Polymers

21 pages, 2076 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effects of Devulcanized Rubber, Polyethylene, and Fumed Silica on the Rheological and Structural Stability of Bitumen

by Akkenzhe Bussurmanova, Anar Akkenzheyeva, Viktors Haritonovs, Remo Merijs-Meri, Janis Zicans, Uzilkhan Yensegenova, Yerzhan Imanbayev, Yerbolat Ayapbergenov, Maira Turkmenbayeva, Murshida Aimova, Assiya Boranbayeva, Martynas Jankauskas and Romans Kornisovs

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020208 (registering DOI) - 12 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study examines the influence of virgin polyethylene (vPE), recycled polyethylene (rPE), and Aerosil (A) on the performance of bitumen binders modified with partially devulcanized rubber (DVR). The experimental program included morphology analysis, determination of devulcanization degree, dynamic viscosity measurements, shear stress–shear rate [...] Read more.

This study examines the influence of virgin polyethylene (vPE), recycled polyethylene (rPE), and Aerosil (A) on the performance of bitumen binders modified with partially devulcanized rubber (DVR). The experimental program included morphology analysis, determination of devulcanization degree, dynamic viscosity measurements, shear stress–shear rate analysis, load–displacement (F–Δl) testing, storage-stability evaluation, ring and ball softening point (R&B), penetration (P), and elastic recovery (ER) testing. The results show that DVR-rPE-modified bitumen binders exhibit 20–35% higher viscosity and up to 25% greater elongation at the break compared to DVR-vPE-modified bitumen systems, indicating more effective interaction with the bitumen matrix. The incorporation of Aerosil increased viscosity ca. 1.5–2 times for DVR-rPE and DVR-vPE-modified systems, respectively. Meanwhile, top and bottom differences in R&B decreased by a factor of 1.6–5 for DVR-rPE and DVR-vPE-containing composites, respectively, demonstrating significant enhancement in structural stability during storage. Mechanical testing further revealed that DVR-rPE + A binders absorbed 10–20% more deformation energy and consistently maintained ER values above 70–80%, corresponding to a higher elastic recovery grade at 25 °C. Overall, the DVR-rPE + A system provided the most balanced improvements in rheological, mechanical, and thermal properties, confirming its potential for use in high-performance, thermally stable, and environmentally sustainable bituminous materials for pavement applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymer Composites: Synthesis and Application)

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17 pages, 3575 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tailoring Properties Through Functionalized Alicyclic Diamine Towards Solution-Processable High-Performance Polyimide Films

by Lei Xiong, Feiyan Ding, Liangrong Li, Xinhai Wei, Jiayao Xu, Guanfa Xiao, Zhenyu Yang and Feng Liu

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020207 - 12 Jan 2026

Abstract

A novel fluorinated diamine monomer, 4,4′-((bicyclo[2.2.1]hept- 5-ene-2,3-diylbis (methylene)) bis(oxy))bis(3- (trifluoromethyl) aniline) (NFDA), featuring a tailored alicyclic norbornane core, flexible ether linkages, and pendant trifluoromethyl groups, was successfully synthesized. This monomer was polymerized with six commercial dianhydrides to produce a series of poly(amic acid) [...] Read more.

A novel fluorinated diamine monomer, 4,4′-((bicyclo[2.2.1]hept- 5-ene-2,3-diylbis (methylene)) bis(oxy))bis(3- (trifluoromethyl) aniline) (NFDA), featuring a tailored alicyclic norbornane core, flexible ether linkages, and pendant trifluoromethyl groups, was successfully synthesized. This monomer was polymerized with six commercial dianhydrides to produce a series of poly(amic acid) precursors, which were subsequently converted into high-performance polyimide (PI) films via a thermal imidization process. The strategic integration of the alicyclic, ether, and fluorinated motifs within the polymer backbone resulted in materials with an exceptional combination of properties. These PI films display outstanding solubility in a wide range of organic solvents, including low-boiling options like chloroform and tetrahydrofuran, highlighting their superior solution processability. The films are amorphous and exhibit remarkable hydrophobicity, evidenced by high water contact angles (up to 109.4°) and minimal water absorption (as low as 0.26%). Furthermore, they possess excellent optical transparency, with a maximum transmittance of 86.7% in the visible region. The materials also maintain robust thermal stability, with 5% mass loss temperatures exceeding 416 °C, and offer a desirable balance of mechanical strength and flexibility. This unique set of attributes, stemming from a rational molecular design, positions these polyimides as highly promising candidates for next-generation flexible electronics and advanced photovoltaics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Membranes and Films)

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14 pages, 2863 KB

Open AccessArticle

Waste-Towel-Derived Hard Carbon as High Performance Anode for Sodium Ion Battery

by Daofa Ying, Kuo Chen, Jiarui Liu, Ziqian Xiang, Jiazheng Lu, Chuanping Wu, Baohui Chen, Yang Lyu, Yutao Liu and Zhen Fang

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020206 - 12 Jan 2026

Abstract

Developing cost-effective yet high-performance hard carbon anodes is critical for advancing the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), as they offer a balance of low cost, high capacity, and compatibility with Na⁺ storage mechanisms. Herein, waste towels, an abundant, low-cost precursor with a [...] Read more.

Developing cost-effective yet high-performance hard carbon anodes is critical for advancing the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), as they offer a balance of low cost, high capacity, and compatibility with Na⁺ storage mechanisms. Herein, waste towels, an abundant, low-cost precursor with a high carbon yield (>49%), were utilized to synthesize hard carbons via a two-step process: pre-oxidation at 250 °C to stabilize the fibrous structure, followed by carbonization at 1100 °C (THC-1100), 1300 °C (THC-1300), or 1500 °C (THC-1500). Electrochemical evaluations revealed that THC-1300, carbonized at an intermediate temperature, exhibited superior Na⁺ storage performance compared to its counterparts: it delivered a high reversible specific capacity of ~320 mAh/g at 1.0 C (1 C = 320 mA/g), with 78% capacity retention after 200 cycles, demonstrating excellent long-term cyclic stability. Its rate capability was equally impressive, achieving specific capacities of 341.5, 331.2, 302.0 and 234.8 mAh/g at 0.2, 0.5, 2.0 and 5.0 C, respectively, indicating efficient Na⁺ diffusion even at high current densities. Notably, THC-1300 also showed an improved initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) of 75.4%, reflecting reduced irreversible Na⁺ consumption during the first cycle. These enhancements are attributed to the synergistic effects of THC-1300’s optimized structural and textural properties: a balanced interlayer spacing (d₍₀₀₂₎ = 0.387 nm) that facilitates rapid Na⁺ intercalation, a low BET surface area (1.62 m²/g) helps to minimize electrolyte side reactions. The combined advantages of high specific capacity, improved ICE, and remarkable cycling stability position this waste-towel-derived hard carbon as a highly viable and sustainable candidate for anode materials in next-generation SIBs, addressing both performance and cost requirements for large-scale energy storage applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

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18 pages, 2424 KB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Activation Using Atmospheric Plasma to Improve PHB Coating Adhesion and Corrosion Resistance of AZ91D Magnesium Alloys

by Arturo Valenzo, María del Pilar Rodríguez-Rojas, Horacio Martínez, Victoria Bustos-Terrones, Alvaro Torres-Islas, Socorro Valdez and Arturo Molina-Ocampo

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020205 - 12 Jan 2026

Abstract

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is considered a coating material capable of limiting the corrosion of biodegradable metallic implants due to its biocompatibility and ability to form a physical barrier. In this study, PHB was deposited on commercial AZ91D magnesium alloy using the spin coating technique. [...] Read more.

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is considered a coating material capable of limiting the corrosion of biodegradable metallic implants due to its biocompatibility and ability to form a physical barrier. In this study, PHB was deposited on commercial AZ91D magnesium alloy using the spin coating technique. To improve adhesion at the polymer–substrate interface, the magnesium substrates were subjected to atmospheric pressure plasma treatment for different exposure times (5, 10, or 15 min) before coating. The optimal treatment time of 5 min significantly increased substrate wettability and surface free energy, facilitating stronger PHB adhesion. In addition, the PHB coatings were subjected to atmospheric pressure plasma treatment for 5, 10, or 15 s to evaluate potential surface modifications. Corrosion behavior under simulated physiological conditions was assessed via potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in HANK’s solution at 37 °C. Pull-off tests were used to evaluate the adhesion strength between the coating and the substrate under each treatment condition. The results showed a significant decrease in the corrosion rate (V_corr), from 4.083 mm/year for bare Mg-AZ91D to 0.001 mm/year when both the substrate and the polymer received plasma treatment. This indicates that the treatment modifies surfaces and improves interfacial bonding, enhancing polymer–metal interaction and producing durable, biocompatible coatings for medical implants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plasma Processing of Polymers, 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 664 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Textile Hydrogel Integration in Firefighting Personal Protective Clothing

by Sydney Tindall, Meredith McQuerry and Josephine Bolaji

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020204 - 12 Jan 2026

Abstract

Traditional firefighting protective clothing materials, such as meta- and para-aramid fibers, provide significant thermal protection but often fail to adequately manage heat stress and moisture, especially due to the incorporation of semi-permeable membranes within the three-layer garment structure known as turnout gear. Integrating [...] Read more.

Traditional firefighting protective clothing materials, such as meta- and para-aramid fibers, provide significant thermal protection but often fail to adequately manage heat stress and moisture, especially due to the incorporation of semi-permeable membranes within the three-layer garment structure known as turnout gear. Integrating hydrogels into textiles for firefighting personal protective clothing (PPC) could enhance thermoregulation and moisture management, providing firefighters with improved comfort and safety. Hydrogels are three-dimensional, hydrophilic polymer networks capable of holding substantial amounts of water. Their high water content and excellent thermal properties make them ideal for cooling applications. Therefore, this review focuses on the potential of hydrogel-infused textiles to improve firefighters’ PPC by enhancing thermal comfort and moisture management. Specifically, hydrogel structures and engineered properties for enhanced performance are presented, including smart hydrogels and hydration customization mechanisms. Hydrogel integration into firefighting PPC for moisture management and improved thermoregulation is explored, including current and future market projections and state-of-the-art clinical trial findings. Overall, the future of hydrogel-integrated textiles for firefighting PPC is bright, with numerous advancements and trends poised to enhance the safety, comfort, and performance of protective gear. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technical Textile Science and Technology)

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20 pages, 7206 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect Investigation of Process Parameters on 3D Printed Composites Tensile Performance Boosted by Attention Mechanism-Enhanced Multi-Modal Convolutional Neural Networks

by Zeyuan Gao, Zhibin Han, Yaoming Fu, Huiyang Lv, Meng Li, Xin Zhao and Jianjian Zhu

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020203 - 12 Jan 2026

Abstract

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a widely used additive manufacturing technique that enables the fabrication of components using polymeric and composite materials; however, the mechanical performance of printed parts is jointly influenced by multiple printing parameters, which complicates the control and prediction of [...] Read more.

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a widely used additive manufacturing technique that enables the fabrication of components using polymeric and composite materials; however, the mechanical performance of printed parts is jointly influenced by multiple printing parameters, which complicates the control and prediction of their mechanical properties. In this study, an attention-enhanced multi-modal convolutional neural network (ATT-MM-CNN) is developed to predict the tensile performance of carbon fiber reinforced polylactic acid (PLA-CF) composites manufactured by FDM. Four key printing parameters, layer thickness, nozzle temperature, material flow rate, and printing speed, are systematically investigated, resulting in 256 parameter combinations and corresponding tensile test data for constructing a multi-modal dataset. By integrating multi-modal feature representations and incorporating an attention mechanism, the proposed model effectively learns the nonlinear relationships between printing parameters and mechanical performance under multi-parameter conditions. The results show that all evaluation metrics, including accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score, exceed 0.95, and the prediction accuracy is improved by at least 17.3% compared with baseline models. These findings demonstrate that the proposed ATT-MM-CNN provides an effective and reliable framework for tensile property prediction and process-parameter optimization of FDM-printed composite structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence in Polymer Science)

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14 pages, 2145 KB

Open AccessArticle

Complementary Techniques of Thermal Analysis as a Tool for Studying the Properties and Effectiveness of Intumescent Coatings Deposited on Wood

by Nataša Čelan Korošin and Romana Cerc Korošec

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020202 - 12 Jan 2026

Abstract

Fire-retardant intumescent coatings offer an effective means of enhancing the fire resistance of combustible substrates such as wood. These coatings have a complex chemical composition and, when exposed to temperatures above 200 °C, undergo an intumescent reaction accompanied by the release of non-flammable [...] Read more.

Fire-retardant intumescent coatings offer an effective means of enhancing the fire resistance of combustible substrates such as wood. These coatings have a complex chemical composition and, when exposed to temperatures above 200 °C, undergo an intumescent reaction accompanied by the release of non-flammable gases, forming an expanded, charred layer with low thermal conductivity. This provides thermal insulation and acts as a physical barrier against heat, oxygen, and flammable volatiles. In this study, the applicability of several thermoanalytical techniques for evaluating the performance of three different intumescent coatings applied to spruce wood was investigated. Simultaneous thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that coating No. 3 was the most efficient, initiating substrate protection at the lowest temperature and reducing the combustion enthalpy by approximately 50% compared to uncoated wood. DSC-microscopy visualization enabled direct observation of the intumescent expansion, degradation of the carbonized protective layer, and delayed thermal decomposition of coated wood. Furthermore, a comparison between TGA-MS and TGA-IST16-GC-MS demonstrated the superiority of chromatographic separation for identifying evolved gaseous products. While TGA-MS is effective for detecting small gaseous species (e.g., H₂O, CO₂, formaldehyde), TGA-IST16-GC-MS enables the deconvolution of many degradation products evolving simultaneously, allowing for distinction between flame-retardant-related species, polymer backbone fragments, nitrogen-rich heterocycles, and small oxygenated molecules in the most effective coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Composite Coatings: Preparation, Properties, and Applications)

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21 pages, 7038 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Near-Infrared Organic Photodetectors: Molecular Design, Exciton Dynamics, and Device Integration

by Hyosun Lee and Jongho Kim

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020201 - 11 Jan 2026

Abstract

Near-infrared organic photodetectors (NIR-OPDs) are emerging as versatile platforms for flexible and low-cost optical sensing, yet achieving high-performance in the NIR region remains difficult remains challenging due to intrinsic trade-offs at both the material and device levels, due to the inherent balance required [...] Read more.

Near-infrared organic photodetectors (NIR-OPDs) are emerging as versatile platforms for flexible and low-cost optical sensing, yet achieving high-performance in the NIR region remains difficult remains challenging due to intrinsic trade-offs at both the material and device levels, due to the inherent balance required among bandgap narrowing, exciton dissociation, charge transport, and dark-current suppression. This review provides a concise overview of OPD operating mechanisms and the performance metrics governing sensitivity and noise. We highlight recent molecular-engineering strategies—core fluorination, asymmetric π-bridge design, fused-ring rigidification, and polymer backbone/side-chain tuning—that effectively enhance intermolecular ordering, reduce energetic disorder, and extend NIR absorption. Progress in all-polymer detectors and ambipolar phototransistors further demonstrates improved stability and broadened detection capability. Additionally, emerging applications, including NIR communication, biosignal monitoring, flexible imaging, and biometric recognition, showcase the expanding utility of NIR-OPDs. Remaining challenges include pushing detection beyond 1200 nm, simplifying synthesis, and improving long-term stability. Overall, advances in low-bandgap molecular design and device engineering continue to accelerate the practical adoption of NIR-OPDs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application and Development of Polymeric Materials in Electrochemistry)

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22 pages, 5176 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Shear Connection in Precast Concrete Sandwich Panels with Reinforcing Ribs

by Jan Macháček, Eliška Kafková, Věra Kabíčková and Tomáš Vlach

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020200 - 11 Jan 2026

Abstract

This paper presents an experimental investigation of the shear connection between outer layers of lightweight precast concrete sandwich panels (PCSP) made of high-performance concrete (HPC). The shear-transfer mechanism is based on reinforcing ribs composed of rigid polymer-based thermal insulation combined with carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer [...] Read more.

This paper presents an experimental investigation of the shear connection between outer layers of lightweight precast concrete sandwich panels (PCSP) made of high-performance concrete (HPC). The shear-transfer mechanism is based on reinforcing ribs composed of rigid polymer-based thermal insulation combined with carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) shear reinforcement. A total of seven full-scale sandwich panels were tested in four-point bending. This study compares three types of rigid thermal insulation used in the shear ribs—Purenit, Compacfoam CF400, and Foamglass F—and investigates the influence of the amount of CFRP shear reinforcement on the structural behavior of the panels. Additional specimens were used to evaluate the effect of reinforcing ribs and of polymer-based thermal insulation placed between the ribs. The experimental results show that panels with shear ribs made of Purenit and Compacfoam CF400 achieved significantly higher load-bearing capacities compared to Foamglass F, which proved unsuitable due to its brittle behavior. Increasing the amount of CFRP shear reinforcement increased the load-bearing capacity but had a limited effect on panel stiffness. The experimentally determined composite interaction coefficient ranged around α ≈ 0.03, indicating partial shear interaction between the outer concrete layers. A simplified strut-and-tie model was applied to predict the load-bearing capacity and showed conservative agreement with experimental results. The findings demonstrate that polymer-based materials, particularly CFRP reinforcement combined with rigid polymer insulation, enable efficient shear transfer without thermal bridging, making them suitable for lightweight and thermally efficient precast concrete sandwich panels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Progress and Prospects)

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18 pages, 6575 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Material–Structure–Performance Relationships of Biaxially Stretched Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Membranes for Air Filtration

by Chunxing Zhou, Haiqin Mo, Yiqin Shao, Parpiev Khabibulla, Juramirza Abdiramatovich Kayumov and Guocheng Zhu

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020199 - 11 Jan 2026

Abstract

Biaxially stretched polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranes are promising media for high-efficiency air filtration because of their stable node–fiber microstructure and environmental durability. To clarify how resin properties and microstructure govern filtration behavior, ten PTFE resins with different average molecular weights (Mn) and particle size [...] Read more.

Biaxially stretched polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranes are promising media for high-efficiency air filtration because of their stable node–fiber microstructure and environmental durability. To clarify how resin properties and microstructure govern filtration behavior, ten PTFE resins with different average molecular weights (Mn) and particle size characteristics were processed into membranes under essentially identical biaxial stretching and sintering conditions. Resin particle size, fiber diameter and pore size distributions were quantified, and coefficients of variation (CVs), together with Spearman rank correlations, were used to analyze material–structure–performance links. Filtration efficiency, pressure drop and quality factor (QF) were measured according to ISO 29463-3 using 0.1–0.3 μm aerosols. Higher Mn combined with lower particle-size dispersion favored finer fibers and narrower pores, yielding efficiencies close to 100%, but increased pressure drop and slightly reduced QF, indicating a trade-off between efficiency and flow resistance. The sample with the lowest Mn in its group and a high machine-direction draw ratio (12×), showed pronounced fibril breakage, node coalescence, broadened pore-size distribution and degraded QF, illustrating the sensitivity of structure and performance to resin-process mismatch. Overall, the study establishes a hierarchical material–fiber–pore–performance relationship that can guide resin selection, structural tuning and process optimization of biaxially stretched PTFE membranes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Membranes and Films)

15 pages, 727 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gamma-Ray Attenuation Performance of PEEK Reinforced with Natural Pumice and Palygorskite

by Ahmed Alharbi

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020198 - 11 Jan 2026

Abstract

Lightweight, lead-free polymer–mineral composites have attracted increasing interest as radiation-attenuating materials for applications where reduced mass and environmental compatibility are required. In this work, the

γ

-ray attenuation behavior of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) reinforced with natural palygorskite and pumice was evaluated at [...] Read more.

Lightweight, lead-free polymer–mineral composites have attracted increasing interest as radiation-attenuating materials for applications where reduced mass and environmental compatibility are required. In this work, the

γ

-ray attenuation behavior of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) reinforced with natural palygorskite and pumice was evaluated at filler concentrations of 10–40 wt%. Photon interaction parameters, including the linear attenuation coefficient (

μ

), half-value layer (HVL), mean free path (

λ

), and effective atomic number (

Z_{eff}

), were computed over the energy range 15 keV–15 MeV using the Phy-X/PSD platform and validated through full Geant4 Monte Carlo transmission simulations. At 15 keV,

μ

increased from

1.46 {cm}^{- 1}

for pure PEEK to

4.21 {cm}^{- 1}

and

8.499 {cm}^{- 1}

for the 40 wt% palygorskite- and pumice-filled composites, respectively, reducing the HVL from 0.69 cm to 0.24 cm and 0.11 cm. The corresponding

Z_{eff}

values increased from 6.5 (pure PEEK) to 9.4 (40 wt% palygorskite) and 15.3 (40 wt% pumice), reflecting the influence of higher-Z oxide constituents in pumice. At higher photon energies, the attenuation curves converged as Compton scattering became dominant, although pumice-filled PEEK retained marginally higher

μ

and shorter

λ

up to the MeV region. These findings demonstrate that natural mineral fillers can enhance the photon attenuation behavior of PEEK while retaining the known thermal stability and mechanical performance of the polymer matrix as reported in the literature, indicating their potential use as lightweight, secondary radiation-attenuating components in medical, industrial, and aerospace applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)

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20 pages, 4718 KB

Open AccessArticle

Forward Osmosis for Produced Water Treatment: Comparative Performance Evaluation of Fabricated and Commercial Membranes

by Sunith B. Madduri and Raghava R. Kommalapati

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020197 - 10 Jan 2026

Abstract

Produced water (PW) generated from oil and gas operations poses a significant environmental challenge due to its high salinity and complex organic–inorganic composition. This study evaluates forward osmosis (FO) as an energy-efficient approach for PW treatment by comparing a commercial cellulose triacetate (CTA) [...] Read more.

Produced water (PW) generated from oil and gas operations poses a significant environmental challenge due to its high salinity and complex organic–inorganic composition. This study evaluates forward osmosis (FO) as an energy-efficient approach for PW treatment by comparing a commercial cellulose triacetate (CTA) membrane and a fabricated electrospun nanofibrous membrane, both modified with a zwitterionic sulfobetaine methacrylate/polydopamine (SBMA/PDA) coating. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra verified the successful incorporation of SBMA and PDA through the appearance of characteristic sulfonate, quaternary ammonium, and catechol/amine-related vibrations. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging revealed the intrinsic dense surface of the CTA membrane and the highly porous nanofibrous architecture of the electrospun membrane, with both materials showing uniform coating coverage after modification. Complementary analyses supported these observations: X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed the presence of nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine containing functionalities associated with the zwitterionic layer; Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) demonstrated that surface modification did not compromise the thermal stability of either membrane; and contact-angle measurements showed substantial increases in surface hydrophilicity following modification. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of the Permian Basin PW revealed a chemically complex mixture dominated by light hydrocarbons, alkylated aromatics, and heavy semi-volatile organic compounds. FO experiments using hypersaline PW demonstrated that the fabricated membrane consistently outperformed the commercial membrane under both MgCl₂ and Na₃PO₄ draw conditions, achieving up to ~40% higher initial water flux and total solids rejection as high as ~62% when operated with 2.5 M Na₃PO₄. The improved performance is attributed to the nanofibrous architecture and zwitterionic surface chemistry, which together reduced fouling and reverse solute transport. These findings highlight the potential of engineered zwitterionic nanofibrous membranes as robust alternatives to commercial FO membranes for sustainable produced water treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Membranes and Films)

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39 pages, 4702 KB

Open AccessReview

Biopolymer-Based Active and Intelligent Food Packaging: Recent Advances in Materials, Technologies, and Applications

by Shakila Parveen Asrafali, Thirukumaran Periyasamy and Jaewoong Lee

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020196 - 10 Jan 2026

Abstract

The food packaging industry is undergoing a paradigm shift from conventional petroleum-based materials toward sustainable biopolymer-based alternatives that offer enhanced functionality beyond mere containment and protection. This comprehensive review examines recent advances in the development of active and intelligent food packaging systems utilizing [...] Read more.

The food packaging industry is undergoing a paradigm shift from conventional petroleum-based materials toward sustainable biopolymer-based alternatives that offer enhanced functionality beyond mere containment and protection. This comprehensive review examines recent advances in the development of active and intelligent food packaging systems utilizing natural biopolymers including polysaccharides, proteins, and their composites. The integration of antimicrobial agents, natural colorimetric indicators, nanofillers, and advanced fabrication techniques has enabled the creation of multifunctional packaging materials capable of extending shelf life, monitoring food quality in real-time, and reducing environmental impact. This review organizes the current research on starch, chitosan-, cellulose-, pectin-, bacterial cellulose-, pullulan-, gelatin-, zein-, and dextran-based packaging systems, with particular emphasis on their physicochemical properties, functional performance, and practical applications for preserving various food products, including meat, fish, fruits, and other perishables. The challenges associated with mechanical strength, water resistance, scalability, and commercial viability are critically evaluated alongside emerging solutions involving chemical modifications, nanocomposite formulations, and innovative processing technologies. Future perspectives highlight the need for standardization, life cycle assessments, regulatory frameworks, and consumer acceptance studies to facilitate the transition from laboratory innovations to industrial-scale implementation of sustainable biopolymer packaging solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymers and Polymer Composites for Packaging Applications)

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18 pages, 4663 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Characterization of Solution Blow Spun Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles/Polyvinyl Butyral Nanofiber Membranes for Food Packaging

by Mengyu Zhang, Wenqian Han, Mingfu Zhang, Yesheng Zhong, Liping Shi and Xi Chen

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020195 - 10 Jan 2026

Abstract

To address the low-value recycling dilemma of waste polyvinyl butyral (PVB) and cater to the demand for sustainable multifunctional active food packaging, this study developed a facile and cost-effective solution blow spinning approach. Continuous, smooth, and bead-free nanofiber membranes were prepared by optimizing [...] Read more.

To address the low-value recycling dilemma of waste polyvinyl butyral (PVB) and cater to the demand for sustainable multifunctional active food packaging, this study developed a facile and cost-effective solution blow spinning approach. Continuous, smooth, and bead-free nanofiber membranes were prepared by optimizing the solution blow spinning process parameters. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were incorporated into the PVB nanofiber membrane with vacuum impregnation. The results demonstrated that ZnO NPs significantly enhanced the tensile strength, thermal stability, and the UV absorption of PVB fiber membranes. ZnO/PVB fiber membranes exhibited antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Practical preservation tests showed that ZnO/PVB fiber membranes effectively inhibited cherry tomatoes’ microbial spoilage and water loss, extending the shelf life of tomatoes to 13 days. These findings validate the potential of ZnO/PVB composite nanofiber membranes as active food packaging and provide a feasible technical pathway for the low-cost, efficient utilization of recycled PVB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

16 pages, 2861 KB

Open AccessArticle

Production and Multimodal Characterization of Decellularized Extracellular Matrix from Porcine Prepubertal Tunica Albuginea as Additive to Polymeric Scaffolds for Testicular Organoid Growth

by Martina Alunni Cardinali, Iva Arato, Francesca Luzi, Marco Rallini, Cinzia Lilli, Catia Bellucci, Paola Sassi, Daniele Fioretto, Giovanni Luca, Debora Puglia and Francesca Mancuso

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020194 - 10 Jan 2026

Abstract

Preservation of spermatogonial cells is of critical importance for male patients undergoing gonadotoxic therapies. Testicular organoids generated by 3D polymeric scaffolds filled with decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) have the potential to promote stem cell growth. We propose a protocol to produce dECM from [...] Read more.

Preservation of spermatogonial cells is of critical importance for male patients undergoing gonadotoxic therapies. Testicular organoids generated by 3D polymeric scaffolds filled with decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM) have the potential to promote stem cell growth. We propose a protocol to produce dECM from porcine prepubertal tunica albuginea for use in polymeric scaffolds. Spectroscopic analysis, molecular biology techniques, and histo-morphological assessment were used to evaluate the morphology and mechano-chemistry of the dECM at each phase of the process. The results obtained from this study demonstrate that the protocol can produce a high-purity product without causing significant alterations to protein conformation. The dECM obtained was then employed in the creation of a 3D scaffold for the cultivation of testis organoids. This was achieved by utilizing a mixture of alginate (A) and chitosan (C), which are natural polymers with a high degree of biocompatibility, that have extensive application in the field of biomedicine. Scaffold characterization demonstrated that the presence of dECM affects the scaffold’s mechanical properties by tuning structural reorganization and reducing hygroscopicity. The cell viability assay demonstrates that the A/C scaffolds are non-cytotoxic after a pre-phase of immersion in the medium. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Polymers Design to Advanced Structures for Biomedical Applications)

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22 pages, 1424 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in CO₂ Laser Treatment of Cotton-Based Textiles: Processing Science and Functional Applications

by Andris Skromulis, Lyubomir Lazov, Inga Lasenko, Svetlana Sokolova, Sandra Vasilevska and Jaymin Vrajlal Sanchaniya

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020193 - 10 Jan 2026

Abstract

CO₂ laser processing has emerged as an efficient dry-finishing technique capable of inducing controlled chemical and morphological transformations in cotton and denim textiles. The strong mid-infrared absorption of cellulose enables localised photothermal heating, leading to selective dye decomposition, surface oxidation, and micro-scale [...] Read more.

CO₂ laser processing has emerged as an efficient dry-finishing technique capable of inducing controlled chemical and morphological transformations in cotton and denim textiles. The strong mid-infrared absorption of cellulose enables localised photothermal heating, leading to selective dye decomposition, surface oxidation, and micro-scale ablation while largely preserving the bulk fabric structure. These laser-driven mechanisms modify colour, surface chemistry, and topography in a predictable, parameter-dependent manner. Low-fluence conditions predominantly produce uniform fading through fragmentation and oxidation of indigo dye; in comparison, moderate thermal loads promote the formation of carbonyl and carboxyl groups that increase surface energy and enhance wettability. Higher fluence regimes generate micro-textured regions with increased roughness and anchoring capacity, enabling improved adhesion of dyes, coatings, and nanoparticles. Compared with conventional wet processes, CO₂ laser treatment eliminates chemical effluents, strongly reduces water consumption and supports digitally controlled, Industry 4.0-compatible manufacturing workflows. Despite its advantages, challenges remain in standardising processing parameters, quantifying oxidation depth, modelling thermal behaviour, and assessing the long-term stability of functionalised surfaces under real usage conditions. In this review, we consolidate current knowledge on the mechanistic pathways, processing windows, and functional potential of CO₂ laser-modified cotton substrates. By integrating findings from recent studies and identifying critical research gaps, the review supports the development of predictable, scalable, and sustainable laser-based cotton textile processing technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Textiles, Fibers and Their Composites)

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49 pages, 7983 KB

Open AccessReview

Polymer Composites in Additive Manufacturing: Current Technologies, Applications, and Emerging Trends

by Md Mahbubur Rahman, Safkat Islam, Mubasshira, Md Shaiful Islam, Raju Ahammad, Md Ashraful Islam, Md Abdul Hasib, Md Shohanur Rahman, Raza Moshwan, M. Monjurul Ehsan, M. Sanaul Rabbi, Md Moniruzzaman, Muhammad Altaf Nazir and Wei-Di Liu

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020192 - 10 Jan 2026

Abstract

Polymer composites have opened a novel innovation phase in additive manufacturing (AM), and now lightweight, high-strength, and geometrical advanced components with tailored functionalities can be produced. The present study introduces advances in polymer composite materials and their integration into AM processes, particularly in [...] Read more.

Polymer composites have opened a novel innovation phase in additive manufacturing (AM), and now lightweight, high-strength, and geometrical advanced components with tailored functionalities can be produced. The present study introduces advances in polymer composite materials and their integration into AM processes, particularly in rapidly growing industries such as aerospace, automotive, biomedical, and electronics. The embedding of cutting-edge reinforcement materials, such as nanoparticles, carbon fibers, and natural fibers, into polymer matrices enhances mechanical, thermal, electrical, and multifunctional properties. These material developments are combined with advanced fabrication techniques, including multi-material printing, in situ curing, and functionally graded manufacturing, which achieves accurate regulation of microstructures and properties. Furthermore, high-impact innovations such as smart polymer composites with self-healing or stimuli-responsive behaviors, the growing shift toward sustainable, bio-based composite alternatives, are driving progress. Despite significant advances, challenges remain in interfacial bonding, printability, process repeatability, and long-term durability. This review offers a comprehensive overview of current advancements and outlines future directions in polymer composite–based AM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufactuging of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites and Composites: Progress and Prospects)

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16 pages, 3617 KB

Open AccessArticle

pH-Responsive Polyethylene Oxide-Based Electrospun Nanofibers for Controlled Drug Release in Infected Wound Treatment

by Qian-Yu Yuan, Lan Yang, Bing-Chiuan Shiu, Chien-Teng Hsieh, Ching-Wen Lou and Jia-Horng Lin

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020191 - 10 Jan 2026

Abstract

Infected wounds form a complex microenvironment that creates difficulties for drug delivery. In this study, a composite fiber membrane based on polyethylene oxide (PEO) was prepared. The intention was to achieve on-demand drug release and integrate multiple functions by adjusting the material composition. [...] Read more.

Infected wounds form a complex microenvironment that creates difficulties for drug delivery. In this study, a composite fiber membrane based on polyethylene oxide (PEO) was prepared. The intention was to achieve on-demand drug release and integrate multiple functions by adjusting the material composition. The membrane uses PEO as the main framework and contains chitosan (CS) and ascorbic acid (Asc). CS leads to an increase in fiber diameter, while Asc makes the fibers thinner. The two components act together to influence the microstructure. In vitro drug release experiments showed that changing the CS content in the PEO matrix can affect the initial release rate and the duration of sustained release. The membrane also shows sensitivity to pH. Under slightly acidic conditions, drug release becomes faster, which is similar to the state of infected wounds. In addition, the membrane maintains antioxidant activity and can inhibit Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). These results suggest that PEO-based composite fibers may be useful in drug delivery and tissue repair. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Modified Polymer Materials in Sensing)

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28 pages, 14639 KB

Open AccessArticle

Light-Induced Structural Evolutions in Electrostatic Nanoassemblies

by Mohit Agarwal, Ralf Schweins and Franziska Gröhn

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020190 - 9 Jan 2026

Abstract

Studying nanoscale self-assembly in real time using external stimuli unlocks new opportunities for dynamic and adaptive materials. While electrostatic self-assembly is well-established, real-time monitoring of its structural evolution under light irradiation remains largely unexploited. In this study, we employ light-responsive azobenzene dyes (Acid [...] Read more.

Studying nanoscale self-assembly in real time using external stimuli unlocks new opportunities for dynamic and adaptive materials. While electrostatic self-assembly is well-established, real-time monitoring of its structural evolution under light irradiation remains largely unexploited. In this study, we employ light-responsive azobenzene dyes (Acid Yellow 38, AY38) and pH-sensitive polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers to investigate the kinetics of electrostatic self-assembly under UV irradiation. Using a custom in situ small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) setup, we track the real-time morphological transformations of self-assembled structures with sub-minute resolution. We introduce two distinct pathways: method A (pre-irradiated cis-AY38 for controlled, slow kinetics) and method B (direct UV-induced self-assembly, fast kinetics). The results reveal that trans-cis isomerization kinetics dictate the rate of self-assembly, influencing aggregate stability, ζ-potential evolution, and final morphology. Structural analysis using dynamic and static light scattering (DLS and SLS) and SANS elucidates a transition from spherical to ellipsoidal morphologies governed by electrostatic and dipole-dipole interactions. These findings establish photoisomerization-driven self-assembly as a robust mechanism for tunable nanoscale architectures, paving the way for adaptive photonic materials, targeted drug delivery, and reconfigurable nanostructures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Chemistry)

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