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EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden)
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EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden)

A special issue of World Electric Vehicle Journal (ISSN 2032-6653).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2026) | Viewed by 23385

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Joeri Van Mierlo

grade E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
MOBI—Electromobility Research Centre, Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
Interests: electric and hybrid vehicles (batteries, power converters, and energy management simulations); the environmental and economical comparison of vehicles with different drive trains and fuels (LCA and TCO)
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Peter Van den Bossche

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
MOBI—Electromobility Research Centre, Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
Interests: electric vehicles; charging infrastructure; standardization; batteries
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue will gather updated versions of the best papers from EVS38, the 38th International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, which will be held from 15 June 2025 to 18 June 2025 in Gothenburg, Sweden.

The International Electric Vehicle Symposium (EVS) is the world's longest, largest, and highest-spec event in the field of electric vehicles, covering various areas, including pure electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, fuel cell vehicles, and core components. The EVS is hosted by the World Electric Vehicle Association (WEVA), which consists of the Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA) in North America, the E-Mobility Europe (former AVERE) in Europe, and the Electric Vehicle Association of the Asia Pacific (EVAAP) in the Asia Pacific region, with each organizing the EVS in their region in turn. The EVS has already had a long history since its birth in Phoenix, Arizona, USA, in 1969.

Attracting global industry leaders, showcasing the latest technologies and infrastructure solutions, hosting high-level discussions, and providing a platform for collaboration and knowledge sharing, the EVS also promotes research while raising public awareness of and education on the role of EVs in sustainable goals. For more information, see https://evs38.org/.

The authors of the best papers presented at EVS38 will be invited to expand their paper further to include their most recent research findings. After a second thorough round of peer review, these papers will be published in this Special Issue of the World Electric Vehicle Journal (WEVJ), the official journal of the World Electric Vehicle Association (WEVA) and its members. Papers selected for publication from the Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (EVS) will be published free of any charge in this Special Issue.

If you have any questions, please feel free to contact the editorial office at wevj@mdpi.com.

Prof. Dr. Joeri Van Mierlo
Prof. Dr. Peter Van den Bossche
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. World Electric Vehicle Journal is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • vehicle and transportation systems
  • marketing and promotion
  • software-defined vehicles
  • charging infrastructure and grid integration
  • electric storage systems
  • propulsion systems and components
  • power electronics
  • electric vehicle management
  • energy supply and sustainability
  • manufacturing

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (21 papers)

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23 pages, 1662 KB  
Article
Towards Sustainable Urban Freight: A Collaborative Business Model Framework for Last-Mile Consolidation Centres
by Tatjana Apanasevic and Anna Fjällström
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(4), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17040202 - 14 Apr 2026
Viewed by 233
Abstract
Urban freight transport generates significant negative externalities in the form of noise, congestion, and environmental impacts. Freight consolidation centres could be seen as a potential solution, offering benefits such as shorter delivery distances and fewer delivery routes. However, implementation of freight consolidation centers [...] Read more.
Urban freight transport generates significant negative externalities in the form of noise, congestion, and environmental impacts. Freight consolidation centres could be seen as a potential solution, offering benefits such as shorter delivery distances and fewer delivery routes. However, implementation of freight consolidation centers requires collaboration between actors with conflicting interests and goals. This study proposes a collaborative business model framework for freight consolidation centres. The novelty of the study lies in conceptualising collaboration as an outcome-based partnership and extending the Business Model Canvas with collaboration-specific components. This framework was empirically tested and refined through a pilot project in Gothenburg, applying the principles of engaged scholarship. The results indicate that last-mile consolidation can significantly improve operational efficiency and enable sustainability gains. At the same time, structural, economic, and organisational barriers need to be addressed to realise all benefits of the collaborative business model. The findings particularly highlight the need for deeper institutionalisation of collaborative practices, including the integration of new norms, procedures, and policies into the business models of the individual actors involved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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20 pages, 5192 KB  
Article
Distributed V2G-Enabled Multiport DC Charging System with Hierarchical Charging Management Strategy
by Shahid Jaman, Amin Dalir, Thomas Geury, Mohamed El-Baghdadi and Omar Hegazy
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(4), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17040199 - 10 Apr 2026
Viewed by 178
Abstract
This paper presents a distributed V2G-enabled multiport DC charging system with a hierarchical charging management strategy. Unlike conventional architectures based on centralized power converter cabinets, the proposed system distributes bidirectional power converters within individual multiport dispensers, each equipped with a local charging power [...] Read more.
This paper presents a distributed V2G-enabled multiport DC charging system with a hierarchical charging management strategy. Unlike conventional architectures based on centralized power converter cabinets, the proposed system distributes bidirectional power converters within individual multiport dispensers, each equipped with a local charging power management device. This architecture improves system scalability, fault tolerance, and operational flexibility while enabling vehicle-level charging and V2G services. A hierarchical control framework is introduced, consisting of high-level optimal charging scheduling, mid-level power coordination among distributed dispensers, and low-level converter control. Key elements include modular power units that can be dynamically configured and expanded, providing a cost-effective and adaptable solution for growing EV markets. Experimental results obtained from a 45 kW modular DC charging prototype demonstrate an efficiency improvement of up to 2% at rated power compared to a non-modular charger. In contrast, the optimized charging strategy achieves an overall charging cost reduction of approximately 11% and a peak load demand reduction of up to 31%. Furthermore, stable bidirectional power flow, effective power sharing, and total harmonic distortion within regulatory limits are experimentally validated during both charging and V2G operation. The prototype is implemented to validate the proposed charging system in the laboratory environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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21 pages, 5929 KB  
Article
Volvo SmartCell: A New Multilevel Battery Propulsion and Power Supply System
by Jonas Forssell, Markus Ekström, Aditya Pratap Singh, Torbjörn Larsson and Jonas Björkholtz
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(4), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17040190 - 3 Apr 2026
Viewed by 1315
Abstract
This research paper presents Volvo SmartCell, an AC battery technology that integrates modular multilevel converters and battery cells to form a unified system for electric vehicle propulsion and power supply. The research work addresses the broader challenge of reducing driveline cost and complexity [...] Read more.
This research paper presents Volvo SmartCell, an AC battery technology that integrates modular multilevel converters and battery cells to form a unified system for electric vehicle propulsion and power supply. The research work addresses the broader challenge of reducing driveline cost and complexity by replacing traditional components such as inverters, onboard chargers, centralized DC/DC converters, vehicle control units and many more. SmartCell uses distributed Cluster Boards comprised of H-bridges which are controlled via wireless communication to generate AC voltage, deliver redundant low voltage power, and support cell level protection mechanisms. The prototype testing demonstrates that the system can supply traction power by engaging clusters according to the required voltage depending on motor speed, achieve AC grid charging by synthesizing sinusoidal voltages without a dedicated charger, and provide autonomous DC/DC operation through cluster level voltage regulation. Simulations further indicate that multilevel voltage generation can reduce switching losses and improve electric machine efficiency compared to conventional systems. Additional benefits include active cell balancing, support for mixed cell chemistries, and high redundancy through multiple independent power branches. Challenges remain in wireless bandwidth limitations and cost optimization of Cluster Boards. Ongoing development aims to enhance communication robustness and validate safety for non-isolated grid charging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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20 pages, 1088 KB  
Article
Users’ Perspectives of Bidirectional Charging in Public Environments
by Érika Martins Silva Ramos, Thomas Lindgren, Jonas Andersson and Jens Hagman
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(4), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17040176 - 26 Mar 2026
Viewed by 492
Abstract
Technological advances such as Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) have the potential to support renewable energy integration and grid stability, but large-scale deployment depends on users’ willingness to participate, particularly in public charging environments. While prior research has examined V2G from technical feasibility and system-level perspectives, [...] Read more.
Technological advances such as Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) have the potential to support renewable energy integration and grid stability, but large-scale deployment depends on users’ willingness to participate, particularly in public charging environments. While prior research has examined V2G from technical feasibility and system-level perspectives, everyday public settings remain unexplored. This study investigates electric vehicle (EV) users’ willingness to engage in V2G services in public spaces, with a focus on incentives, expectations, and how participation aligns with existing routines and parking conditions. A mixed-method approach was applied, combining a survey of 544 car users with two waves of user-centered interviews. The survey data were analyzed using factor analysis and linear regression models, while the interview data were thematically analyzed. The results show that users’ evaluations of V2G are shaped by sustainability expectations, perceived efficiency, and uncertainties, and preferences for public V2G participation are strongly influenced by convenience, clarity of the offer, and perceived control. Home charging practices emerged as a key reference point shaping expectations of public V2G services. Across both methods, simple and transparent incentives, such as reduced charging or parking costs, were consistently preferred over more complex reward models, including point-based systems or dynamic energy trading. Concerns related to control over trips, battery degradation, trust in service providers, and added complexity remain important barriers to participation. The findings highlight the need for user-centered and socio-technical design of public V2G services that align with users’ everyday routines, parking conditions, and expectations to support broader adoption beyond the home context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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15 pages, 915 KB  
Article
The Impact of Urban Policy Instruments on Sweden’s Electrification of Heavy-Duty Trucks
by Mikael Lantz
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(4), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17040175 - 26 Mar 2026
Viewed by 429
Abstract
Heavy-duty trucks, especially those used in urban areas, are responsible for a disproportionally large share of the external costs of the transportation sector. Policy instruments that target these trucks could thus be efficient measures to reduce negative impact from the traffic sector. This [...] Read more.
Heavy-duty trucks, especially those used in urban areas, are responsible for a disproportionally large share of the external costs of the transportation sector. Policy instruments that target these trucks could thus be efficient measures to reduce negative impact from the traffic sector. This paper presents how heavy-duty trucks operated in Sweden’s two largest cities, Gothenburg and Stockholm, in the year 2022 and how zero-emission zones or environmental zones with an entrance fee targeting heavy-duty trucks could affect not only urban traffic but all trucks on Swedish roads. The analysis is based on GPS data from 69,000 trucks in operation in Sweden in the year 2022. Of these trucks, 4% visited the two cities for more than 100 days (frequent visitors) and 40% visited at least once during the year. Although zero-emission zones would have the strongest impact, environmental zones with an entrance fee could be a more flexible way to create a strong enough incentive for frequent visitors to electrify. An entrance fee of 100 Euro per day in combination with current investment subsidies would make electric trucks competitive for frequent visitors and still allow for others to continue using conventional trucks during a transition period. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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21 pages, 835 KB  
Article
Investigating the Impact of Public En-Route and Depot Charging for Electric Heavy-Duty Trucks Using Agent-Based Transport Simulation and Probabilistic Grid Modeling
by Mattias Ingelström, Alice Callanan and Francisco J. Márquez-Fernández
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(4), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17040172 - 26 Mar 2026
Viewed by 535
Abstract
This study presents an integrated simulation framework that combines agent-based transport modeling with probabilistic load-flow analysis to quantify power system loading of long-haul heavy-duty electrification. The approach is applied to a case study considering fully electrified road freight in the Skåne region in [...] Read more.
This study presents an integrated simulation framework that combines agent-based transport modeling with probabilistic load-flow analysis to quantify power system loading of long-haul heavy-duty electrification. The approach is applied to a case study considering fully electrified road freight in the Skåne region in Sweden, using high-resolution transport demand data and the actual power grid model used by the grid owner in the study area. The synthetic freight population covers the full long-haul truck segment intersecting Skåne. Both public en-route fast charging and end-of-trip depot charging are considered. The analysis reveals two fundamentally different charging demand profiles: a heavily fluctuating profile for public en-route charging, accounting on average for 82% of the total daily charging energy, and a stable profile for end-of-trip depot charging, covering on average the remaining 18%. The latter is achieved through a Linear Programming (LP) optimization model that flattens the load by scheduling charging across depot stay windows. These profiles serve as inputs to a probabilistic load-flow simulation that computes loading distributions for substation transformers. The simulation results show that in 4 of the 43 primary substations studied, the maximum transformer loading exceeds 100% following the introduction of truck charging, with peak loading at the most affected substation rising from 99% to 159%. This stress is primarily caused by the public charging demand, which peaks from late morning to noon, aligning with the early stages of logistics operations. However, there is no clear correlation between the magnitude of the truck charging load and the impact on transformer loading, since this is also highly dependent on local grid conditions. These findings highlight the value of integrated transport-energy simulations for planning resilient infrastructure and guiding targeted grid reinforcements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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26 pages, 4840 KB  
Article
Analysis of Heating System Impacts on Battery Electric Vehicle Operation at Cold Temperatures
by Kieran Humphries and Aaron Loiselle-Lapointe
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(4), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17040168 - 25 Mar 2026
Viewed by 528
Abstract
This paper presents the results from in-lab chassis dynamometer testing of two battery electric vehicles of the same make and model: a 2022 model year vehicle with a heat pump and a 2020 model year vehicle with a resistive positive temperature coefficient (PTC)-type [...] Read more.
This paper presents the results from in-lab chassis dynamometer testing of two battery electric vehicles of the same make and model: a 2022 model year vehicle with a heat pump and a 2020 model year vehicle with a resistive positive temperature coefficient (PTC)-type heater. The vehicles were tested over a series of standard drive cycles at −10 °C, −7 °C, 0 °C, and 25 °C to determine the impacts of the different heating systems on vehicle energy consumption and driving range in cold temperatures. The results indicate that in most (but not all) heating situations the heat pump heated its vehicle’s cabin more efficiently than the PTC heater did, especially at 0 °C. At the lowest temperature, −10 °C, the heat pump used more energy than the PTC heater on cold-start but was more efficient than the PTC heater once the cabin was warmed up. Over standard drive cycles and using SAE J1634 calculation methods to obtain a single range value for each cycle type, the improvement in the percentage of driving range retained by the heat pump-equipped vehicle over the PTC heater-equipped vehicle varied between 1% and 15% depending on ambient conditions and drive cycle, with the average advantage in percentage range retained being 7% over the UDDS cycle, 7% over the HWFET cycle, and 4% over the US06 cycle for all cold temperatures combined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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23 pages, 3546 KB  
Article
Application of Hybrid-Electric Propulsion to ‘Very Light Jet’ Business Aircraft
by Ambar Sarup
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(3), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17030126 - 2 Mar 2026
Viewed by 698
Abstract
The following paper investigates the feasibility of hybrid-electric propulsion (HEP) for a very light jet (VLJ) business aircraft based on predictions of battery performance for the 15-year timeframe to 2040. Given the unique requirements of a range of between 1100 and 2200 km [...] Read more.
The following paper investigates the feasibility of hybrid-electric propulsion (HEP) for a very light jet (VLJ) business aircraft based on predictions of battery performance for the 15-year timeframe to 2040. Given the unique requirements of a range of between 1100 and 2200 km (600 and 1200 nmi) and a cruise speed of around Mach 0.65, this paper utilizes a time-stepping simulation to determine range for a baseline aerodynamic model over combinations of energy hybridization ratios and battery specific energy densities of HE∈[0.0,0.25] and ebat∈[400,1250] Wh/kg for series and parallel architectures. The paper also analyzes fuel and battery energy consumption, battery weight and volume, and finally a typical mission of 1111 km (600 nmi). The results of the paper find that the parallel architecture is better suited to application on very light jets, as it enables a greater maximum range of 1394 km (754 nmi) with a mild energy hybridization of 5% and a battery specific energy density of 1250 Wh/kg for a fixed maximum takeoff weight. Over a typical 1111 km (600 nmi) mission, fuel savings with a parallel architecture are 96 kg (212 lbs) compared to a conventional turbofan, or 7.1% of the total fuel load. Consequently, it is recommended that a hybrid-electric very light jet utilize a mild-hybrid parallel architecture of around 5% energy hybridization and batteries of at least 1250 Wh/kg. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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20 pages, 5094 KB  
Article
An Approach for Idea Generation on Sustainable and Circular Products in the Early Phase Exemplified by a Vehicle Component
by Fabian Edel, Thomas Potinecke, Franziska Braun and Sebastian Stegmüller
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(3), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17030118 - 27 Feb 2026
Viewed by 564
Abstract
Sustainability and circular economy are becoming increasingly important for new products due to new EU legislation and serve as orientation for product development. This is particularly significant for the automotive industry, as “new” products such as electric vehicles present new challenges. This sustainability [...] Read more.
Sustainability and circular economy are becoming increasingly important for new products due to new EU legislation and serve as orientation for product development. This is particularly significant for the automotive industry, as “new” products such as electric vehicles present new challenges. This sustainability orientation influences fundamental requirements of a product, such as material, construction, joining techniques, design, production and R-strategies. Some of these requirements are determined particularly in the early phases of the innovation process. Decisions are made almost exclusively based on theoretical data, while the inclusion of physical prototypes in the evaluation and decision-making process often only takes place at later stages. In particular, early, disruptive, sustainability-oriented idea generation, which is not only based on a data-based evaluation but is also supported by physical realization in the early phase, contributes significantly to well-founded decision-making processes. An approach for idea generation on sustainable and circular products in the early phase is presented in this article, which was applied and evaluated by a sustainable and circular vehicle component (center console). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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16 pages, 2676 KB  
Article
Charging Strategies for Battery Electric Trucks in Germany
by Daniel Speth and Saskia Paasch
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(2), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17020106 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 681
Abstract
Battery electric trucks (BETs) are a promising option to reduce emissions from heavy-duty vehicles. However, the transition to BETs will cause an additional demand for electricity. Future charging strategies will influence the future peak load as well as the operational and technical feasibility [...] Read more.
Battery electric trucks (BETs) are a promising option to reduce emissions from heavy-duty vehicles. However, the transition to BETs will cause an additional demand for electricity. Future charging strategies will influence the future peak load as well as the operational and technical feasibility of BETs. We simulated 2410 representative single-day German truck driving profiles with three different charging strategies: (1) as slow as possible, (2) as fast as possible, and (3) slowly at depots and as fast as possible at public locations. Assuming a 33% electrification rate by 2030 and near-complete fleet conversion by 2045, we scaled our results to the German truck fleet. We found that charging as fast as possible leads to additional peak loads up to 6 GW in 2030 and 18 GW in 2045, while the other charging strategies reduce additional peak loads to 3 GW in 2030 and 8 GW in 2045. Therefore, implementing wise charging strategies will reduce future peak load. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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14 pages, 4399 KB  
Article
eMobility for Kids—A New Learning Workshop for 12–15 Year Olds
by Andreas Daberkow and Barbara Wild
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(2), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17020099 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 673
Abstract
Electric mobility plays a key role in promoting climate-friendly transportation. Beyond technical development, the transition to electric mobility critically depends on early understanding, acceptance, and system literacy among future users and engineers. This manuscript positions hands-on engineering education as a complementary contribution to [...] Read more.
Electric mobility plays a key role in promoting climate-friendly transportation. Beyond technical development, the transition to electric mobility critically depends on early understanding, acceptance, and system literacy among future users and engineers. This manuscript positions hands-on engineering education as a complementary contribution to electric vehicle research. It demonstrates how core EV concepts can be introduced to children aged 12–15 through a structured, construction-based learning format. Many school students have had little opportunity to explore energy and electricity through hands-on learning. The eMobility for Kids (eM4K) workshop integrates the assembly and operation of light electric vehicles with curriculum-aligned physics instruction. The instructional focus includes vehicle kinematics as well as fundamental concepts of electricity and energy. Over a two-day course, students build a four-wheeled electric vehicle in small teams and apply their understanding through guided driving and reflection activities. Results from multiple workshop implementations between 2023 and 2025 are presented. In addition, a short exploratory snapshot survey was conducted in parallel among participating school students. The results provide indicative insights into attitudes toward future individual electric mobility, including interest in driving a small electric vehicle at the age of 15. To the authors’ knowledge, this study represents one of the first documented and systematically described educational approaches. It explores the use of real electric vehicle systems in hands-on learning for school students. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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18 pages, 2217 KB  
Article
Techno-Economic Dimensioning of Hybrid Energy Storage Systems for Heavy-Duty FCHEVs Considering Efficiency and Aging
by Jorge Nájera, Jaime R. Arribas, Enrique Alcalá, Eduardo Rausell and Jose María López Martínez
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(2), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17020098 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 505
Abstract
Dimensioning the energy storage systems for a heavy-duty fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle is not straightforward. This study proposes a methodology to address this challenge, aiming to maximize efficiency while mitigating the aging effects on the energy storage systems. Various configurations of storage [...] Read more.
Dimensioning the energy storage systems for a heavy-duty fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle is not straightforward. This study proposes a methodology to address this challenge, aiming to maximize efficiency while mitigating the aging effects on the energy storage systems. Various configurations of storage system ratios have been analyzed using the concept of hybridization percentage, which represents the ratio between the supercapacitor weight and the total weight of the energy storage elements. Simulations were conducted using models developed in AVL Cruise MTM. A case study is included to test the methodology, incorporating commercial components, a standard driving cycle, and a rule-based energy management strategy. The conclusions of this application example illustrate the types of results that can be obtained by using this hybrid energy storage system sizing methodology. Findings for this case study suggest that for cycles lacking extreme power peaks, non-hybridized configurations can be the optimal solution, as the battery size reduction outweighs the benefits of hybridization in terms of efficiency, achieving 76.08% without supercapacitors compared to 65.7% with a high hybridization grade of 32.4%, and overall cost. However, sensitivity analysis reveals that if the optimization weights are adjusted to prioritize aging over efficiency, the optimal configuration shifts to a 6.48% hybridization grade at a 0.3C threshold. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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29 pages, 2492 KB  
Article
Reaching the End of the ICEV Domination: 35 Years of Battery Electric Vehicles in Norway
by Erik Figenbaum
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(2), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17020089 - 9 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1293
Abstract
Norway reached a Battery Electric Vehicle market share of 96% in 2025. The fleet share reached 33%. Other countries are 5–10 years behind Norway. The extraordinary Norwegian development is the result of a 35-year-long complex process involving BEV testing from 1990 and Norwegian [...] Read more.
Norway reached a Battery Electric Vehicle market share of 96% in 2025. The fleet share reached 33%. Other countries are 5–10 years behind Norway. The extraordinary Norwegian development is the result of a 35-year-long complex process involving BEV testing from 1990 and Norwegian BEV industrialization from 1998, supported by a large package of incentives. The incentive package remained in place after the Norwegian actors went bankrupt in 2010 and the global OEMs took over the BEV supply. Norway has a had head start over other countries with high visibility, awareness, and a BEV fleet that accounted for 35% of all BEVs in Europe to build a market from. The incentives made the new OEM BEVs immediately competitive, contrasting with other countries’ insufficient incentives and slow development. A second market expansion followed from 2017 with access to lower-cost and long-range BEVs in more market segments. The EU’s new vehicle CO2-regulation forced OEMs to sell BEVs on a large scale. BEV technology improved rapidly with longer range and faster charging at a reduced cost, making the incentive even more efficient. The model availability increased rapidly from 2020, while ICEV model availability declined rapidly from 2022, enabling Norway to reach the national target of only selling BEVs from 2025. Norway solved the demand-side challenges of BEV adoption through large market pull incentives. The early supply-side challenges were attempted to be solved with Norwegian BEV production targeting a small-city BEV niche. When that failed, a window of opportunity opened to solve the supply-side challenges with the availability of OEM BEVs. The market scope broadened to commuters and multi-vehicle households and eventually to all new vehicle buyers. By 2020, all demand-side and supply-side challenges were solved, and the transition was accelerated by societal processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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21 pages, 2343 KB  
Article
Modeling Street-Level Energy and Emissions: The Role of Vehicle Traffic
by Miguel Campino, Luís Sousa, Patrícia Baptista and Gonçalo O. Duarte
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(2), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17020084 - 8 Feb 2026
Viewed by 905
Abstract
The transportation sector accounts for 25% of CO2 global emissions. Europe aims for carbon neutrality by 2050 through new light-duty vehicle technologies and stricter regulations, though these efforts may be insufficient. This work aims to assess a small neighborhood by analyzing over [...] Read more.
The transportation sector accounts for 25% of CO2 global emissions. Europe aims for carbon neutrality by 2050 through new light-duty vehicle technologies and stricter regulations, though these efforts may be insufficient. This work aims to assess a small neighborhood by analyzing over 19,500 routes to calculate an indicator that identifies streets with the highest impacts to evaluate the individual impacts of various light-duty vehicle technologies and examines how different combinations of technologies, based on traffic distribution, influence overall energy and emissions outcomes. The results highlight how uphill steep roads increase energy use, while downhill sections allow for energy recovery. A Street VSP Impact Factor (SVIF) was developed to identify streets with high energy use and emissions, offering insights into targeted urban planning strategies. The findings suggest that promoting BEV adoption and optimizing street infrastructure are key to reducing energy consumption and emissions in cities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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26 pages, 2774 KB  
Article
Solar Charging—Lessons Learned from Field Observation
by Joseph Bergner, Nico Orth, Lucas Meissner and Volker Quaschning
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(2), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17020069 - 31 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1072
Abstract
Although the combination of solar power and electric vehicles is widely considered beneficial, practical applications reveal substantial variance. To determine the proportion of solar energy used for charging and to identify the main drivers of a high solar share, a dataset containing measured [...] Read more.
Although the combination of solar power and electric vehicles is widely considered beneficial, practical applications reveal substantial variance. To determine the proportion of solar energy used for charging and to identify the main drivers of a high solar share, a dataset containing measured 5 min energy time series of 725 households with PV and EVs was analyzed. In the existing literature, this represents a novelty, as most studies in this field are simulation-based, rely on synthetic profiles, use lower time resolutions, or are based on questionnaires. The share of solar energy used for EV charging is highly dispersed and varies by about ±40% around a median of 60%. The analysis shows that clustering by preferred charging times has strong explanatory potential: at the median, EVs charged predominantly during the daytime achieve a solar share that is more than 40% higher than those charged in the evening. In the latter case, home battery storage increases the solar share by an average of 20 percentage points. A similar magnitude of a 25-percentage-point increase could be reached with solar surplus charging compared to uncontrolled charging. On average, households with PV, battery, and EVs cover more than 56% of their total demand with self-generated solar energy; with solar-adapted charging, median values exceed 77%. If a heat pump is used on site, the self-sufficiency decreases but can still reach median values above 45% and up to 61% for optimized households. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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10 pages, 1824 KB  
Article
The Construction Site of Tomorrow: Results of 3 Years of Field-Testing Electric Excavators
by Willem Christiaens, Harm Weken, René van Gijlswijk and Michiel Zult
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17020062 - 29 Jan 2026
Viewed by 467
Abstract
“The Construction Site of Tomorrow” is a 3-year collaboration of a consortium of seven contractors, two knowledge institutes, and the construction machinery supplier on the deployment of heavy-duty electric excavators. The practical experiences of “The Construction Site of Tomorrow” have resulted in technical [...] Read more.
“The Construction Site of Tomorrow” is a 3-year collaboration of a consortium of seven contractors, two knowledge institutes, and the construction machinery supplier on the deployment of heavy-duty electric excavators. The practical experiences of “The Construction Site of Tomorrow” have resulted in technical improvements of the machines, new insights about energy consumption in different use cases, experience with the deployment of the machines, and practicalities around charging the machines’ batteries in different situations. In this paper, we elaborate on the findings of the project, including the usability of the machines, their energy consumption, and total costs of ownership. This work has been coordinated by FIER Sustainable Mobility. The project was sponsored by the Netherlands Enterprise Agency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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22 pages, 4138 KB  
Article
Mechanics of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Aging and Diagnostics
by Davide Clerici, Francesca Pistorio and Aurelio Somà
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(1), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17010055 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 733
Abstract
This work provides an overview of the mechanics of lithium-ion batteries, both from the aging and diagnostics perspective. Battery diagnostics based on mechanical measurements exploit the strong correlation between electrode lithiation and its deformation, resulting in macroscopic cell deformation. Macroscopic deformation is then [...] Read more.
This work provides an overview of the mechanics of lithium-ion batteries, both from the aging and diagnostics perspective. Battery diagnostics based on mechanical measurements exploit the strong correlation between electrode lithiation and its deformation, resulting in macroscopic cell deformation. Macroscopic deformation is then a proxy for lithium concentration, enabling estimation of state of charge (SOC) and degradation indicators such as loss of active material and lithium inventory. The results demonstrate that SOC estimation algorithms based on deformation measurements are more robust than voltage-based methods, which are sensitive to temperature and aging, requiring constant updates of the algorithm parameters. Moreover, the health of the battery can be assessed through the differential expansion method even under high-current operation, providing results consistent with the traditional differential voltage method but applicable to real-world industrial applications. Mechanics plays a crucial role also in battery degradation. This work presents the application of POLIDEMO, an advanced battery aging model that explicitly accounts for mechanical degradation phenomena, providing a physics-based framework describing the coupled electrochemical–mechanical aging processes in lithium-ion batteries. It enables the prediction of key degradation indicators, including capacity fade—capturing the characteristic knee-point behavior—and the irreversible battery thickness increase associated with long-term aging. The model is validated with multiple aging datasets, demonstrating that parameters calibrated under a single operating condition can accurately predict degradation across diverse aging scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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15 pages, 4731 KB  
Article
AI-Assisted Multi-Physics Evaluation of Mission Profile-Based Traction Inverter Design for Sustainability
by Chi Zhang and Riccardo Negri
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(1), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17010043 - 14 Jan 2026
Viewed by 484
Abstract
As the global transition toward carbon neutrality accelerates, the sustainability of power electronics has received growing attention from both academia and industry. Nevertheless, standardized methodologies for evaluating the sustainability of power electronic systems—particularly traction inverters—remain limited, largely due to the absence of comprehensive [...] Read more.
As the global transition toward carbon neutrality accelerates, the sustainability of power electronics has received growing attention from both academia and industry. Nevertheless, standardized methodologies for evaluating the sustainability of power electronic systems—particularly traction inverters—remain limited, largely due to the absence of comprehensive databases and unified assessment frameworks. Leveraging industrial extensive design experience, this paper presents an enhanced methodology for sustainability evaluation of traction inverters. The proposed framework combines advanced component-level modelling with multi-physics-based analysis to more accurately quantify the environmental impacts associated with different power semiconductor technologies. A Random Forest (RF)-based algorithm is employed for junction temperature (TJ) estimation, offering reliable thermal data crucial for sustainability assessment. Experimental validation on a prototype automotive inverter confirms the accuracy and robustness of the RF-based TJ estimation approach, ensuring realistic thermal–environmental coupling within the evaluation workflow. From a thermal perspective, the sizing of power electronics key components (PEKCs) is performed with high precision, enabling a more accurate estimation of power electronics-related material (PERM) usage. Combined with a preliminary CO2-equivalent (CO2e) emissions database, this allows sustainability assessment to be integrated directly into the design stage of the traction inverter. The effectiveness of the proposed approach is demonstrated through a comparative evaluation of three representative inverter topologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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25 pages, 5133 KB  
Article
Evaluating the Potential of Sodium-Ion Batteries for Low Voltage Mobility
by Alexander Fandakov, Brahim Soltani, Sébastien Sallard, Oliver Nolte, Johannes Werfel, Karsten Mueller and Marc Sens
World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17010005 - 19 Dec 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1345
Abstract
The automotive industry is under pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. While the growth of electric vehicles is crucial, optimizing low-voltage batteries for conventional powertrain architecture (12–48 V) can help reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Currently, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries dominate the low-voltage [...] Read more.
The automotive industry is under pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. While the growth of electric vehicles is crucial, optimizing low-voltage batteries for conventional powertrain architecture (12–48 V) can help reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Currently, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries dominate the low-voltage battery market due to their stability, safety, and ecological benefits as replacement to lead-acid. However, sodium-ion batteries (SIB) are emerging as a promising alternative to LFP, offering advantages in power, lifespan, cold temperature performance, integration, cost, material availability, and sustainability. These advantages of sodium-ion batteries make them a perfect candidate for fulfilling the requirements typically associated with 48 V applications as well. This contribution evaluates low-voltage SIB prototypes developed by the company IAV GmbH and its partners and explores their potential for automotive applications, aiming to share insights and assess future prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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15 pages, 1898 KB  
Article
Design and Cost Evaluation of Additively Manufactured Electric Vehicle Gearbox Housings
by Steffen Jäger and Tilmann Linde
World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(10), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16100552 - 25 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1303
Abstract
Additive manufacturing technologies enable the design of complex lightweight structures for electric powertrain applications. This study evaluates the topology optimization and conceptual additive manufacturing of a real electric vehicle gearbox housing, aiming to reduce weight while maintaining structural stiffness. Based on an existing [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing technologies enable the design of complex lightweight structures for electric powertrain applications. This study evaluates the topology optimization and conceptual additive manufacturing of a real electric vehicle gearbox housing, aiming to reduce weight while maintaining structural stiffness. Based on an existing industrial component, a topology-optimized design featuring an X-shaped rib structure was developed. The manufacturing concept combines Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) with a pre-machined turned part. A comparative material study was carried out using finite element simulations to assess aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and stainless steel in terms of weight, deformation, and natural frequency. The results indicate that aluminum alloys offer the best balance of stiffness and weight due to their high specific modulus and favorable processability. The optimized design achieved a simulated weight reduction of approximately 21% with only a minor increase in rotational deformation. A cost analysis of different manufacturing methods suggests that, while conventional casting remains more economical at higher volumes, additive processes are becoming increasingly viable for small series. The study provides a theoretical foundation for future development of lightweight functionally integrated gearbox housings in electric mobility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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19 pages, 1105 KB  
Article
From Cell to Pack: Empirical Analysis of the Correlations Between Cell Properties and Battery Pack Characteristics of Electric Vehicles
by Jan Koloch, Mats Heienbrok, Maksymilian Kasperek and Markus Lienkamp
World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(9), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16090484 - 25 Aug 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6250
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries are pivotal components in battery electric vehicles, significantly influencing vehicle design and performance. This study investigates the interactions between cell properties and battery pack characteristics through statistical correlation analysis of datasets derived from industry-leading benchmarking platforms. Findings indicate that energy densities [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries are pivotal components in battery electric vehicles, significantly influencing vehicle design and performance. This study investigates the interactions between cell properties and battery pack characteristics through statistical correlation analysis of datasets derived from industry-leading benchmarking platforms. Findings indicate that energy densities are comparable across cell formats at the pack level. While NMC and NCA chemistries outperform LFP in energy density at both cell and pack levels, LFP’s favorable cell-to-pack factors mitigate these differences. Analysis of cell properties suggests that increases in cell-level volumetric and gravimetric energy density result in proportionally smaller gains at the pack level due to the growing proportion of required passive components. The impact of cell chemistry and format on the z-dimension of a battery pack is analyzed in order to identify dependencies and influences between nominal cell properties and the geometry of the battery pack. The analysis suggests no significant influence of the used cell chemistry on the vertical dimension of a battery pack. The consideration of cell formats shows a dependency between the battery pack z-dimension and cell geometry, with prismatic cells reaching the highest pack heights and cylindrical cells being observed in packs of smaller vertical dimensions. The study also investigates the emerging sodium-ion battery technology and assesses pack-level energy densities derived from cell-level properties. The insights of this study contribute to the understanding of cell-to-pack relationships, guiding R&D toward improved energy storage solutions for electric vehicles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS38—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Gothenburg, Sweden))
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