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Actuators
Volume 14
Issue 5
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Actuators, Volume 14, Issue 5 (May 2025) – 56 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This work focuses on the development of a humanoid robot featuring an optimally designed robotic leg to emulate human locomotion capabilities, including running, through a kinematically and kinetically anthropomorphic leg architecture. This study addresses key challenges in leg actuator design, particularly in achieving the necessary joint power output using compact configurations while maintaining structural integrity. The resulting robotic platform serves as a valuable tool for studying human locomotion and supports the development of human-inspired control strategies. View this paper
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22 pages, 7903 KB  
Article
Gear Pump Versus Variable Axial Piston Pump in Electro-Hydrostatic Servoactuators
by Alexandru Dumitrache, Liviu Dinca, Jenica-Ileana Corcau, Adriana Ionescu and Mihai Negru
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050256 - 21 May 2025
Viewed by 698
Abstract
This paper presents a comparison of some different configurations of electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA). The gear pump EHA has a simpler mechanical configuration, but the electronic power command circuits and the electric motor are in high demand due to the very frequent speed variations. [...] Read more.
This paper presents a comparison of some different configurations of electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA). The gear pump EHA has a simpler mechanical configuration, but the electronic power command circuits and the electric motor are in high demand due to the very frequent speed variations. The variable piston pump EHA has a more complicated mechanical configuration, but the electronic power command circuits and the main electric motor are less loaded due to the constant speed of the electric motor. The variable displacement pump control can be made either using an electric motor and mechanical transmission, or an additional hydraulic circuit, to modify the swash plate angle. In total, four EHA configurations are studied in this paper (one with a gear pump and three with variable axial piston pumps). The paper aims to advantages and disadvantages of each type of EHA, using numerical simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in the Design Solutions of Electro-Hydraulic Actuators for Mechatronic Systems)
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25 pages, 7986 KB  
Article
A Long-Tail Fault Diagnosis Method Based on a Coupled Time–Frequency Attention Transformer
by Li Zhang, Ying Zhang, Hao Luo, Tongli Ren and Hongsheng Li
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050255 - 20 May 2025
Viewed by 784
Abstract
Bearings are essential rotational components that enable mechanical equipment to operate effectively. In real-world industrial environments, bearings are subjected to high temperatures and loads, making failure prediction and health management critical for ensuring stable equipment operations and safeguarding both personnel and property. To [...] Read more.
Bearings are essential rotational components that enable mechanical equipment to operate effectively. In real-world industrial environments, bearings are subjected to high temperatures and loads, making failure prediction and health management critical for ensuring stable equipment operations and safeguarding both personnel and property. To address long-tail defect identification, we propose a coupled time–frequency attention model that accounts for the long-tail distribution and pervasive noise present in production environments. The model efficiently learns amplitude and phase information by first converting the time-domain signal into the frequency domain with the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and then processing the data using a real–imaginary attention mechanism. To capture dependencies in long sequences, a multi-head self-attention mechanism is then implemented in the time domain. Furthermore, the model’s ability to fully learn features is enhanced through the linear coupling of time–frequency domain attention, which effectively mitigates noise interference and corrects imbalances in data distribution. The performance of the proposed model is compared with that of advanced models under the conditions of imbalanced label distribution, cross-load, and noise interference, proving its superiority. The model is evaluated using the Case Western Reserve University (CWRU) and laboratory bearing datasets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Manufacturing Systems)
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24 pages, 6850 KB  
Article
Comparative Study of Analytical Model Predictive Control and State Feedback Control for Active Vibration Suppression of Two-Mass Drive
by Adam Gorla and Piotr Serkies
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050254 - 20 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 758
Abstract
This article discusses speed control methods for electric motor drives with elastic mechanical coupling causing torsional vibrations, which negatively affect the operation of the system. Model Predictive Control (MPC) is often presented as an effective solution; however, it is notoriously difficult to implement [...] Read more.
This article discusses speed control methods for electric motor drives with elastic mechanical coupling causing torsional vibrations, which negatively affect the operation of the system. Model Predictive Control (MPC) is often presented as an effective solution; however, it is notoriously difficult to implement in real-time due to the high computational complexity of the controller. In this paper, a simplified predictive control approach in the form of Analytical MPC (aMPC) is proposed for the speed control of a two-mass motor drive. In contrast to conventional MPC, which requires complex online optimisation, aMPC derives an explicit control law analytically under simplifying assumptions, greatly reducing the computational load. The effect of the controller parameters on the drive performance is investigated and a multi-objective performance function for automatic tuning is proposed. The aMPC structure is compared with conventional State Feedback Control (SFC), including a system robustness test of both approaches. Based on simulation studies and experimental verification, the proposed structure is shown to ensure high dynamics in drive control, with smoother torque control and superior robustness for higher-load inertia ratios than SFC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Control Systems)
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36 pages, 13393 KB  
Article
An Improved Design of a Continuously Variable Transmission Based on Circumferentially Arranged Disks for Enhanced Efficiency in the Low Torque Region
by Muhammad Bilal, Qidan Zhu, Shafiq R. Qureshi, Ghulam Farid, Ahsan Elahi, Muhammad Kashif Nadeem and Sartaj Khan
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050253 - 19 May 2025
Viewed by 866
Abstract
A continuously variable transmission can improve the energy efficiency of actuators with rotary output by providing an optimum transmission ratio. A continuously variable transmission based on circumferentially arranged disks (CAD CVT) is a new type of CVT that is highly beneficial for applications [...] Read more.
A continuously variable transmission can improve the energy efficiency of actuators with rotary output by providing an optimum transmission ratio. A continuously variable transmission based on circumferentially arranged disks (CAD CVT) is a new type of CVT that is highly beneficial for applications requiring large torques, like heavy road transport. However, its major drawback is that its efficiency drops in the low torque region. To overcome this problem, the current paper proposes an improved mechanical design in which the force on traction disks is changed according to the instantaneous torque requirement, thus resulting in improved efficiency in low torque regions. Furthermore, a hydraulic-actuation-based control system has been designed to ensure the optimum control of the improved mechanical design. The improved mechanical design of the CAD CVT is named CAD CVT-II, which is highly beneficial for variable torque applications such as road transport and wind turbines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Surface Vehicles)
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25 pages, 13985 KB  
Article
A Low-Cost Prototype of a Soft–Rigid Hybrid Pneumatic Anthropomorphic Gripper for Testing Tactile Sensor Arrays
by Rafał Andrejczuk, Moritz Scharff, Junhao Ni, Andreas Richter and Ernst-Friedrich Markus Vorrath
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050252 - 17 May 2025
Viewed by 1695
Abstract
Soft anthropomorphic robotic grippers are attractive because of their inherent compliance, allowing them to adapt to the shape of grasped objects and the overload protection needed for safe human–robot interaction or gripping delicate objects with sophisticated control. The anthropomorphic design allows the gripper [...] Read more.
Soft anthropomorphic robotic grippers are attractive because of their inherent compliance, allowing them to adapt to the shape of grasped objects and the overload protection needed for safe human–robot interaction or gripping delicate objects with sophisticated control. The anthropomorphic design allows the gripper to benefit from the biological evolution of the human hand to create a multi-functional robotic end effector. Entirely soft grippers could be more efficient because they yield under high loads. A trending solution is a hybrid gripper combining soft and rigid elements. This work describes a prototype of an anthropomorphic, underactuated five-finger gripper with a direct pneumatic drive from soft bending actuators and an integrated resistive tactile sensor array. It is a hybrid construction with soft robotic structures and rigid skeletal elements, which reinforce the body, focus the direction of the actuator’s movement, and make the finger joints follow the forward kinematics. The hand is equipped with a resistive tactile dielectric elastomer sensor array that directly triggers the hand’s actuation in the sense of reflexes. The hand can execute precision grips with two and three fingers, as well as lateral grip and strong grip types. The softness of the actuation allows the finger to adapt to the shape of the objects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancement in the Design and Control of Robotic Grippers—Second Edition)
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15 pages, 3629 KB  
Article
Dual-Layer Flexible Capacitance Sensor with Wide Range and High Sensitivity
by Benyuan Fu, Zipei Wang, Kun Chen, Zebing Mao, Hao Wang, Benxiang Ju and Yanhong Peng
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050251 - 16 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 881
Abstract
Flexible pressure sensors have attracted great attention due to their extensive applications in human–computer interaction and health monitoring. So far, the development of flexible pressure sensors that balance high sensitivity and a wide measurement range remains a challenge. Herein, a double-layer dielectric structure [...] Read more.
Flexible pressure sensors have attracted great attention due to their extensive applications in human–computer interaction and health monitoring. So far, the development of flexible pressure sensors that balance high sensitivity and a wide measurement range remains a challenge. Herein, a double-layer dielectric structure with a surface convex structure is reported for the preparation of flexible capacitive pressure sensors. The double-layer dielectric structure, which is composed of a silicone rubber-based conductive elastomer with a surface micro-convex structure and a PVA-H-based conductive elastomer, balances the advantages and disadvantages of the two conductive elastomer dielectrics. It can form a complete micro-capacitive network under relatively large pressures, enabling the sensor to have high sensitivity at different stages (1.7 kPa−1, 0–104 kPa; 19.14 kPa−1, 104–140 kPa), thus achieving a dual enhancement of sensitivity and sensing range. Additionally, the sensor has been successfully applied to scenarios such as monitoring of human breathing, speaking, and movement, as well as mouse clicks, demonstrating its great potential in the fields of health monitoring and human–computer interaction applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioinspired Structures for Soft Robots)
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21 pages, 1927 KB  
Article
A Study on a Variable-Gain PID Control for a Pneumatic Servo System Using an Optimized PSO-Type Neural Network
by Shenglin Mu, Satoru Shibata, Daisuke Baba and Rikuto Oshita
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050250 - 16 May 2025
Viewed by 863
Abstract
This study investigates the application of proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control enhanced with an optimized particle swarm optimization (OPSO)-type neural network (NN) to improve the control performance of a pneumatic servo system. Traditional PID methods struggle with inherent nonlinearities in pneumatic servo systems. To address [...] Read more.
This study investigates the application of proportional–integral–derivative (PID) control enhanced with an optimized particle swarm optimization (OPSO)-type neural network (NN) to improve the control performance of a pneumatic servo system. Traditional PID methods struggle with inherent nonlinearities in pneumatic servo systems. To address this limitation, we integrate two OPSO-type NNs within the PID framework, thereby developing a robust control strategy that compensates for these nonlinear characteristics. The OPSO-type NNs are particularly efficient in solving complex optimization problems without requiring differential information, demonstrating superior simplicity and efficacy compared to traditional methods, such as genetic algorithms. In our approach, one of the OPSO-type NNs is utilized to tune the PID controller gains, while the other adjusts the control output. The experimental results show that the proposed method enhances the position control accuracy of the pneumatic servo system. Furthermore, this approach holds promise for improving the responsiveness, stability, and disturbance suppression capabilities of pneumatic systems, paving the way for advanced control applications in this field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Control for Pneumatic Servo System)
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25 pages, 7813 KB  
Article
Deep Learning-Based Speech Recognition and LabVIEW Integration for Intelligent Mobile Robot Control
by Kai-Chao Yao, Wei-Tzer Huang, Hsi-Huang Hsieh, Teng-Yu Chen, Wei-Sho Ho, Jiunn-Shiou Fang and Wei-Lun Huang
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050249 - 15 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1575
Abstract
This study implemented an innovative system that trains a speech recognition model based on the DeepSpeech2 architecture using Python for voice control of a robot on the LabVIEW platform. First, a speech recognition model based on the DeepSpeech2 architecture was trained using a [...] Read more.
This study implemented an innovative system that trains a speech recognition model based on the DeepSpeech2 architecture using Python for voice control of a robot on the LabVIEW platform. First, a speech recognition model based on the DeepSpeech2 architecture was trained using a large speech dataset, enabling it to accurately transcribe voice commands. Then, this model was integrated with the LabVIEW graphical user interface and the myRIO controller. By leveraging LabVIEW’s graphical programming environment, the system processed voice commands, translated them into control signals, and directed the robot’s movements accordingly. Experimental results demonstrate that the system not only accurately recognizes various voice commands, but also controls the robot’s behavior in real time, showing high practicality and reliability. This study addresses the limitations inherent in conventional voice control methods, demonstrates the potential of integrating deep learning technology with industrial control platforms, and presents a novel approach for robotic voice control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)
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20 pages, 5416 KB  
Article
Research on a Novel Shape-Memory Alloy Artificial Muscle with Active and Passive Heat Dissipation
by Qin Zhang, Liang Xu, Hao Chen, Zhou Li, Liwu Huang and Sicheng Yi
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050248 - 15 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1455
Abstract
Due to their high energy density and favorable load-to-weight ratio, shape-memory alloy (SMA) materials are ideal actuation sources for soft robots. However, the relatively long cooling time of SMA wires in soft bodies limits their response speed. In this study, we designed and [...] Read more.
Due to their high energy density and favorable load-to-weight ratio, shape-memory alloy (SMA) materials are ideal actuation sources for soft robots. However, the relatively long cooling time of SMA wires in soft bodies limits their response speed. In this study, we designed and fabricated a novel SMA artificial muscle. When active heat absorption was enabled through thermoelectric modules and the evaporation/dehydration effects of hydrogels, the cooling rate of the SMA wires increased significantly. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate that with the proposed heat-dissipation scheme, the cooling speed of the SMA wires improved notably, with a temperature drop of 9.6 °C within 4 s. Additionally, the designed agar/polyacrylamide hydrogel, which has a porous skeleton structure, achieved a water-absorption expansion rate that was 600% of the previous value. When a PVC elastic substrate was used, the bending angle of the SMA artificial muscle reached 71°, with minimal bending attenuation after 45 consecutive cyclic tests. A soft gripper composed of the novel SMA artificial muscles was capable of manipulating objects of various shapes. Overall, the combination of active and passive heat-dissipation strategies enabled the SMA artificial muscle to achieve excellent durability, rapid heat dissipation, and strong versatility, demonstrating its significant potential for various applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)
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13 pages, 12964 KB  
Article
A Soft Variable Stiffness Actuator with a Chain Mail Structure as a Particle Jamming Interface
by John E. Bermeo, Eduardo Castillo-Castañeda and Med Amine Laribi
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050247 - 14 May 2025
Viewed by 1340
Abstract
Variable stiffness actuators (VSAs) have attracted considerable attention in wearable robotics and soft exoskeletons due to their ability to adapt to various load conditions. This study presents a modular design for VSAs that incorporates a chain mail structure with various link topologies, allowing [...] Read more.
Variable stiffness actuators (VSAs) have attracted considerable attention in wearable robotics and soft exoskeletons due to their ability to adapt to various load conditions. This study presents a modular design for VSAs that incorporates a chain mail structure with various link topologies, allowing for a reconfiguration of stiffness. The proposed VSA consists of three main parts: the vacuum chamber, the VSA actuator, and the chain mail structure. The VSA fabrication process was carried out in five stages: (1) mold fabrication by 3D FDM printing, incorporating a film of oil to facilitate easy demolding; (2) mold preparation using silicone, with a precise ratio of 1:1 weight-based mixture to optimize material utilization; (3) silicone pouring into molds while applying vibration to eliminate air bubbles; (4) curing for four hours to achieve optimal mechanical properties; and (5) careful demolding to prevent damage. Experimental tests were conducted to characterize the stiffness of actuators with different chain mail fabric configurations, using an experimental setup designed to securely fix the actuator and accurately measure the pneumatic pressure and the angle of deformation after applying weights at its end. The European 6-in-1 and rounded square configurations were shown to be the most effective, increasing stiffness up to 382% compared to the chain mail-free configuration, highlighting the positive impact of these structural designs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies in Soft Actuators)
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29 pages, 10730 KB  
Article
Connected and Automated Vehicle Trajectory Control in Stochastic Heterogeneous Traffic Flow with Human-Driven Vehicles Under Communication Delay and Disturbances
by Meiqi Liu, Yang Chen and Ruochen Hao
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050246 - 13 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 745
Abstract
In this paper, we study the stability of the stochastically heterogeneous traffic flow involving connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) and human-driven vehicles (HDVs). Taking the stochasticity of vehicle arrivals and behaviors into account, a general robust H∞ platoon controller is proposed to [...] Read more.
In this paper, we study the stability of the stochastically heterogeneous traffic flow involving connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) and human-driven vehicles (HDVs). Taking the stochasticity of vehicle arrivals and behaviors into account, a general robust H∞ platoon controller is proposed to address the communication delay and unexpected disturbances such as prediction or perception errors on HDV motions. To simplify the problem complexity from a stochastically heterogeneous traffic flow to multiple long vehicle control problems, three types of sub-platoons are identified according to the CAV arrivals, and each sub-platoon can be treated as a long vehicle. The car-following behaviors of HDVs and CAVs are simulated using the optimal velocity model (OVM) and the cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) system, respectively. Later, the robust H∞ platoon controller is designed for a pair of a CAV long vehicle and an HDV long vehicle. The time-lagged system and the closed-loop system are formulated and the H∞ state feedback controller is designed. The robust stability and string stability of the heterogeneous platoon system are analyzed using the H∞ norm of the closed-loop transfer function and the time-lagged bounded real lemma, respectively. Simulation experiments are conducted considering various settings of platoon sizes, communication delays, disturbances, and CAV penetration rates. The results show that the proposed H∞ controller is robust and effective in stabilizing disturbances in the stochastically heterogeneous traffic flow and is scalable to arbitrary sub-platoons in various CAV penetration rates in the heterogeneous traffic flow of road vehicles. The advantages of the proposed method in stabilizing heterogeneous traffic flow are verified in comparison with a typical car-following model and the linear quadratic regulator. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Motion Planning, Trajectory Prediction, and Control for Robotics)
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19 pages, 1522 KB  
Article
Adaptive Fixed-Time Tracking Control of Cart–Pendulum Robotic Systems with Bias Actuator Dynamics
by Shuo Chen, Xuansen Zhao, Xiaozheng Jin and Hai Wang
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050245 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 679
Abstract
This research addresses the challenge of precise trajectory tracking for cart–pendulum robotic systems affected by unknown nonlinear actuator dynamics. We introduce a novel control framework that combines neural network modeling with adaptive parameter estimation to handle these complex dynamics. By characterizing state-dependent actuator [...] Read more.
This research addresses the challenge of precise trajectory tracking for cart–pendulum robotic systems affected by unknown nonlinear actuator dynamics. We introduce a novel control framework that combines neural network modeling with adaptive parameter estimation to handle these complex dynamics. By characterizing state-dependent actuator behavior through custom-designed linear filters and adaptive laws, our approach identifies system parameters with high precision. We then develop an innovative fixed-time adaptive sliding mode controller that guarantees convergence within a predetermined timeframe regardless of initial conditions. Lyapunov stability analysis confirms that tracking errors converge to a small neighborhood around zero within the specified time bounds, with the size of the neighborhood determined by the design parameters. Simulation studies on a watermelon transportation robot validate our approach’s practical effectiveness, demonstrating improved tracking accuracy and robustness against actuator disturbances compared with conventional methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)
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10 pages, 3221 KB  
Article
Research on a Miniature Underwater Vehicle Based on a Multi-Unit Underwater Coupled Jet Drive
by Dong Zhang, Xingming Ma, Xue Zhang, Peng Gao and Kai Li
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050244 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 656
Abstract
The underwater unstructured environment poses new challenges for the miniaturization and flexibility of underwater vehicles. This paper proposes a method of using micrometer-scale vibrations of piezoelectric vibrators to drive macroscopic jets. Then, we use two coupled piezoelectric jet driving units to construct a [...] Read more.
The underwater unstructured environment poses new challenges for the miniaturization and flexibility of underwater vehicles. This paper proposes a method of using micrometer-scale vibrations of piezoelectric vibrators to drive macroscopic jets. Then, we use two coupled piezoelectric jet driving units to construct a miniature underwater vehicle. Numerical simulation is used to investigate the flow field characteristics of coupled jets. Finally, the impact of the angle between the two piezoelectric jet drive units on the propulsion force is analyzed. The miniature underwater vehicle measures 77.8 mm in length and 87 mm in width. While achieving miniaturization, it maintains high flexibility, maneuverability, and controllability. By adjusting the input signals to the two piezoelectric jet drive units, the miniature underwater vehicle can move in a straight line, turn, and rotate. Its maximum linear velocity reaches 54.23 mm/s. Its outstanding motion ability and environmental adaptability allow it to perform various tasks in unknown and complex environments. It also has broad application prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Actuators and Motors)
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26 pages, 2703 KB  
Article
Design of Actuators for a Humanoid Robot with Anthropomorphic Characteristics and Running Capability
by Chathura Semasinghe, Drake Taylor and Siavash Rezazadeh
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050243 - 13 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 7371
Abstract
In this paper, we present the details of the actuator design for our humanoid robot, Mithra. Mithra has been designed to match an average adult human in terms of kinematic and kinetic characteristics. This poses various challenges in actuator design that we have [...] Read more.
In this paper, we present the details of the actuator design for our humanoid robot, Mithra. Mithra has been designed to match an average adult human in terms of kinematic and kinetic characteristics. This poses various challenges in actuator design that we have addressed in this work. First, we discuss how the high-level design can help in achieving anthropomorphic traits. Next, the detailed design is verified and finalized using stress and fatigue analyses. Further, we conduct experiments to validate the actuator’s bandwidth and backdrivability, and discuss the outcomes in comparison with human characteristics. The results show that Mithra’s actuators have sufficient structural strength to withstand high running forces, and at the same time, provide human-like traits and capabilities to accommodate human-inspired control paradigms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Application of Actuators with Multi-DOF Movement-2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 11369 KB  
Article
Multi-Metric Fusion Hypergraph Neural Network for Rotating Machinery Fault Diagnosis
by Jiaxing Zhu, Junlan Hu and Buyun Sheng
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050242 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 842
Abstract
Effective fault diagnosis in rotating machinery means extracting fault features from complex samples. However, traditional data-driven methods often overly rely on labeled samples and struggle with extracting high-order complex features. To address these issues, a novel Multi-Metric Fusion Hypergraph Neural Network (MMF-HGNN) is [...] Read more.
Effective fault diagnosis in rotating machinery means extracting fault features from complex samples. However, traditional data-driven methods often overly rely on labeled samples and struggle with extracting high-order complex features. To address these issues, a novel Multi-Metric Fusion Hypergraph Neural Network (MMF-HGNN) is proposed for fault diagnosis in rotating machinery. The approach involves constructing hypergraphs for sample vertices using three metrics: instance distance, distribution distance, and spatiotemporal distance. An innovative hypergraph fusion strategy is then applied to integrate these normalized hypergraphs, and a dual-layer hypergraph neural network is utilized for fault diagnosis. Experimental results on three different fault datasets demonstrate that the MMF-HGNN method excels in feature extraction, reduces reliance on labeled samples, achieving a classification accuracy of 0.9965 ± 0.0025 even with only 5% of labeled samples, and shows strong robustness to noise across varying signal-to-noise ratios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Manufacturing Systems)
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21 pages, 5367 KB  
Article
Analysis and Optimization Design of a Brushless Power Feedback PM Adjustable Speed Drive with Bilayer Wound Rotor
by Xinlei Zheng, Heyun Lin, Yibo Li, Jian Wang and Quanwei Wen
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050241 - 12 May 2025
Viewed by 472
Abstract
A novel brushless power feedback permanent magnet adjustable speed drive (BLPF-PMASD) is developed for the energy-saving of a large power electrical machine drive system in this paper. It can transfer the slip power between the input and output shafts to a stator and [...] Read more.
A novel brushless power feedback permanent magnet adjustable speed drive (BLPF-PMASD) is developed for the energy-saving of a large power electrical machine drive system in this paper. It can transfer the slip power between the input and output shafts to a stator and then transmit it back to the power grid, achieving higher drive efficiency and stability. First, the topology feature, operation principle, and power feedback mechanism of the proposed drive are clearly illustrated. Second, a multi-objective optimization design method suitable for all working conditions is proposed to provide an effective design means for this type of adjustable speed drive with power feedback. Finally, the electromagnetic performance of the optimized drive is analyzed by using the finite element method (FEM) to demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed drive. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section High Torque/Power Density Actuators)
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20 pages, 12723 KB  
Article
Line-of-Sight Stabilization and High-Precision Target Tracking Technology of the Risley Prism System on Motion Platforms
by Huayang Xia, Hongfeng Xia, Jinying Li, Yunxia Xia, Yihan Luo, Liangzhu Yuan, Haotong Ma, Piao Wen and Wenna Yuan
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050240 - 9 May 2025
Viewed by 889
Abstract
The Risley prism system offers advantages such as compact structure and excellent dynamic performance, making it suitable for installation on static and motion platforms for target acquisition, aiming, and tracking. This paper presents a strapdown line-of-sight (LOS) stabilization method for the Risley prism [...] Read more.
The Risley prism system offers advantages such as compact structure and excellent dynamic performance, making it suitable for installation on static and motion platforms for target acquisition, aiming, and tracking. This paper presents a strapdown line-of-sight (LOS) stabilization method for the Risley prism system on motion platforms. The method establishes the coordinate transformation between the Risley prism and the motion platform. Real-time platform attitude angles from an inertial measurement unit (IMU) are used to compute the direction cosine matrix, which, combined with the coordinate transformation, determines the target’s actual guided position in the Risley prism’s coordinate. The Risley prism’s rotational angles are then calculated based on the target’s actual guided position to ensure LOS stability and capture the target. After LOS stabilization, an image-based closed-loop tracking cascade control system that integrates a Risley prism and a fast steering mirror with a single image detector (IBCLTCR-F), is used to enable fast and high-precision target tracking. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method achieves disturbance rejection of −32.8 dB, −28.8 dB, and −17.3 dB for platform disturbances at 0.05 Hz, 0.2 Hz, and 0.5 Hz, respectively. Furthermore, compared to the Risley prism system, the IBCLTCR-F system improves the dynamic response capability of target tracking in the nonlinear region by a factor of 10 and reduces the tracking error by 70%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Precision Actuators)
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21 pages, 14800 KB  
Article
Robust Continuous Sliding-Mode-Based Assistive Torque Control for Series Elastic Actuator-Driven Hip Exoskeleton
by Rui Wang, Xiaoou Lin, Changwei Yin, Zhongtao Liu, Yang Zhang, Wenping Liu and Fuxin Du
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050239 - 9 May 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1286
Abstract
In this paper, a real-time assistive torque controller based on sliding-mode control is proposed for a Series Elastic Actuator (SEA)-driven lower limb assistive exoskeleton. To address the problem of the lack of buffering properties and the uneven torque output in traditional exoskeletons, a [...] Read more.
In this paper, a real-time assistive torque controller based on sliding-mode control is proposed for a Series Elastic Actuator (SEA)-driven lower limb assistive exoskeleton. To address the problem of the lack of buffering properties and the uneven torque output in traditional exoskeletons, a novel SEA is designed for the hip joint lower-limb exoskeleton. This structure features excellent cushioning properties and smooth torque output. On this basis, to enhance the torque tracking performance of the hip joint exoskeleton, in this study, a robust composite control strategy is proposed, which can maintain accuracy in the presence of unknown external disturbances and model parameter inaccuracies. The strategy consists of an adaptive phase oscillator for outputting the phase of the gait, a single-peak curve to provide a reference assistive torque, and a low-level controller to track the torque. The low-level controller employs Continuous Sliding-Mode Control (CSMC) to obtain a continuous control law and utilizes an Extended State Observer (ESO) to estimate the lumped disturbance. It ensures that the tracking error is asymptotically convergent with minimized chatter. The closed-loop stability of the system is theoretically proven by the Lyapunov method. The validity of the proposed algorithm is validated on a designed exoskeleton. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)
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25 pages, 6671 KB  
Article
An Adaptive BiGRU-ASSA-iTransformer Method for Remaining Useful Life Prediction of Bearing in Aerospace Manufacturing
by Youlong Lyu, Qingpeng Qiu, Ying Chu and Jie Zhang
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050238 - 9 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 911
Abstract
In aerospace manufacturing, the reliability of machining equipment, particularly spindle bearings, is critical to maintaining productivity, as bearing health significantly constrains operational efficiency. Accurate prediction of the remaining useful life (RUL) of bearings can preempt failures, reduce downtime, and boost productivity. While conventional [...] Read more.
In aerospace manufacturing, the reliability of machining equipment, particularly spindle bearings, is critical to maintaining productivity, as bearing health significantly constrains operational efficiency. Accurate prediction of the remaining useful life (RUL) of bearings can preempt failures, reduce downtime, and boost productivity. While conventional BiGRU-based models for bearing RUL prediction have shown promise, they often overlook handcrafted extracted time-series features that could enhance accuracy. This study introduces a novel model, BiGRU-ASSA-iTransformer, that integrates deep learning and handcrafted feature extraction to improve RUL prediction. The approach employs two parallel processes with a fusion step: First, a bi-directional gated recurrent unit (BiGRU) captures dynamic degradation features from raw vibration signals, with an adaptive sparse self-attention (ASSA) mechanism emphasizing short-term degradation cues. Second, 13 time-domain, frequency-domain, and statistical features, derived from traditional expertise, are processed using iTransformer to encode temporal correlations. These outputs are then fused via an attention mechanism. Experiments on the PHM 2012 and XJTU-SY datasets demonstrate that this model achieves the lowest prediction error and highest accuracy compared to existing methods, highlighting the value of combining handcrafted and deep learning approaches for robust RUL prediction in aerospace applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Manufacturing Systems)
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22 pages, 2908 KB  
Article
Composite Adaptive Control of Robot Manipulators with Friction as Additive Disturbance
by Daniel Gamez-Herrera, Juan Sifuentes-Mijares, Victor Santibañez and Isaac Gandarilla
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050237 - 8 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1094
Abstract
In this paper, an adaptive control scheme composed of an estimated feed-forward compensation and a PD control law with three mutually independent estimators is proposed for the tracking of desired trajectories in joint space for a robotic arm. One of the estimators is [...] Read more.
In this paper, an adaptive control scheme composed of an estimated feed-forward compensation and a PD control law with three mutually independent estimators is proposed for the tracking of desired trajectories in joint space for a robotic arm. One of the estimators is used to identify inertial and geometrical parameters, while the others determine the two principal components of the friction phenomenon: the part whose magnitude is position-dependent but velocity-independent and the part whose magnitude is proportional to velocity. Next, the persistently exciting condition is satisfied for each regression matrix of the estimators in a way that is easier to prove than the classical structure. Then, uniform global asymptotic stability can be concluded for the tracking error, regardless of parametric convergence, by applying the direct Lyapunov theorem. This scheme has been applied experimentally for a robotic arm to verify the theoretical results. The experimental results yielded a better performance in both estimating the parameters and tracking, with a much simpler overall analysis than the alternatives consulted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nonlinear Control of Mechanical and Robotic Systems)
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20 pages, 7137 KB  
Article
Design and Analysis of a Serial Position-Controlled Variable Stiffness Rotating Mechanism Based on Multi-Stage Torsional Compliant Mechanisms
by Kai Wen and Guanglei Wu
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050236 - 8 May 2025
Viewed by 938
Abstract
This work presents the design and experimental validation of a position-controlled rotating mechanism featuring multi-stage variable stiffness. Before designing the overall mechanism, three different compliant mechanisms, based on flexible beams, are parametrically optimized using a SolidWorks–Ansys co-simulation technique. The flexible beams are composed [...] Read more.
This work presents the design and experimental validation of a position-controlled rotating mechanism featuring multi-stage variable stiffness. Before designing the overall mechanism, three different compliant mechanisms, based on flexible beams, are parametrically optimized using a SolidWorks–Ansys co-simulation technique. The flexible beams are composed of multiple straight segments, Bezier curves, and multiple arc segments. The corresponding torque–deflection curves of the compliant mechanisms are collected and fitted into analytical expressions, from which the stiffness equation varying with the angular position is derived for stiffness regulation. A combination of three-stage compliant mechanisms connected in serial is realized to prototype the physical mechanism, which can have three different stiffness ranges of the output shaft. The maximum stiffness is about nine times higher than the lowest one, leading to a broader bandwidth of varying stiffness, which can make the mechanism more adaptive to the external payloads for safety consideration. Experimental measurements are carried out, and the comparison shows a good agreement between the experimental and simulation results, which experimentally validated the design concept. The compact and simple structure, as well as the multi-stage variable stiffness ranges, implies high adaptability of the designed mechanism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Actuators for Robotics)
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18 pages, 4421 KB  
Article
Model-Based Control Allocation During State Transitions of a Variable Recruitment Fluidic Artificial Muscle Bundle
by Jeong Yong Kim and Matthew Bryant
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050235 - 8 May 2025
Viewed by 559
Abstract
A model-based control scheme for state transitions of a variable recruitment fluidic artificial muscle (FAM) bundle is developed and experimentally validated. FAMs can be bundled together in parallel to exhibit variable recruitment functionality, which is an activation strategy inspired by how motor units [...] Read more.
A model-based control scheme for state transitions of a variable recruitment fluidic artificial muscle (FAM) bundle is developed and experimentally validated. FAMs can be bundled together in parallel to exhibit variable recruitment functionality, which is an activation strategy inspired by how motor units (MUs) in skeletal muscle are recruited. By adapting variable recruitment, an FAM bundle is able to operate efficiently over its entire force-contraction space while increasing control authority and bandwidth at low recruitment states. A variable recruitment bundle poses a hybrid control problem as it operates by controlling pressure as a continuous variable while simultaneously shifting between discrete recruitment states. During such state transitions, the bundle may experience a lag in strain if the shift timing is not properly anticipated. In this study, a model that captures the interaction effects between FAMs and a hydraulic system model is used to inform the controller of when a state transition should be made. The proposed control scheme is compared to a baseline control scheme that uses a percentage of the source pressure as the threshold for when a shift is made. The controller performance is evaluated by tracking a sinusoidal strain trajectory, and the average and maximum strain errors are compared between the baseline and proposed controller. The applied FAM pressures are presented to show that the model-based compensation is able to determine when a transition needs to be made. As a result, the tracking performance of the proposed control scheme is shown to significantly decrease the integrated absolute and maximum errors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis and Design of Linear/Nonlinear Control System)
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19 pages, 8320 KB  
Article
Inner–Outer Loop Intelligent Morphology Optimization and Pursuit–Evasion Control for Space Modular Robot
by Wenwei Luo, Ling Meng, Fei Feng, Pengyu Guo and Bo Li
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050234 - 8 May 2025
Viewed by 756
Abstract
This paper proposes an inner–outer loop computational framework to address the morphology optimization and pursuit–evasion control problem for space modular robots. First, a morphological design space considering the functional characteristics of different modules is designed. Then, an elite genetic algorithm is applied to [...] Read more.
This paper proposes an inner–outer loop computational framework to address the morphology optimization and pursuit–evasion control problem for space modular robots. First, a morphological design space considering the functional characteristics of different modules is designed. Then, an elite genetic algorithm is applied to evolve the morphology within this space, and a proximal policy optimization algorithm is applied to control the space modular robot with evolved morphology. Considering symmetry, centrality, module cost, and average cumulative reward, a comprehensive morphological assessment is proposed to evaluate the morphology. And the assessment result serves as the fitness of evolution. In addition, by implementing the algorithm on the JAX framework for parallel computing, the computational efficiency was significantly enhanced, allowing the entire optimization process within 17.3 h. Comparative simulation results verify the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed computational framework. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Actuators in Robotic Control—3rd Edition)
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24 pages, 15861 KB  
Article
A Novel Principle for Transparent Applications of Force Impulses in Cable-Driven Rehabilitation Systems
by Andrej Olenšek, Matjaž Zadravec, Matej Tomc, Teja Krishna Mamidi, Vineet Vashista and Zlatko Matjačić
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050233 - 7 May 2025
Viewed by 994
Abstract
A critical requirement for rehabilitation robots is achieving high transparency in user interaction to minimize interference when assistance is unnecessary. Cable-driven systems are a compelling alternative to rigid-link robots due to their lighter weight and reduced inertia, enhancing transparency. However, controlling cable tension [...] Read more.
A critical requirement for rehabilitation robots is achieving high transparency in user interaction to minimize interference when assistance is unnecessary. Cable-driven systems are a compelling alternative to rigid-link robots due to their lighter weight and reduced inertia, enhancing transparency. However, controlling cable tension forces remains a significant challenge, as these forces directly affect the interaction between the user and the robot. Effective strategies must maintain low tension during non-assistive phases while preventing slackness. This paper introduces PACE-R (Passive Active CablE Robot), a novel lightweight actuation system for cable-driven rehabilitation devices. The PACE-R module utilizes remote actuation and an open-loop, discrete state control, where the cable is coupled to the motor only during active intervention. When not assisting, the cable is passively decoupled from the motor, and a low-stiffness spring maintains minimal tension, enabling high transparency. Benchtop tests showed that the module consistently produced force impulses proportional to motor input with delays not exceeding 15 ms. In the treadmill push-off assistance demonstration, PACE-R contributed about 20% to total ankle moment and power. Transparency analysis revealed negligible interference, with only 1% and 0.5% contributions to peak total ankle moment and power, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Actuators and Robotic Devices for Rehabilitation and Assistance)
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18 pages, 4987 KB  
Article
Magnetically Actuated Microstructures with Programmable Degradation for Knee Cartilage Regeneration
by Geonhui Mun, Shirong Zheng and Gwangjun Go
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050232 - 6 May 2025
Viewed by 795
Abstract
Degenerative joint diseases, such as osteoarthritis, are increasingly prevalent in aging populations, yet current treatments like stem cell injections face limitations in targeted delivery and efficacy. In this study, we proposed a biodegradable magnetically actuated microstructure for knee cartilage regeneration. The microstructure is [...] Read more.
Degenerative joint diseases, such as osteoarthritis, are increasingly prevalent in aging populations, yet current treatments like stem cell injections face limitations in targeted delivery and efficacy. In this study, we proposed a biodegradable magnetically actuated microstructure for knee cartilage regeneration. The microstructure is composed of calcium-crosslinked alginate hydrogel embedded with magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), allowing for precise control using an external magnetic field generated by an electromagnetic actuation (EMA) system. Fabricated via a centrifugal micro-nozzle process, the microstructures exhibited tunable sizes and uniform morphology. The proposed microstructures were characterized for their morphological, chemical, and magnetic properties, and their biodegradability and targeting ability in a phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) environment were experimentally analyzed. Experimental results demonstrated that smaller microstructures degraded more rapidly and that fewer microstructures resulted in improved targeting accuracy. In contrast, microstructures clustered at the lesion site degraded more slowly, supporting sustained therapeutic release. These results suggest that the proposed system can enhance delivery precision, minimize off-target accumulation, and reduce inflammation risks associated with residual materials. The biodegradable magnetically actuated microstructures present a promising platform for minimally invasive and site-specific cartilage therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanorobotics for Biomedical Applications)
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20 pages, 820 KB  
Article
Fixed-Time Adaptive Event-Triggered Control for Uncertain Nonlinear Systems Under Full-State Constraints
by Yue Zhang, Jietao Dai, Zhenzhang Liu, Ruizhi Tang, Guoxiong Zheng and Jianhui Wang
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050231 - 5 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 959
Abstract
The problem of adaptive event-triggered control for uncertain nonlinear systems with full-state constraints was investigated. State constraints can significantly affect system performance, especially when time-varying external disturbances are present, potentially leading to instability. Thus, a fixed-time disturbance observer was designed. It estimated unknown [...] Read more.
The problem of adaptive event-triggered control for uncertain nonlinear systems with full-state constraints was investigated. State constraints can significantly affect system performance, especially when time-varying external disturbances are present, potentially leading to instability. Thus, a fixed-time disturbance observer was designed. It estimated unknown uncertainties within a predetermined time. Meanwhile, an asymmetric barrier Lyapunov function was developed. It ensured the stability of the system state under constraints. Furthermore, to reduce the utilization rate of the system’s communication resources, an adaptive event-triggered control scheme was proposed, and an integrated control method was established to preset the convergence time of the system’s state error, greatly improving the convergence speed. Theoretical analysis and simulations demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The results show that the system achieved stable control within a fixed time, even under full-state constraints and external disturbances, while using fewer communication resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Fault-Tolerant Control Strategies for Uncertain Nonlinear Systems: Mitigating Actuator Faults)
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16 pages, 3753 KB  
Article
Control of Active Suspension Systems Based on Mechanical Wave Concepts
by Hossein Habibi
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050230 - 5 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2037
Abstract
Wave-based control (WBC) offers a relatively novel approach to the challenge of controlling flexible mechanisms by treating the interaction between actuator and system as the launch and absorption of mechanical waves. WBC is a robust approach but has been unexplored in active suspension [...] Read more.
Wave-based control (WBC) offers a relatively novel approach to the challenge of controlling flexible mechanisms by treating the interaction between actuator and system as the launch and absorption of mechanical waves. WBC is a robust approach but has been unexplored in active suspension systems to date. This study adapts WBC to a quarter-car suspension model. Having embedded an actuator as the active element of a car suspension, a novel but simple ‘force impedance’ adaptation of WBC is introduced and implemented for effective vibration control. Testing with various input signals (pulse, sinusoidal, and random profile) highlights the active system’s significant ride comfort and rapid vibration suppression with zero steady-state error. Compared to two other models—one employing an ideal skyhook strategy and the other a passive suspension—the active system utilizing WBC outperforms across many criteria. The active controller achieves over 38% superior ride comfort compared to the skyhook model for a pulse road input. This is accomplished while adhering to WBC principles: relying solely on actuator-interface measurements, simplicity, cost-effectiveness, with no need for detailed system models, extensive sensors, or deep system knowledge. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Industrial and Biomechanical Applications of Actuators and Robots and Eco-Sustainability)
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17 pages, 55673 KB  
Article
Design, Fabrication, and Experimental Validation of Optical Microbots
by Menaka Konara, Mishal Pokharel, Md Mainuddin Sagar, Yeongjin Kim and Kihan Park
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050229 - 5 May 2025
Viewed by 1500
Abstract
Light-actuated microbots have been studied as a viable tool for interacting with micro/nano environments. Considering their applicability to a wide range of biomedical applications, novel designs, fabrication techniques, and control methodologies are being developed. Especially, micro/nanoscale three-dimensional fabrication techniques have opened many possibilities [...] Read more.
Light-actuated microbots have been studied as a viable tool for interacting with micro/nano environments. Considering their applicability to a wide range of biomedical applications, novel designs, fabrication techniques, and control methodologies are being developed. Especially, micro/nanoscale three-dimensional fabrication techniques have opened many possibilities for developing microbots with complex geometries using resins as materials. Here, we developed microbots that can be actuated with tightly focused laser beams to be used in targeted drug delivery, cell poking, and cell characterization studies. These microbots were fabricated in batches using two-photon polymerization (TPP). Each microbot utilizes a deposited metal layer inside its body to manipulate convective microfluidic flows. Additionally, micro-sized end effectors allow them to make measurable physical contact with biological objects. Their expected performance was evaluated using numerical simulations with the use of multiphysics software. Furthermore, laser-induced loading and unloading of micro-sized cargo show their capability for in vitro applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Actuation and Biomedical Development of Micro/Nano Robotics)
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26 pages, 8954 KB  
Article
A Two-Segment Continuum Robot with Piecewise Stiffness for Tracheal Intubation and Active Decoupling
by Jianhao Tang, Lingfeng Sang, Junjie Tian, Qiqi Pan, Yuan Han, Wenxian Li, Yu Tian and Hongbo Wang
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050228 - 5 May 2025
Viewed by 909
Abstract
This study presents a two-segment continuum robot with piecewise stiffness, designed to enhance the precision, adaptability, and safety of tracheal intubation procedures. The robot employs a continuum manipulator (CM) as its end-effector, featuring a proximal segment (PS) with an aluminum alloy interlocking joint, [...] Read more.
This study presents a two-segment continuum robot with piecewise stiffness, designed to enhance the precision, adaptability, and safety of tracheal intubation procedures. The robot employs a continuum manipulator (CM) as its end-effector, featuring a proximal segment (PS) with an aluminum alloy interlocking joint, which provides high axial stiffness for stable insertion, and a distal segment (DS) with a micro-nano resin-based notched structure, offering increased flexibility and compliance to navigate complex anatomical structures such as the epiglottis and vocal cords, thereby reducing airway trauma. To describe the motion behavior of the robot, a piecewise variable curvature kinematic model is developed, capturing the deformation characteristics of each segment under actuation. Furthermore, a piecewise stiffness analysis is conducted to determine the axial and bending stiffness of each segment, ensuring an appropriate balance between stability and flexibility. To enhance control precision, an active tendon-driven decoupling control strategy is introduced, effectively minimizing the interaction forces between flexible segments and improving end-effector maneuverability. The results demonstrate that the proposed design significantly improves the adaptability of the tracheal intubation robot, ensuring controlled insertion while reducing the risk of excessive force on the airway walls. This study provides theoretical and technical insights into the mechanical design and control strategies of continuum robots, contributing to the safety and efficiency of tracheal intubation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Application of Actuators with Multi-DOF Movement-2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 5050 KB  
Article
Research on Active Lubrication Based on Piezoelectric Micropump
by Zhiyuan Zhang, Yan Zhao, Long Lin, Yamen Wang, Xiuxin Shang and Kai Li
Actuators 2025, 14(5), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14050227 - 2 May 2025
Viewed by 665
Abstract
This paper mainly introduces the problem of active lubrication. At present, the technology of active lubrication for bearings in micro-space is not mature, and it is difficult to meet the requirements of micro-space lubrication. A piezoelectric micropump for active lubrication is proposed in [...] Read more.
This paper mainly introduces the problem of active lubrication. At present, the technology of active lubrication for bearings in micro-space is not mature, and it is difficult to meet the requirements of micro-space lubrication. A piezoelectric micropump for active lubrication is proposed in this paper. The micropump has the advantages of compactness, embedding, high precision, and fast response. We analyze the performance of the micropump under different characteristics. When the applied frequency is 9.95 kHz, the voltage is 200 V and the oil viscosity is 0.001 Pa·s, and the pumping capacity can reach 0.8 μL. When the same excitation signal is used, the experimental pumping capacity reaches 0.76 μL. The theoretical and experimental error is 5.3%. For different bearing conditions, combined with the theoretical model of minimum oil film thickness, we propose the number of pulses to meet the micro-redundancy lubrication under different working conditions. These analyses provide a theoretical basis for active lubrication in micro-space. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Actuators and Motors)
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