World Electric Vehicle Journal

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18 pages, 3019 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Demonstrating the Lessons Learned for Lightweighting EV Components through a Circular-Economy Approach

by Floris Teunissen and Esther van Bergen

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(9), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15090415 - 11 Sep 2024

Viewed by 892

Abstract

LEVIS is an innovation project funded by the EU Horizon 2020 program. Its main objective is to develop lightweight multi-material solutions based on bio-based materials and carbon fiber thermoplastic composites for electric vehicle components and demonstrating the technical, operational, and economic feasibility of [...] Read more.

LEVIS is an innovation project funded by the EU Horizon 2020 program. Its main objective is to develop lightweight multi-material solutions based on bio-based materials and carbon fiber thermoplastic composites for electric vehicle components and demonstrating the technical, operational, and economic feasibility of applying eco-design and circular-economy principles into the design process. The project demonstrates the application of these materials in four case studies: a suspension control arm, a battery box, a battery module housing, and a cross-car beam. All demonstrators achieved a 20%-to-40% reduction in component weight, but environmental assessment results varied significantly, with emissions changes ranging from an increase for suspension control arms to a 65.5% decrease for battery modules. Efficient use of materials, particularly in the battery box using hybrid solutions and bonding technologies, showed notable emissions reduction. In contrast, replacing steel with CFRPs in suspension control arms led to increased emissions, suggesting that CFRPs are more effective for replacing high-polluting materials like aluminum. Recycled carbon fibers proved more beneficial for low-polluting materials like steel. The environmental performance of technologies depends on the expected use of EVs and the electricity grid mix, with better outcomes in coal-reliant grids. Finally, no single recycling method is universally superior; the optimal method depends on the specific technologies and the energy required for recycled materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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17 pages, 3727 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Techno-Economic Suitability of Batteries for Different Mobile Applications—A Cell Selection Methodology Based on Cost Parity Pricing

by Steffen Link, Maximilian Stephan, Lukas Weymann and Tim Hettesheimer

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(9), 401; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15090401 - 3 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1063

Abstract

Rapid advancements in lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology have paved the way for the electrification of diverse applications, with continuous improvements in performance, substantial cost reductions, and the emergence of new manufacturers, formats, and cell chemistries. However, this diversity poses challenges in identifying the [...] Read more.

Rapid advancements in lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology have paved the way for the electrification of diverse applications, with continuous improvements in performance, substantial cost reductions, and the emergence of new manufacturers, formats, and cell chemistries. However, this diversity poses challenges in identifying the most suitable battery cells for specific applications. Here, we present a high-level techno-economic framework for cell selection, leveraging an extensive database of over 500 real-world cells, techno-economic analyses of emerging applications, and a Python-based modeling approach. We apply this method to three electrifiable mobile applications with distinct characteristics: battery electric cars, industrial forklifts, and regional passenger trains. Our results emphasize substantial variations in technical requirements, from power capability to energy density or longevity. We observe no particular differentiation according to cell formats, but tendencies for most suitable chemistries per application. No cell is suitable for all applications, particularly regarding the required maximum cell costs to ensure profitability, ranging from a few to several hundred Euros per kWh to achieve cost parity with a state-of-the-art reference technology. These findings highlight the importance of tailored cell selection strategies for decision makers to optimize performance and cost-effectiveness across different applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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24 pages, 7565 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation and Testing of Self-Reconfigurable Battery Advanced Functions for Automotive Application

by Rémy Thomas, Nicolas Léto, Jérome Lachaize, Sylvain Bacquet, Yan Lopez and Leandro Cassarino

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(6), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15060250 - 8 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1108

Abstract

This article presents the design and production work carried out jointly by Vitesco Technologies and the CEA in order to build a Self-Reconfigurable Battery (SRB) demonstrator representative of an electric vehicle traction battery pack. The literature demonstrates that the use of an SRB [...] Read more.

This article presents the design and production work carried out jointly by Vitesco Technologies and the CEA in order to build a Self-Reconfigurable Battery (SRB) demonstrator representative of an electric vehicle traction battery pack. The literature demonstrates that the use of an SRB allows for individual bypassing or serialization of each cell in a battery pack, enabling control of the voltage output and dynamic balancing of the battery pack during all phases of vehicle use. The simulations and tests presented in this article confirm that the use of an SRB results in a 6% reduction in energy consumption compared to a Conventional Battery Pack (CBP) on a driving profile based on WLTP cycles. Additionally, an SRB enhances fast charging performance, with a charging time that is 22% faster than a CBP. Furthermore, it is shown that an SRB without a voltage inversion capability can still be connected directly to the AC grid for charging without the need for a dedicated converter, using only a single diode bridge rectifier for the whole system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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16 pages, 2544 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Predictive Cabin Conditioning Strategy for Battery Electric Vehicles

by Patrick Schutzeich, Stefan Pischinger, David Hemkemeyer, Kai Franke and Paul Hamelbeck

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(6), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15060224 - 22 May 2024

Viewed by 1230

Abstract

This paper is based on the work presented at EVS36 in Sacramento. The core of the work deals with the cabin climate control of battery electric vehicles (BEV) using model predictive control (MPC) approaches. These aim to reduce the energy demand for cabin [...] Read more.

This paper is based on the work presented at EVS36 in Sacramento. The core of the work deals with the cabin climate control of battery electric vehicles (BEV) using model predictive control (MPC) approaches. These aim to reduce the energy demand for cabin air conditioning while maintaining comfort and air quality. The first step briefly overviews model predictive control approaches and the respective fundamentals. Afterward, the modeling for the system dynamics is explained. The challenge for the system model considering humid air is discussed, and the first implementation method is presented. With the added equations for the air quality and humidity, a logic to prevent window fogging was developed to improve safety. Ultimately, model-in-the-loop (MiL) investigations identified an energy-saving potential of up to 15.4% for cold and 39.7% for hot conditions compared to a rule-based strategy. In addition, the investigations carried out showed that it was also possible to improve indoor comfort by specifically influencing the air quality and humidity. Together with the safety criteria introduced to prevent window fogging, it was possible to present a strategy that can significantly improve thermal management for the cabin in modern BEVs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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14 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Aggregation and Monetization of Flexible Loads in the Context of EV Fleets

by Kelaja Schert, Florian Biedenbach, Thomas Müller, Michael Kluge and Zoltán Nochta

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(5), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15050216 - 14 May 2024

Viewed by 1051

Abstract

In this paper, we present an approach to the price-optimized charging of electric vehicles (EVs) based on energy flexibility. Fleet operators determine the minimum and the maximum power demand to charge EVs at a specific time and share this information as so-called power [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present an approach to the price-optimized charging of electric vehicles (EVs) based on energy flexibility. Fleet operators determine the minimum and the maximum power demand to charge EVs at a specific time and share this information as so-called power corridors (PCs) with an energy aggregator. The energy aggregator collects the predicted PCs from the fleet operators located in the same market area and aggregates the PCs. The energy provider periodically sends energy prices from the market to the energy aggregator, which purchases energy when its price is opportune. The energy aggregator calculates and delivers charge plans for each fleet operator involved and thus can pass along the purchase prices. The incentive design must ensure that fleet operators are better off by disclosing their flexibility data to the aggregator. This study can contribute to a new data-driven energy market communication system by providing insights on how to leverage the energy flexibility that EVs can offer to the energy system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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15 pages, 2842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Battery Research and Innovation—A Study of Patents and Papers

by Hans Pohl and Måns Marklund

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(5), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15050193 - 29 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1371

Abstract

This study of patent applications and scientific publications related to batteries is unique as it includes the volume of as well as qualitative indicators for both types of publications. Using carefully elaborated strategies to identify publications relating to batteries, this study provides data [...] Read more.

This study of patent applications and scientific publications related to batteries is unique as it includes the volume of as well as qualitative indicators for both types of publications. Using carefully elaborated strategies to identify publications relating to batteries, this study provides data to discuss the critical balance to strike between investments in research and the more innovation-related aspects. The results show that China’s dominance in publication volumes increases and that research with Chinese involvement is highly cited, whereas patent applications are slightly less valued than the world average. Quality-related indicators for Canada and the United States are very high for both scientific publications and patent applications. National differences in the proportions of patent applications and scientific publications are large, with Japan at one end with three patent applications per scientific paper and Canada at the other with almost seven scientific papers per patent application. On an actor level, data for Sweden indicate how the automotive industry started to file many patent applications in the decade starting in 2010. Finally, it is noted that this new approach to study a technological field appears promising as it gives new perspectives of relevance for policy actors and others. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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14 pages, 2673 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Analysis of Vehicle-to-Grid in Sweden Using MATLAB/Simulink

by Jennifer Leijon, Jéssica Santos Döhler, Johannes Hjalmarsson, Daniel Brandell, Valeria Castellucci and Cecilia Boström

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(4), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15040153 - 8 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1778

Abstract

With more electric vehicles introduced in society, there is a need for the further implementation of charging infrastructure. Innovation in electromobility may result in new charging and discharging strategies, including concepts such as smart charging and vehicle-to-grid. This article provides an overview of [...] Read more.

With more electric vehicles introduced in society, there is a need for the further implementation of charging infrastructure. Innovation in electromobility may result in new charging and discharging strategies, including concepts such as smart charging and vehicle-to-grid. This article provides an overview of vehicle charging and discharging innovations with a cable connection. A MATLAB/Simulink model is developed to show the difference between an electric vehicle with and without the vehicle-to-grid capabilities for electricity grid prices estimated for Sweden for three different electric vehicle user profiles and four different electric vehicle models. The result includes the state-of-charge values and price estimations for the different vehicles charged with or without a bidirectional power flow to and from the electric grid. The results show that there is a greater difference in state-of-charge values over the day investigated for the electric vehicles with vehicle-to-grid capabilities than for vehicles without vehicle-to-grid capabilities. The results indicate potential economic revenues from using vehicle-to-grid if there is a significant variation in electricity prices during different hours. Therefore, the vehicle owner can potentially receive money from selling electricity to the grid while also supporting the electric grid. The study provides insights into utilizing vehicle-to-grid in society and taking steps towards its implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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18 pages, 4532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Sizing of a Battery-Supported Electric Vehicle Charging Hub with a Limited-Capacity Grid Connection

by Edward Heath, Rick Wolbertus and Renée Heller

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15040133 - 27 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1593

Abstract

The ever-increasing electrification of society has been a cause of utility grid issues in many regions around the world. With the increased adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in the Netherlands, many new charge points (CPs) are required. A common installation practice of CPs [...] Read more.

The ever-increasing electrification of society has been a cause of utility grid issues in many regions around the world. With the increased adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in the Netherlands, many new charge points (CPs) are required. A common installation practice of CPs is to group multiple CPs together on a single grid connection, the so-called charging hub. To further ensure EVs are adequately charged, various control strategies can be employed, or a stationary battery can be connected to this network. A pilot project in Amsterdam was used as a case study to validate the Python model developed in this study using the measured data. This paper presents an optimisation of the battery energy storage capacity and the grid connection capacity for such a P&R-based charging hub with various load profiles and various battery system costs. A variety of battery control strategies were simulated using both the optimal system sizing and the case study sizing. A recommendation for a control strategy is proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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13 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Economic and Environmental Assessment of Technologies Optimizing the Execution of Long Trips for Electric Vehicles

by Léa D’amore, Daniele Costa and Maarten Messagie

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15040128 - 22 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1614

Abstract

Further advances in hardware and software features are needed to optimize battery and thermal management systems to allow for the execution of longer trips in electric vehicles. This paper assesses the economic and environmental impacts of the following features: eco-charging, eco-driving, smart fast [...] Read more.

Further advances in hardware and software features are needed to optimize battery and thermal management systems to allow for the execution of longer trips in electric vehicles. This paper assesses the economic and environmental impacts of the following features: eco-charging, eco-driving, smart fast charging, predictive thermal powertrain and cabin conditioning, and an advanced heat pump system. A Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and externalities calculation is carried out on two passenger cars and one light commercial vehicle (LCV). The energy consumption data from the vehicles are based on experiments. The analysis shows more benefits for the LCV, while the smart fast-charging feature on the car shows a slight increase in TCO. However, negative results did not contribute significantly compared to the ability to install a smaller battery capacity for similar use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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21 pages, 4453 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Digitalized Methodology for Co-Design Structural and Performance Optimization of Battery Modules

by Theodoros Kalogiannis, Md Sazzad Hosen, Joeri Van Mierlo, Peter Van Den Bossche and Maitane Berecibar

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(3), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15030115 - 16 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1401

Abstract

In this study, we present an innovative, fully automated, and digitalized methodology to optimize the energy efficiency and cost effectiveness of Li-ion battery modules. Advancing on from today’s optimization schemes that rely on user experience and other limitations, the mechanical and thermal designs [...] Read more.

In this study, we present an innovative, fully automated, and digitalized methodology to optimize the energy efficiency and cost effectiveness of Li-ion battery modules. Advancing on from today’s optimization schemes that rely on user experience and other limitations, the mechanical and thermal designs are optimized simultaneously in this study by coupling 3D multi-physical behavior models to multi-objective heuristic optimization algorithms. Heat generation at various loading and ambient conditions are estimated with a physics-based, fractional-order battery cell-level model, which is extrapolated to a module that further accounts for the interconnected cells’ heat transfer phenomena. Several key performance indicators such as the surface temperature increase, the temperature variations on the cells, and heat uniformity within the module are recorded. For the air-cooled study case, the proposed coupled framework performs more than 250 module evaluations in a relatively short time for the whole available electro-thermal-mechanical design space, thereby ensuring global optimal results in the final design. The optimal module design proposed by this method is built in this work, and it is experimentally evaluated with a module composed of 12 series-connected Li-ion NMC/C 43Ah prismatic battery cells. The performance is validated at various conditions, which is achieved by accounting the thermal efficiency and pressure drop with regard to power consumption improvements. The validations presented in this study verify the applicability and overall efficiency of the proposed methodology, as well as paves the way toward better energy and cost-efficient battery systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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17 pages, 8007 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Simulation-Based Assessment of Energy Consumption of Alternative Powertrains in Agricultural Tractors

by Antti Lajunen, Klaus Kivekäs, Vincent Freyermuth, Ram Vijayagopal and Namdoo Kim

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(3), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15030086 - 27 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2411

Abstract

The objectives of this research were to develop simulation models for agricultural tractors with different powertrain technologies and evaluate the energy consumption in typical agricultural operations. Simulation models were developed for conventional, parallel hybrid electric, series hybrid electric, fuel cell hybrid, and battery [...] Read more.

The objectives of this research were to develop simulation models for agricultural tractors with different powertrain technologies and evaluate the energy consumption in typical agricultural operations. Simulation models were developed for conventional, parallel hybrid electric, series hybrid electric, fuel cell hybrid, and battery electric powertrains. Autonomie vehicle simulation software (version 2022) was used for the simulations and the tractor models were simulated in two tilling cycles and in a road transport cycle with a trailer. The alternative powertrains were configured to have at least the same tractive performance as the conventional, diesel engine-powered tractor model. The simulation results showed that the potential of the parallel and series hybrid powertrains to improve energy efficiency depends heavily on the tractor size and the operating cycle conditions. The fuel cell hybrid and battery electric powertrains have a higher potential to reduce energy consumption and emissions but still have inherent technical challenges for practical operation. The battery-powered electric tractor would require improvements in the storage energy density to have a comparable operational performance in comparison to other powertrains. The fuel cell hybrid tractor already provided an adequate operating performance but the availability of hydrogen and refueling infrastructure could be challenging to resolve in the farming context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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16 pages, 1746 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Use Optimization of a Depot for Battery-Electric Heavy-Duty Trucks

by Florian Biedenbach and Kai Strunz

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(3), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15030084 - 26 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1867

Abstract

Battery-electric trucks offer a high battery capacity and good predictability, making them attractive for the implementation of bidirectional charging strategies. Nevertheless, most of the previous charging strategy studies focus on electric passenger cars. These charging strategies are usually formulated as separate use cases [...] Read more.

Battery-electric trucks offer a high battery capacity and good predictability, making them attractive for the implementation of bidirectional charging strategies. Nevertheless, most of the previous charging strategy studies focus on electric passenger cars. These charging strategies are usually formulated as separate use cases like tariff-optimized charging, arbitrage trading, peak shaving, and self-consumption optimization. By combining different use cases, their economic potential can be increased. In this paper, we introduce a model to optimize charging processes in depots for electric vehicles considering the combination of different use cases. This model is applied to a depot for battery-electric trucks. The savings obtained through optimized bidirectional charging highlight the enormous potential of this technology for the future, especially in the heavy-duty sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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19 pages, 2794 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

BANULA—A Novel DLT-Based Approach for EV Charging with High Level of User Comfort and Role-Specific Data Transparency for All Parties Involved

by Daniel Stetter, Tobias Höpfer, Marc Schmid, Ines Sturz, Simon Falkenberger and Nadja Knoll

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(3), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15030079 - 21 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1563

Abstract

The core goal of the BANULA research project is to combine customer-oriented and grid-compatible charging of electric vehicles. It addresses the current challenges of the e-mobility ecosystem from the perspective of grid operators and charging infrastructure users and creates added value for every [...] Read more.

The core goal of the BANULA research project is to combine customer-oriented and grid-compatible charging of electric vehicles. It addresses the current challenges of the e-mobility ecosystem from the perspective of grid operators and charging infrastructure users and creates added value for every mass market role involved. In the project, the idea of a virtual balancing group based on blockchain technology is implemented. Thereby, it enables extended data acquisition, a real-time data exchange between grid and market participants, proper balancing and grid node-specific load flow determination and, thus, load management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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16 pages, 8889 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Reducing the Environmental Impact of Large Battery Systems with Conductive Electric Road Systems—A Technical Overview

by David Wenander and Mats Alaküla

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15020059 - 8 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2015

Abstract

A radical transformation of the transport industry is required in order to achieve a fossil-fuel-free vehicle fleet and reach the greenhouse gas emissions goals. Electrification plays a crucial role in this radical process. An electric road system (ERS) is a road that supplies [...] Read more.

A radical transformation of the transport industry is required in order to achieve a fossil-fuel-free vehicle fleet and reach the greenhouse gas emissions goals. Electrification plays a crucial role in this radical process. An electric road system (ERS) is a road that supplies power to electric vehicles as they drive on it, offering numerous advantages. These include an extended driving range, decreased reliance on batteries, and increased flexibility and convenience for drivers, eliminating the need to stop for recharging. This paper highlights the transformative potential of ERS in revolutionizing the land transport sector. Through thorough testing with a conductive ERS demonstrator, the viability of the presented technology is validated. Essential aspects like power transfer, efficiency, safety, and environmental impact showcase ERS’s adaptability and scalability across diverse vehicle types. This study recommends widespread ERS support for battery electric vehicles, emphasizing the route toward a sustainable future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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13 pages, 1225 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Optimization of H₂ Supply to the Refuelling Infrastructure for Long-Haul Trucks: Centralized versus Local H₂ Production, and Using Transportation by Tanker Truck or Pipeline

by Nafisa Mahbub and Hajo Ribberink

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15020057 - 8 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1613

Abstract

In a simulation study, it was investigated how the costs of supplying H2 for the refuelling of long-haul trucks along highways in Canada can be minimized by optimizing the design of the refuelling infrastructure. Scenarios using local or centralized blue H2 production were [...] Read more.

In a simulation study, it was investigated how the costs of supplying H2 for the refuelling of long-haul trucks along highways in Canada can be minimized by optimizing the design of the refuelling infrastructure. Scenarios using local or centralized blue H2 production were evaluated using two different modes of H2 transportation (liquid H2 tanker trucks and pipelines). For each scenario, the average H2 supply costs were determined considering H2 production costs from facilities of different sizes and transportation costs for H2 that was not produced locally. Average H2 supply costs were 2.83 CAD/kg H2 for the scenario with local H2 production at each refuelling site, 3.22–3.27 CAD/kg H2 for scenarios using centralized H2 production and tanker truck transportation, and 2.92–2.96 CAD/kg H2 for centralized H2 production scenarios with pipeline transportation. Optimized scenarios using the cheaper transportation option (tanker truck or pipeline) for each highway segment had average H2 supply costs (2.82–2.88 CAD/kg H2) similar to those of using only local H2 production, with slightly lower costs for the scenario using the largest H2 production volumes. Follow-on research is recommended to include the impact of CO2 transportation (from blue H2 production) on the design of an optimum supply infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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9 pages, 1312 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommunication

Flexibility Potential of Smart Charging Electric Trucks and Buses

by Christian Will and Fabian Ocker

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15020056 - 7 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2536

Abstract

In addition to passenger vehicles, battery-electric trucks and buses could offer substantial flexibility to the energy system. Using a Bass diffusion model, we extrapolated the unidirectional charging needs and availability of trucks in five of eleven typical applications, as well as city buses, [...] Read more.

In addition to passenger vehicles, battery-electric trucks and buses could offer substantial flexibility to the energy system. Using a Bass diffusion model, we extrapolated the unidirectional charging needs and availability of trucks in five of eleven typical applications, as well as city buses, for Germany until 2040. Combined, these heavy-duty vehicles could provide up to 23 GW of down-regulating flexibility potential (i.e., in case of excess power supply) in 2040. The resulting revenues could contribute to reducing electricity costs for depot operators. These results illustrate the need to provide easy and automated market access to heavy-duty vehicle fleets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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14 pages, 3941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Series-Hybrid Powertrains: Advancing Mobility Control in Electric Tracked Vehicle Technology

by Dersu Çeliksöz and Varlık Kılıç

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15020047 - 2 Feb 2024

Viewed by 2701

Abstract

This work focuses on developing a mobility control system for high-speed series-hybrid electric tracked vehicles, which operate with independent traction motors for each track. The scope of this research includes modeling a series-hybrid powertrain specific to military tracked vehicles and conducting an in-depth [...] Read more.

This work focuses on developing a mobility control system for high-speed series-hybrid electric tracked vehicles, which operate with independent traction motors for each track. The scope of this research includes modeling a series-hybrid powertrain specific to military tracked vehicles and conducting an in-depth analysis of its dynamic behavior. Subsequently, this study conducts a critical review of mobility control approaches sourced from the literature, identifying key techniques relevant to high-inertia vehicular applications. Building on foundational models, this study proposes a robust closed-loop mobility control system aimed at ensuring precise and stable off-road vehicle operations. The system’s resilience and adaptability to a variety of driving conditions are emphasized, with a particular focus on handling maneuvers such as steering and pivoting, which are challenging operations for tracked vehicle agility. The performance of the proposed mobility control system is tested through a series of simulations, covering a spectrum of operational scenarios. These tests are conducted in both offline simulation settings, which permit meticulous fine-tuning of system parameters, and real-time environments that replicate actual field conditions. The simulation results demonstrate the system’s capacity to improve the vehicular response and highlight its potential impact on future designs of mobility control systems for the heavy-duty vehicle sector, particularly in defense applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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56 pages, 11721 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Empirical Study of the Policy Processes behind Norway’s BEV-Olution

by Erik Figenbaum

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15020037 - 24 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2078

Abstract

Norway’s large battery electric vehicle (BEV) market and fleet are not the result of a comprehensive policy plan. Using the multiple streams (MS) framework and document analysis, it was identified that the most important Norwegian BEV policy decisions were made using inadequate policy [...] Read more.

Norway’s large battery electric vehicle (BEV) market and fleet are not the result of a comprehensive policy plan. Using the multiple streams (MS) framework and document analysis, it was identified that the most important Norwegian BEV policy decisions were made using inadequate policy processes that fall outside of traditional politics. This is contrary to the MS framework postulate that three independent streams of problems, policy solutions, and politics must align to pave the way for new policies. Politicians had limited information about the effects of policies they introduced in this “learning by doing process”. Impact assessments were rarely made. The decision rationale was often not documented. The future market expectation and thus the national budget consequences were low when important policy decisions were made, whereas the political gain was high. The processes were more aligned with traditional politics after 2014. The ambitious ZE vehicle targets for 2025 and the climate policy targets for 2030 locked in incentives, despite rising tax losses. In sum, these developments created the world’s largest per-capita BEV market. To avoid negative issues and keep the BEV policies’ potential to support the BEV transition, politicians should ensure that sufficient knowledge is available when making decisions about future policies. Such decisions should be taken transparently within traditional politics, be properly assessed as with EU policy processes, and regularly reviewed as with the California ZEV mandate process. The required knowledge should be developed in open-access research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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7 pages, 2615 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommunication

Subcooled Liquid Hydrogen Technology for Heavy-Duty Trucks

by Enrico Pizzutilo, Thomas Acher, Benjamin Reuter, Christian Will and Simon Schäfer

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15010022 - 8 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5028

Abstract

Subcooled liquid hydrogen (sLH2) is an onboard storage, as well as a hydrogen refueling technology that is currently being developed by Daimler Truck and Linde to boost the mileage of heavy-duty trucks, while also improving performance and reducing the complexity of hydrogen refueling [...] Read more.

Subcooled liquid hydrogen (sLH2) is an onboard storage, as well as a hydrogen refueling technology that is currently being developed by Daimler Truck and Linde to boost the mileage of heavy-duty trucks, while also improving performance and reducing the complexity of hydrogen refueling stations. In this article, the key technical aspects, advantages, challenges and future developments of sLH2 at vehicle and infrastructure levels will be explored and highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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15 pages, 5550 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Speed Change Pattern Optimization for Improving the Electricity Consumption of an Electric Bus and Its Verification Using an Actual Vehicle

by Yiyuan Fang, Wei-hsiang Yang, Yushi Kamiya, Takehito Imai, Shigeru Ueki and Masayuki Kobayashi

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15010016 - 4 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1951

Abstract

In this study, we focused on the eco-driving of electric vehicles (EVs). The target vehicle is an electric bus developed by our research team. Using the parameters of the bus and speed pattern optimization algorithm, we derived the EV’s eco-driving speed pattern. Compared [...] Read more.

In this study, we focused on the eco-driving of electric vehicles (EVs). The target vehicle is an electric bus developed by our research team. Using the parameters of the bus and speed pattern optimization algorithm, we derived the EV’s eco-driving speed pattern. Compared to the eco-driving of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICVs), we found several different characteristics. We verified these characteristics with actual vehicle driving test data of the target bus, and the results confirmed its rationality. The EV’s eco-driving method can improve electricity consumption by about 10–20% under the same average speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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13 pages, 6044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Approach for a Predictive Online ECMS Applied in Electrified Vehicles Using Real Driving Data

by Felix Deufel, Malte Freund and Frank Gauterin

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120353 - 18 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1699

Abstract

To increase the efficiency of electrified vehicles, many energy management strategies (driving strategies) have been proposed. These include both offline optimization techniques to identify a system’s theoretical optimum and online optimization techniques created for onboard use in the vehicle. In the field of [...] Read more.

To increase the efficiency of electrified vehicles, many energy management strategies (driving strategies) have been proposed. These include both offline optimization techniques to identify a system’s theoretical optimum and online optimization techniques created for onboard use in the vehicle. In the field of online optimization, predictive approaches can achieve additional savings. However, predictions are challenging, and robust usability in all driving situations of the vehicle is not guaranteed. In this study, a new approach for a predictive energy management strategy is presented. It is demonstrated how this so-called predictive Online Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) can achieve additional fuel savings compared to a non-predictive Online ECMS by predicting recuperation events using map data. As long as the route is known, map data are available, and the current position of the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is given, the predictive Online ECMS can be applied. If these requirements are not met, the non-predictive basic implementation can still be used to ensure robust functionality. The methodology is investigated using a backward simulation model of a D-segment vehicle powered by a 48 V hybrid electric system in a P2 topology. A dataset including real driving cycles including map data from Open Street Map (OSM) is used. However, the investigations are limited to the consideration of traffic signal (TS) positions on the upcoming route. Simulation results focus on the interaction between the energy management strategy (EMS) and usable battery energy. More than 1 % average saving potentials compared to a non-predictive implementation are shown. The highest saving potentials are found with a usable battery energy of 100 Wh. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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17 pages, 3206 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Investigating Investment Plans for Expanding Battery and Electric Vehicle Production in Europe

by Hong Yang and Lewis Fulton

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120347 - 14 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4678

Abstract

There has been significant EV sales growth in Europe, benefiting from its policies for promoting electric vehicles (EVs) and investments in manufacturing. This study investigates the investment announcements for EV and battery production announced by manufacturers and compares them to four scenarios with [...] Read more.

There has been significant EV sales growth in Europe, benefiting from its policies for promoting electric vehicles (EVs) and investments in manufacturing. This study investigates the investment announcements for EV and battery production announced by manufacturers and compares them to four scenarios with different EV penetration levels in Europe. This study projects the required capacities and estimates the investment needs to meet different EV sale targets in each scenario. The investigations show that, for Europe to achieve 60% new EV sales by 2030 and to be on track for 100% by 2035, its 4.8 million planned production capacity of EVs would fall short of the needed 9.2 million in 2030. The gap could close to 2.0 million when tentative announcements are counted. The results for batteries indicate that tentative plans are adequate and firm plans can satisfy most scenarios by 2030. More investments into EV production, along with policy support and incentives, are needed for more rapid scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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13 pages, 1362 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Incremental Profitability Evaluation of Vehicle-to-Grid-Enabled Automated Frequency Restoration Reserve Services for Semi-Public Charging Infrastructure: A Case Study in Belgium

by Andrei Goncearuc, Nikolaos Sapountzoglou, Cedric De Cauwer, Thierry Coosemans, Maarten Messagie and Thomas Crispeels

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120339 - 6 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3300

Abstract

The current paper defines a framework for the introduction of automated frequency restoration reserve services, enabled by vehicle-to-grid technology, into the business model of an entity owning and operating a network of semi-public Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment. It assesses the profitability of this [...] Read more.

The current paper defines a framework for the introduction of automated frequency restoration reserve services, enabled by vehicle-to-grid technology, into the business model of an entity owning and operating a network of semi-public Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment. It assesses the profitability of this introduction by performing a case study based on the real-life electric vehicle charging data from the EVSE network located in a hospital parking lot. From the results of the study, it is clearly visible that the introduction of vehicle-to-grid-enabled automated frequency restoration reserve services has a significant positive incremental profitability; however, this is heavily dependent on the plug-in ratio of the charging network, determined by electric vehicle users’ behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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17 pages, 5020 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A System for the Efficient Charging of EV Fleets

by Tobias Fleck, Sascha Gohlke and Zoltan Nochta

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120335 - 2 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2535

Abstract

Smart charging is a means of monitoring and actively controlling EV chargers to optimize the distribution and consumption of energy with a focus on peak-load avoidance. This paper describes the most important requirements that have influenced the design and implementation of the “Smart [...] Read more.

Smart charging is a means of monitoring and actively controlling EV chargers to optimize the distribution and consumption of energy with a focus on peak-load avoidance. This paper describes the most important requirements that have influenced the design and implementation of the “Smart Charging System” (SCS). It presents the architecture and main functional building blocks of the SCS, which have been realized in an iterative development process as an extension component of the already existing open-source solution “Open e-Mobility”. We also provide details on the functionality of the core smart charging algorithm within SCS and show how various data sources can be utilized by the system to increase the safety and efficiency of EV charging processes. Furthermore, we describe our iterative approach to developing the system, introduce the real-world testbed at SAP Labs France in Mougins/France, and share evaluation results and experiences gathered over a three-year period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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17 pages, 4441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Cost Analysis and Operational Range Prediction Based on Medium- and Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicle Real-World Deployments across the United States

by Yin Qiu, Cristina Dobbelaere and Shuhan Song

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120330 - 30 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3157

Abstract

While the market for medium- and heavy-duty battery-electric vehicles (MHD EVs) is still nascent, a growing number of these vehicles are being deployed across the U.S. This study used over 2.3 million miles of operational data from multiple types of MHD EVs across [...] Read more.

While the market for medium- and heavy-duty battery-electric vehicles (MHD EVs) is still nascent, a growing number of these vehicles are being deployed across the U.S. This study used over 2.3 million miles of operational data from multiple types of MHD EVs across various regions and operating conditions to address knowledge gaps in total cost of ownership and operational range. First, real-world energy cost savings were determined: MHD fleets should experience energy cost savings each year from 2021 to 2035, regardless of vehicle platform, with the greatest savings seen in transit buses (up to USD 4459 annually) and HD trucks (up to USD 3284 annually). Second, to help fleets across various geographies throughout the U.S. assess the suitability of EVs for their year-round operating needs, operational range was modeled using the XGBoost algorithm (R²: 70%) given 22 input features relevant to vehicle efficiency. Finally, this paper recommends (1) that MHD fleets apply energy-saving practices to minimize the impacts of cold temperatures and high congestion levels on vehicle efficiency and range, and (2) that local hauling fleets select trucks with a nominal range nearly double the expected maximum daily range to account for range losses under local, urban driving conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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15 pages, 3770 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of V2G Flexibility on Congestion Management in the German Transmission Grid

by Manuel Ruppert, Nora Baumgartner, Alexandra Märtz and Tim Signer

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120328 - 29 Nov 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1968

Abstract

In this study, we investigate the effect of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) flexibility potential on solving transmission grid congestion in Germany using congestion management measures. We extend existing work on effects of V2G on transmission grid congestion by determining the flexibility provided for improving grid [...] Read more.

In this study, we investigate the effect of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) flexibility potential on solving transmission grid congestion in Germany using congestion management measures. We extend existing work on effects of V2G on transmission grid congestion by determining the flexibility provided for improving grid operation based on mobility behavior and findings on V2G user requirements from real-world electric vehicle users. Furthermore, the impact on transmission grid operation is analyzed using an optimal congestion management model with high temporal and spatial resolution. Using a scenario for the year 2030 with ambitious targets for European renewable generation development and electrification of private vehicles, our findings show that by enabling the available fleet of V2G vehicles to participate in congestion management, cost and amount can be reduced by up to 11%. However, the required capacity is shown to be lower than installed capacities in ambitious future scenarios, implying that a limited number of vehicles close to congestion centers will be utilized for transmission grid operation. Our results further suggest that high numbers of vehicles with low availability of V2G for grid operation purposes can lead to an increase in congestion management measures, while V2G proves beneficial for congestion management emissions and cost in all scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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9 pages, 257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acceptance of E-Motorcycles: A Longitudinal Survey at Loewensteiner Platte, South Germany

by Daniela Ludin, Norbert Schreier, Erika Mueller, Wanja Wellbrock, Patrick Melber and Jonas Sollner

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(12), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14120326 - 28 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1800

Abstract

The acceptance of e-motorcycles among German motorcyclists is the focus of this quantitative longitudinal study. By comparing survey results from 2017 and 2022, questions about changes in perception of e-motorcycles over time as well as possible stimulating factors are analyzed. The research design [...] Read more.

The acceptance of e-motorcycles among German motorcyclists is the focus of this quantitative longitudinal study. By comparing survey results from 2017 and 2022, questions about changes in perception of e-motorcycles over time as well as possible stimulating factors are analyzed. The research design is built upon literature research, a secondary literature analysis, and a survey of motorcyclists. Statistical procedures are used for data analysis and interpretation. The literature analysis enables the present study to be integrated into the current state of research. The findings show that the willingness to consider an e-motorcycle as the next purchase was low in 2017 and dropped from 20% to 5% in 2022, which contrasts with the rising sales figures of e-motorcycles in the German market. Based on these findings, conclusions are drawn about the market potential of e-motorcycles in Germany and an overview of the general assessments and concerns of motorcyclists is provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

12 pages, 3463 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Modular and Scalable Powertrain for Multipurpose Light Electric Vehicles

by Mehrnaz Farzam Far, Damijan Miljavec, Roman Manko, Jenni Pippuri-Mäkeläinen, Mikaela Ranta, Janne Keränen, Jutta Kinder and Mario Vukotić

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110309 - 11 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2750

Abstract

Light electric vehicles are best suited for city and suburban settings, where top speed and long-distance travel are not the primary concerns. The literature concerning light electric vehicle powertrain design often overlooks the influence of the associated driving missions. Typically, the powertrain is [...] Read more.

Light electric vehicles are best suited for city and suburban settings, where top speed and long-distance travel are not the primary concerns. The literature concerning light electric vehicle powertrain design often overlooks the influence of the associated driving missions. Typically, the powertrain is initially parameterized, established, and then evaluated with an ex-post-performance assessment using driving cycles. Nevertheless, to optimize the size and performance of a vehicle according to its intended mission, it is essential to consider the driving cycles right from the outset, in the powertrain design. This paper presents the design of an electric powertrain for multipurpose light electric vehicles, focusing on the motor, battery, and charging requirements. The powertrain design optimization is realized from the first stages by considering the vehicle’s driving missions and operational patterns for multipurpose usage (transporting people or goods) in European urban environments. The proposed powertrain is modular and scalable in terms of the energy capacity of the battery as well as in the electric motor shaft power and torque. Having such a possibility gives one the flexibility to use the powertrain in different combinations for different vehicle categories, from L7 quadricycles to light M1 vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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14 pages, 2135 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Utility Factor Curves for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Beyond the Standard Assumptions

by Karim Hamza and Kenneth P. Laberteaux

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(11), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14110301 - 31 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4350

Abstract

The utility factor (UF) of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) refers to the ratio of miles traveled in electric mode to the total miles traveled. Standard UF curves provide a prediction of the expected achievable UF by a PHEV given its all-electric [...] Read more.

The utility factor (UF) of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) refers to the ratio of miles traveled in electric mode to the total miles traveled. Standard UF curves provide a prediction of the expected achievable UF by a PHEV given its all-electric range (AER), but such predictions entail assumptions about both the driving patterns (distance traveled and energy intensity) and charging behavior. Studies have attempted to compare the real-world UF achieved by PHEVs to their standard values, but deviations can stem from deviations in assumptions about: (i) achievable electric range, (ii) travel distance and (iii) charging frequency. In this paper, we derive analytical models for modified utility factor curves as a function of both AER and charging behavior. We show that average charging frequency is insufficient to exactly predict UF but can still estimate bounds. Our generalized model can also provide insights into the efficacy of PHEVs in reducing carbon emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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11 pages, 3145 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Zero-Emission Truck Powertrains for Regional and Long-Haul Missions

by Mikko Pihlatie, Mikaela Ranta, Pekka Rahkola and Rafael Åman

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14(9), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14090253 - 8 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2801

Abstract

Zero-emission trucks for regional and long-haul missions are an option for fossil-free freight. The viability of such powertrains and system solutions was studied conceptually in project ESCALATE for trucks with GVW of 40 tonnes and beyond through various battery electric and fuel cell [...] Read more.

Zero-emission trucks for regional and long-haul missions are an option for fossil-free freight. The viability of such powertrains and system solutions was studied conceptually in project ESCALATE for trucks with GVW of 40 tonnes and beyond through various battery electric and fuel cell prime mover combinations. The study covers battery and fuel cell power sources with different degrees of battery electric as well as H₂ and fuel cell operation. As a design basis, two different missions with a single-charge/H₂ refill were analysed. The first mission was the VECTO long-haul profile repeated up to 750 km, whereas the second was a real 520 km on-road mission in Finland. Based on the simulated energy consumption on the driving cycle, on-board energy demand was estimated, and the initial single-charge and H₂ refill operational scenarios were produced with five different power source topologies and on-board storage capacities. The traction motors of the tractor were dimensioned so that a secondary mission of GVW up to 76 tonnes on a shorter route or a longer route with more frequent battery recharge and/or H₂ refill can be operated. Based on the powertrain and vehicle model, various infrastructure options for charging and H₂ refuelling strategies as well as various operative scenarios with indicative total cost of ownership (TCO) were analysed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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Review

Jump to: Research

12 pages, 2373 KiB

Open AccessReview

OCPP Interoperability: A Unified Future of Charging

by Silke R. Kirchner

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15(5), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15050191 - 29 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3226

Abstract

Electric vehicle (EV) adoption grows steadily on a global scale, yet there is no consistent experience for EV drivers to charge their vehicles, which hinders the important EV mass market adoption. The Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) is the solution to this challenge, [...] Read more.

Electric vehicle (EV) adoption grows steadily on a global scale, yet there is no consistent experience for EV drivers to charge their vehicles, which hinders the important EV mass market adoption. The Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) is the solution to this challenge, as it provides standardization and open communication between EV infrastructure components. The interplay of the OCPP with open cross-functional communication standards boosters driver experience on the one hand, while the charging station itself is integrated into a renewable energy ecosystem. This paper presents a deep dive into the combination of the OCPP with the OpenADR protocol, the Open Smart Charging Protocol (OSCP), the ISO 15118, and eRoaming protocols to explore possibilities and limitations. Furthermore, we suggest LoRa communication as an alternative to IP-based communication for deep-in building applications. Hence, this paper reveals the next important steps towards a successful EV mass market transition powered by user-friendliness and green energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS36—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (California, USA))

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