of paddlewheel-type Ru₂ complexes. The cyclic voltammetry measurements indicated that 2 exhibited one reversible oxidation wave (E_1/2 = 0.72 V vs. SCE) and two reduction waves (E_1/2 = −0.67 and −1.10 V vs. SCE); which were clearly positively shifted when compared with those of 1. Additionally, the absorption spectrum of 2 displayed intense absorption bands in the visible region; attributed to metal-to-ligand charge transfer from the Ru₂ core to the npc ligands; which were blue-shifted by approximately 70–100 nm when compared with those of 1. These distinct shifts in redox potentials and absorption bands originated from the strong electron-withdrawing effect of the O₂CCF₃ ligands in 2. Full article

A series of 4-aminoquinoline derivatives were prepared using a microwave-assisted method. The reactions were initially carried out on a small scale and subsequently scaled up using a sealed tube. Heating the reactions to 90–150 °C for 90–120 minutes obtained products with up to 95% yields. Structural analysis and characterization were achieved using FT-IR, ¹H- and ¹³C-NMR spectroscopy and HR-MS. Four compounds displayed low-to-moderate antibacterial activity, with 6-chlorocyclopentaquinolinamine (7b) exhibiting potent inhibition against MRSA (MIC = 0.125 mM) and 2-fluorocycloheptaquinolinamine (9d) showing activity against S. pyogenes (MIC = 0.25 mM). Structure–activity relationship (SAR) docking studies within the Penicillin Binding Protein (PBP2a) binding site (PDB: 4DK1) showed that compounds 7b and 5b (7-chlorophenylquinolinamine) bind through hydrophobic interactions (ALA601, ILE614), hydrogen bonding (GLN521), and halogen contacts (TYR519, THR399). Compound 7b demonstrated enhanced MRSA inhibition due to additional π-alkyl interactions and optimal docking parameters. Conversely, the bulky structure of 9d may explain its weaker activity as it likely hindered binding to the target site. This paper highlights the role of structural features in antibacterial efficacy and guides the future optimization of 4-aminoquinoline derivatives. Full article

N-Benzylhydroxylamine hydrochloride serves as a critical intermediate in organic synthesis, yet traditional synthesis methods often face significant safety risks and high production costs. In this work, we developed a continuous synthesis process for N-benzylhydroxylamine hydrochloride, achieving an overall yield of 75% under mild and safe reaction conditions. Additionally, the implementation of solvent recovery and the recycling of hydroxylamine hydrochloride reduced the production cost to approximately $10 per kilogram. These advancements underscore the economic and practical viability of this method for large-scale industrial applications. Full article

The influence of sodium 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate on the electrooxidation of phenols and naphthols was studied in dimethylformamide (DMF). The usually observed deactivation of phenol in non-aqueous environments was suppressed upon addition of sodium 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate, and signals of all studied compounds were highlighted due to the diminished background current. As in other cases, the latter is attributable to the solvent. The 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate salt underwent electroinitiated polymerization close to the electrode surface excluding all other compounds from it within the timescale of the measurements. The polymeric products were partially removed by dissolution; therefore, improved signal reproducibilities could be reached. The investigation was extended to pulsed voltammetric techniques widely used in analytical chemistry (differential pulse, normal pulse, square wave voltammetry). Among these techniques, differential pulse voltammetry showed the best performance. Therefore, during its use, the analytical usefulness of adding the unsaturated additive in optimal concentration was estimated in the case of some phenols and naphthols. Successful calibration for picric acid was attained in DMF. Full article

This study aims to evaluate the therapeutic potential of phloretin–chitosan nanoparticles (Ph-ChNPs), alone and in combination with the anticancer drug tamoxifen, in modulating breast cancer markers and improving in vivo treatment outcomes. Ph-ChNPs were prepared by ionic gelation in the presence of Tripolyphosphate (TPP) solution as a crosslinker agent. The nanoparticles were characterized using DLS, TEM, UV-VIS and FT-IR spectroscopy. In vitro cytotoxic assay of Ph-ChNPs on MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines revealed anticancer activity with an IC₅₀ value of 32.12 ± 1.63 µg/mL. In vivo studies were carried out on mice, treated with DMBA to induce breast cancer and followed the effect of the prepared nanoparticle, either alone or with combination with tamoxifen, on mice health. The biochemical parameters measured after treatment with Ph-ChNPs alone showed an improvement in lipid profile with decreased total cholesterol (TC) and Triglyceride (TG) levels and increased HDL-c levels. Ph-ChNPs significantly reduced IL-6 and cyclin D1 levels, with a slight increase in cyclin E2 levels. Antioxidant enzyme levels were improved, and oxidative stress markers were reduced. The combination treatment showed a synergistic effect in reducing inflammation and cell proliferation. DMBA-injected mice had substantially increased BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene expression. Ph-ChNP-treated mice showed well-organized mammary gland structures, while DMBA-injected mice displayed dense tumor cell aggregations. Ph-ChNPs and tamoxifen treatments improved histopathological variations, with the combination treatment showing significant apoptosis of tumor cells. This study demonstrates the significant potential of Ph-ChNPs combined with tamoxifen in breast cancer treatment. The combination therapy effectively reduces tumor growth, induces apoptosis and modulates critical breast cancer markers, offering a promising therapeutic strategy. Full article

Degenerate third-order nonlinear optical (NLO) responses of organic molecules have a wide range of applications in science and engineering because they relate to the intensity-dependent refractive index (IDRI) and nonlinear absorption (NLA), such as two-photon absorption (TPA). Among the many molecular systems, open-shell molecular species such as intermediate singlet diradicaloids have attracted considerable attention because of their enhanced response, predicted theoretically by Nakano et al. Experimental studies for proofing and evaluating the enhanced nonlinearities play an important role in the development of the field. This tutorial review provides the solid fundamentals of the NLO processes of open-shell molecular species even to those who are not familiar with the experimental works. Its scope ranges from the basics of NLO responses, definitions, and interrelations of the key parameters of the responses, such as hyperpolarizability and TPA cross-section, to the experimental techniques used to evaluate them. Including the recent achievements, the evolution of experimental works on the TPA properties of singlet diradicaloids is also reviewed according to families of molecular structures. Full article

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important messenger molecule in almost all organisms. The diverse biological activities of NO have initiated in-depth research on the development of exogenous NO donors. Light-controlled NO donor can transport NO to specific areas to treat various diseases; thus, light–triggered NO donors are rapidly becoming an important class of compounds for the design of novel potential drugs. This review highlights the recent development of organic small molecule-based light-triggered NO donors and focuses on visible/red/NIR light-mediated NO donors. It contains rational designs of NO donor, NO releasing mechanism and detection, as well as its biological applications. Finally, the advantages, drawbacks, and challenges of this strategy are discussed in view of practical applications. Full article