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17 pages, 25008 KB

Open AccessArticle

apex Mk.2/Mk.3: Secure Live Transmission of the First Flight of Trichoplax adhaerens in Space Based on Components Off-the-Shelf

by Nico Maas, Jean-Pierre de Vera, Moritz Jonathan Schmidt, Pia Reimann, Jason G. Randall, Sebastian Feles, Ruth Hemmersbach, Bernd Schierwater and Jens Hauslage

Eng 2025, 6(9), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6090241 - 12 Sep 2025

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Abstract

After the successful flight of the first Advanced Processors, Encryption, and Security Experiment (apex) Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) On-Board Computer (OBC) during the Propulsion Technologies and Components of Launcher Stages (ATEK)/Material Physics Experiments Under Microgravity (MAPHEUS)-8 sounding rocket campaign, a second generation of COTS [...] Read more.

After the successful flight of the first Advanced Processors, Encryption, and Security Experiment (apex) Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) On-Board Computer (OBC) during the Propulsion Technologies and Components of Launcher Stages (ATEK)/Material Physics Experiments Under Microgravity (MAPHEUS)-8 sounding rocket campaign, a second generation of COTS OBCs were built, leveraging the knowledge gained. This new concept and improvements are provided. The Mk.2 Science Camera Platform (SCP) has an instrumented high-definition science camera to research the behavior of small organisms such as Trichoplax adhaerens under challenging gravity conditions, while the Mk.3 Student Experiment Sensorboard (SES) represents an Arduino-like board that directly interfaces with the MAPHEUS Service Module and allows for rapid development of new sensor solutions on sounding rocket systems. Both experiments were flown successfully on MAPHEUS-10, including a biological system as a proof of concept, and paved the way for an even more capable third generation of apex OBCs. This study is part one of a three-part series describing the apex Mk.2/Mk.3 experiments, open-source ground segment, and service module simulator. Full article

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24 pages, 862 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Urban Bus Networks Through Mathematical Modeling: Environmental and Operational Gains in Medium-Sized Cities

by María Torres-Falcón, Omar Rodríguez-Abreo, M. Romero-Sánchez, Luis Angel Iturralde Carrera and Juvenal Rodríguez-Reséndiz

Eng 2025, 6(9), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6090238 - 10 Sep 2025

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Abstract

This study aimed to optimize the urban public transportation system in Queretaro, Mexico, while meeting passenger demand by using Linear Programming (LP) and Goal Programming (GP) models to reduce redundant routes, minimize fuel consumption and

{CO}_{2}

emissions, and balance costs with service [...] Read more.

This study aimed to optimize the urban public transportation system in Queretaro, Mexico, while meeting passenger demand by using Linear Programming (LP) and Goal Programming (GP) models to reduce redundant routes, minimize fuel consumption and

{CO}_{2}

emissions, and balance costs with service coverage. Operational data from 316 drivers were collected on diesel consumption, working hours, and vehicle availability while incorporating twelve technical, labor, and regulatory constraints. The LP model reduced the number of routes from 148 to 124, achieving daily savings of 13,789 L of diesel, a reduction of 36,816 kg in

{CO}_{2}

emissions, and an economic benefit of USD 17,071.90, equivalent to 13,253 tons of

{CO}_{2}

avoided annually; these results demonstrate LP’s ability to deliver quantifiable improvements in efficiency and sustainability. The GP model integrated multiple and often conflicting objectives, such as maintaining a maximum fuel cost of USD 9312/day for 1944 buses distributed across five zones while ensuring a minimum coverage of 145 routes and 450,000 daily passengers, showing that it is possible to meet service targets with marginal cost overruns (USD 4118.66) when balancing both coverage and budget. The novelty of this paper lies in combining mathematical optimization models with real operational data and simultaneously reporting both economic and environmental impacts. This allows us to offer a replicable and highly interpretable tool with low computational cost for use in medium-sized cities seeking to align mobility planning with sustainability policies and operational efficiency. Full article

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19 pages, 1150 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Fuzzy Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Framework for Evaluating Non-Destructive Testing Techniques in Oil and Gas Facility Maintenance Operations

by Kehinde Afolabi, Olubayo Babatunde, Desmond Ighravwe, Busola Akintayo and Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju

Eng 2025, 6(9), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6090214 - 1 Sep 2025

Viewed by 341

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) framework for evaluating and selecting optimal non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques for oil and gas facility maintenance operations. This research used a Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) integrated with multiple MCDM methods to assess eight NDT [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) framework for evaluating and selecting optimal non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques for oil and gas facility maintenance operations. This research used a Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) integrated with multiple MCDM methods to assess eight NDT techniques including radiographic testing, ultrasonic testing, and thermographic testing. The evaluation framework incorporated seven technical criteria and seven economic criteria. The FAHP results revealed spatial resolution (0.175) as the most critical technical criterion, followed by depth penetration (0.155) and defect characterization (0.143). For economic criteria, downtime costs (0.210) and operational costs (0.190) emerged as the most significant factors. This study used TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution), PROMETHEE (Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment of Evaluations), and VIKOR (VIseKriterijumska Optimizacija I Kompromisno Resenje) methods to rank NDT techniques, with results consolidated using the CRITIC (CRiteria Importance Through Intercriteria Correlation) method. The final techno-economic analysis identified radiographic testing as the most suitable NDT method with a score of 0.665, followed by acoustic emission testing at 0.537. Visual testing ranked lowest with a score of 0.214. This research demonstrates the effectiveness of combining fuzzy logic with multiple MCDM approaches for NDT method selection in offshore welding operations. Full article

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22 pages, 1255 KB

Open AccessArticle

Natural Ventilation Strategies to Prevent Airborne Disease Transmission in Public Buildings

by Jesús M. Ballesteros-Álvarez, Álvaro Romero-Barriuso, Ángel Rodríguez-Sáiz and Blasa María Villena-Escribano

Eng 2025, 6(8), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6080197 - 8 Aug 2025

Viewed by 554

Abstract

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of natural ventilation as a health and safety strategy in municipal buildings, focusing on its capacity to ensure indoor air quality and limit airborne disease transmission. Natural ventilation can be incorporated into building design as the primary mechanism [...] Read more.

This paper evaluates the effectiveness of natural ventilation as a health and safety strategy in municipal buildings, focusing on its capacity to ensure indoor air quality and limit airborne disease transmission. Natural ventilation can be incorporated into building design as the primary mechanism for achieving the required indoor air quality, equipping buildings with operable windows based on their intended occupancy. Using 11 public buildings in Mostoles, Spain, as case studies, the research applies a quantitative methodology based on carbon dioxide concentration to estimate ventilation rates and theoretical occupancy thresholds. The findings reveal that cross ventilation is the only natural method capable of meeting air renewal rates recommended by health authorities, particularly the IDA2 air quality standard and three to five air changes per hour suggested to reduce disease spread. However, 53% of the assessed spaces lacked cross ventilation capacity, underscoring the need to integrate natural and mechanical systems. The study proposes a replicable model to assess and adapt indoor occupancy based on real ventilation capacity, offering a practical tool for decision-making in public health, energy efficiency, and architectural design. Ultimately, the research supports the strategic use of natural ventilation as a low-cost, scalable intervention to enhance environmental quality in public facilities. Full article

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19 pages, 1835 KB

Open AccessArticle

Methods for Enhancing Energy and Resource Efficiency in Sunflower Oil Production: A Case Study from Bulgaria

by Penka Zlateva, Angel Terziev, Nikolay Kolev, Martin Ivanov, Mariana Murzova and Momchil Vasilev

Eng 2025, 6(8), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6080195 - 6 Aug 2025

Viewed by 808

Abstract

The rising demand for energy resources and industrial goods presents significant challenges to sustainable development. Sunflower oil, commonly utilized in the food sector, biofuels, and various industrial applications, is notably affected by this demand. In Bulgaria, it serves as a primary source of [...] Read more.

The rising demand for energy resources and industrial goods presents significant challenges to sustainable development. Sunflower oil, commonly utilized in the food sector, biofuels, and various industrial applications, is notably affected by this demand. In Bulgaria, it serves as a primary source of vegetable fats, ranking second to butter in daily consumption. The aim of this study is to evaluate and propose methods to improve energy and resource efficiency in sunflower oil production in Bulgaria. The analysis is based on data from an energy audit conducted in 2023 at an industrial sunflower oil production facility. Reconstruction and modernization initiatives, which included the installation of high-performance, energy-efficient equipment, led to a 34% increase in energy efficiency. The findings highlight the importance of adjusting the technological parameters such as temperature, pressure, grinding level, and pressing time to reduce energy use and operational costs. Additionally, resource efficiency is improved through more effective raw material utilization and waste reduction. These strategies not only enhance the economic and environmental performance of sunflower oil production but also support sustainable development and competitiveness within the industry. The improvement reduces hexane use by approximately 2%, resulting in energy savings of 12–15 kWh/t of processed seeds and a reduction in CO₂ emissions by 3–4 kg/t, thereby improving the environmental profile of sunflower oil production. Full article

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17 pages, 5314 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Settlement Ratio and Settled Area: Novel Indicators for Analyzing Land Use in Relation to Road Network Functions and Performance

by Giulia Del Serrone, Giuseppe Cantisani and Paolo Peluso

Eng 2025, 6(8), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6080188 - 5 Aug 2025

Viewed by 383

Abstract

Land use significantly influences mobility dynamics, affecting both travel behavior and mode choice. Traditional indicators such as the Floor Area Ratio, Land-Use Mix Index, and Built-up Area Ratio are widely used to describe settlement patterns; yet, they often fail to capture their functional [...] Read more.

Land use significantly influences mobility dynamics, affecting both travel behavior and mode choice. Traditional indicators such as the Floor Area Ratio, Land-Use Mix Index, and Built-up Area Ratio are widely used to describe settlement patterns; yet, they often fail to capture their functional impacts on road networks. This study introduces two complementary indicators—Settlement Ratio (SR) and Settled Area (SA)—developed through a spatial analysis framework integrating GIS data and MATLAB processing. SR offers a continuous typological profile of built-up functions along the road axis, while SA measures the percentage of anthropized land within fixed analysis windows. Applied to two Italian state roads, SS14 and SS309, in the Veneto Region, the dual-indicator approach reveals how the intensity (SR) and extent (SA) of settlement vary across different territorial contexts. In suburban segments, SR values exceeding 15–20, together with SA levels between 10% and 15%, highlight the significant spatial impact of isolated development clusters—often not evident from macro-scale observations. These findings demonstrate that the SR–SA framework provides a robust tool for analyzing land use in relation to road function. Although the study focuses on spatial structure and indicator design, future developments will explore correlations with traffic flow, speed, and crash data to support road safety analyses. Full article

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25 pages, 9050 KB

Open AccessArticle

Field Blast Tests and Finite Element Analysis of A36 Steel Sheets Subjected to High Explosives

by Anselmo S. Augusto, Girum Urgessa, José A. F. F. Rocco, Fausto B. Mendonça and Koshun Iha

Eng 2025, 6(8), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6080187 - 5 Aug 2025

Viewed by 652

Abstract

Blast mitigation of structures is an important research topic due to increasing intentional and accidental human-induced threats and hazards. This research area is essential to building capabilities in sustaining structural protection, site planning, protective design efficiency, occupant safety, and response and recovery plans. [...] Read more.

Blast mitigation of structures is an important research topic due to increasing intentional and accidental human-induced threats and hazards. This research area is essential to building capabilities in sustaining structural protection, site planning, protective design efficiency, occupant safety, and response and recovery plans. This paper investigates experimental tests and finite element analysis (FEM) of thin A36 steel sheets subjected to blast. Six field blast tests were performed at standoff distances of 300 mm and 500 mm. The explosive charges comprised 334 g of bare Composition B, and the steel sheets were 2 mm thick. The experimental results, derived from the analysis of high-speed camera recordings of the blast events, were compared with FEM simulations conducted using Abaqus^®/Explicit version 6.10. Three constitutive material models were considered in these simulations. First, the FEM simulation results were compared with experimental results. It was shown that the FEM analysis provided reliable results and was proven to be robust and cost-effective. Second, an extensive set of 460 additional numerical simulations was carried out as a parametric study involving varying standoff distances and steel sheet thicknesses. The results and methodologies presented in this paper offer valuable and original insights for engineers and researchers aiming to predict damage to steel structures during real detonation events and to design blast-resistant structures. Full article

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14 pages, 355 KB

Open AccessArticle

Driver Behavior-Driven Evacuation Strategy with Dynamic Risk Propagation Modeling for Road Disruption Incidents

by Yanbin Hu, Wenhui Zhou and Hongzhi Miao

Eng 2025, 6(8), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6080173 - 31 Jul 2025

Viewed by 351

Abstract

When emergency incidents, such as bridge damage, abruptly occur on highways and lead to traffic disruptions, the multidimensionality and complexity of driver behaviors present significant challenges to the design of effective emergency response mechanisms. This study introduces a multi-level collaborative emergency mechanism grounded [...] Read more.

When emergency incidents, such as bridge damage, abruptly occur on highways and lead to traffic disruptions, the multidimensionality and complexity of driver behaviors present significant challenges to the design of effective emergency response mechanisms. This study introduces a multi-level collaborative emergency mechanism grounded in driver behavior characteristics, aiming to enhance both traffic safety and emergency response efficiency through hierarchical collaboration and dynamic optimization strategies. By capitalizing on human drivers’ perception and decision-making attributes, a driver behavior classification model is developed to quantitatively assess the risk response capabilities of distinct behavioral patterns (conservative, risk-taking, and conformist) under emergency scenarios. A multi-tiered collaborative framework, comprising an early warning layer, a guidance layer, and an interception layer, is devised to implement tailored emergency strategies. Additionally, a rear-end collision risk propagation model is constructed by integrating the risk field model with probabilistic risk assessment, enabling dynamic adjustments to interception range thresholds for precise and real-time emergency management. The efficacy of this mechanism is substantiated through empirical case studies, which underscore its capacity to substantially reduce the occurrence of secondary accidents and furnish scientific evidence and technical underpinnings for emergency management pertaining to highway bridge damage. Full article

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32 pages, 2740 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vision-Based Navigation and Perception for Autonomous Robots: Sensors, SLAM, Control Strategies, and Cross-Domain Applications—A Review

by Eder A. Rodríguez-Martínez, Wendy Flores-Fuentes, Farouk Achakir, Oleg Sergiyenko and Fabian N. Murrieta-Rico

Eng 2025, 6(7), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6070153 - 7 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3784

Abstract

Camera-centric perception has matured into a cornerstone of modern autonomy, from self-driving cars and factory cobots to underwater and planetary exploration. This review synthesizes more than a decade of progress in vision-based robotic navigation through an engineering lens, charting the full pipeline from [...] Read more.

Camera-centric perception has matured into a cornerstone of modern autonomy, from self-driving cars and factory cobots to underwater and planetary exploration. This review synthesizes more than a decade of progress in vision-based robotic navigation through an engineering lens, charting the full pipeline from sensing to deployment. We first examine the expanding sensor palette—monocular and multi-camera rigs, stereo and RGB-D devices, LiDAR–camera hybrids, event cameras, and infrared systems—highlighting the complementary operating envelopes and the rise of learning-based depth inference. The advances in visual localization and mapping are then analyzed, contrasting sparse and dense SLAM approaches, as well as monocular, stereo, and visual–inertial formulations. Additional topics include loop closure, semantic mapping, and LiDAR–visual–inertial fusion, which enables drift-free operation in dynamic environments. Building on these foundations, we review the navigation and control strategies, spanning classical planning, reinforcement and imitation learning, hybrid topological–metric memories, and emerging visual language guidance. Application case studies—autonomous driving, industrial manipulation, autonomous underwater vehicles, planetary rovers, aerial drones, and humanoids—demonstrate how tailored sensor suites and algorithms meet domain-specific constraints. Finally, the future research trajectories are distilled: generative AI for synthetic training data and scene completion; high-density 3D perception with solid-state LiDAR and neural implicit representations; event-based vision for ultra-fast control; and human-centric autonomy in next-generation robots. By providing a unified taxonomy, a comparative analysis, and engineering guidelines, this review aims to inform researchers and practitioners designing robust, scalable, vision-driven robotic systems. Full article

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23 pages, 3548 KB

Open AccessArticle

PSO-Based Robust Control of SISO Systems with Application to a Hydraulic Inverted Pendulum

by Michael G. Skarpetis, Nikolaos D. Kouvakas, Fotis N. Koumboulis and Marios Tsoukalas

Eng 2025, 6(7), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6070146 - 1 Jul 2025

Viewed by 510

Abstract

This work will present an algorithmic approach for robust control focusing on hydraulic–mechanical systems. The approach is applied to a hydraulic actuator driving a cart with an inverted pendulum. The algorithmic approach aims to satisfy two robust control requirements for single input single [...] Read more.

This work will present an algorithmic approach for robust control focusing on hydraulic–mechanical systems. The approach is applied to a hydraulic actuator driving a cart with an inverted pendulum. The algorithmic approach aims to satisfy two robust control requirements for single input single output (SISO) linear systems with nonlinear uncertain structure. The first control requirement is robust stabilization, and the second is robust asymptotic command following for arbitrary reference signals. The approach is analyzed in two stages. In the first stage, the stability regions of the controller parameters are identified. In the second stage, a Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm (PSO) is applied to find suboptimal solutions for the controller parameters in these regions, with respect to a suitable performance cost function. The application of the approach to a hydraulic actuator, driving a cart with an inverted pendulum, satisfies the goal of achieving precise control of the pendulum angle, despite the system’s inherent physical uncertainties. Full article

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27 pages, 2024 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Enhancement and Development of the Resilience Assessment System for Underground Engineering Disaster Risk

by Weiqiang Zheng, Zhiqiang Wang, Bo Wu, Shixiang Xu, Jiacheng Pan and Yuxuan Zhu

Eng 2025, 6(7), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6070140 - 26 Jun 2025

Viewed by 484

Abstract

The rapid development of underground engineering contributes significantly to achieving China’s “dual carbon” strategic goals. However, during the construction and operation phases, this engineering project faces diverse risks and challenges related to disasters. Consequently, enhancing the evaluation capability for underground engineering resilience is [...] Read more.

The rapid development of underground engineering contributes significantly to achieving China’s “dual carbon” strategic goals. However, during the construction and operation phases, this engineering project faces diverse risks and challenges related to disasters. Consequently, enhancing the evaluation capability for underground engineering resilience is imperative. Based on the characteristics of resilience evaluation and enhancement in underground engineering, this study defines the concept and objectives of resilience evaluation for underground space engineering and analyzes corresponding enhancement methods. By considering aspects such as the magnitude of collapse disaster risk in underground engineering, its vulnerability, resistance capacity, adaptability to disasters, recovery ability, and economic feasibility, a comprehensive index system for evaluating the resilience of collapse disaster risks in underground engineering has been established. This research suggests that disaster risk management should shift from passive to active prevention. Through resilience evaluation case applications, it is possible to improve the design objectives of underground engineering towards “structural recoverability”, “ease of damage repair”, and “controllable consequences after a disaster”. The integration of intelligent static assessment models based on artificial intelligence algorithms can effectively enhance the accuracy of resilience evaluations. Furthermore, dynamic assessments using multiple data fusion techniques combined with numerical simulations represent promising directions for improving the overall resilience of underground engineering. Full article

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19 pages, 3192 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Solar Energy Performance in Green Buildings Using PVsyst: Focus on Panel Orientation and Efficiency

by Seyed Azim Hosseini, Seyed Alireza Mansoori Al-yasin, Mohammad Gheibi and Reza Moezzi

Eng 2025, 6(7), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6070137 - 24 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 946

Abstract

This study explores the optimization of solar energy harvesting in Truro City in the UK using PVSyst simulations integrated with real-time meteorological data. Focusing on panel orientation, tilt angle, shading, and albedo, the research aimed to enhance both energy efficiency and economic viability [...] Read more.

This study explores the optimization of solar energy harvesting in Truro City in the UK using PVSyst simulations integrated with real-time meteorological data. Focusing on panel orientation, tilt angle, shading, and albedo, the research aimed to enhance both energy efficiency and economic viability of photovoltaic (PV) systems in green buildings. A 100 kWp rooftop solar installation served as the case study. Energy outputs derived from spreadsheet-based models and PVSyst simulations were compared to validate results. Optimal tilt angles were identified between 35° and 39°, and the azimuth angle of 0° yielded the highest energy gain without requiring solar tracking. Fixed configurations with a 5 m pitch showed only a 10% shading loss, requiring 1680 m² of space and generating an average of 646.83 kWh/m² monthly. Compared to recent works, our integration of real-time climate data improved simulation accuracy by 6–9%, refining operational planning and decision-making processes. This included better timing of high-load activities and enhanced prediction for grid feedback. The study demonstrates that data-driven optimization significantly improves performance reliability and system design, offering practical insights for solar infrastructure in similar temperate climates. These results provide a benchmark for urban energy planners seeking to balance performance and spatial constraints in PV deployment. Full article

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29 pages, 12056 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Standard Test Apparatus and Method for Validating the Accuracy of Mobile Phone Apps in Measuring Concrete Crack Widths

by Chyuan-Hwan Jeng, Min Chao and Jian-Hung Chen

Eng 2025, 6(6), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6060122 - 2 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1607

Abstract

This paper presents a standardized apparatus and method for testing the accuracy of mobile phone apps designed to measure concrete crack widths. The apparatus comprises a standardized crack-width calibration plate (CWCP) and a simulated wall (SW), along with a pose adjusting and fixing [...] Read more.

This paper presents a standardized apparatus and method for testing the accuracy of mobile phone apps designed to measure concrete crack widths. The apparatus comprises a standardized crack-width calibration plate (CWCP) and a simulated wall (SW), along with a pose adjusting and fixing device (PAFD) and a spatial distance measuring assemblage (SDMA). The test method employs an innovative two-stage procedure associated with the SDMA to calculate the distances (K_i) from the phone’s four corners to the SW. The phone’s position is adjusted using the PAFD until the four monitored K_i values match the target K_i. An app installed on the phone then measures crack widths on the CWCP. A standard experimental procedure was established to assess the accuracy of a preliminary Android app in measuring concrete crack widths, with results presented and discussed. This apparatus and method, grounded in their underlying physical meaning, can realistically simulate actual engineering conditions precisely and cost-effectively. Full article

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29 pages, 1367 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Approach to Optimizing Selection and Placement of Water Pipeline Condition Monitoring Technologies

by Diego Calderon and Mohammad Najafi

Eng 2025, 6(5), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6050097 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 1060

Abstract

The gradual deterioration of underground water infrastructure requires constant condition monitoring to prevent catastrophic failures, reduce leaks, and avoid costly unexpected repairs. However, given the large scale and tight budgets of water utilities, it is essential to implement strategies for optimal selection and [...] Read more.

The gradual deterioration of underground water infrastructure requires constant condition monitoring to prevent catastrophic failures, reduce leaks, and avoid costly unexpected repairs. However, given the large scale and tight budgets of water utilities, it is essential to implement strategies for optimal selection and deployment of monitoring technologies. This article introduces a unified framework and methods for optimally selecting condition monitoring technologies while locating their deployment at the most vulnerable pipe segments. The approach is underpinned by an R-E-R-A-V (Redundant, Established, Reliable, Accurate, and Viable) principle and asset management concepts. The proposed method is supported by a thorough review of assessment and monitoring technologies, as well as common sensor placement approaches. The approach selects optimal technology using a combination of technology readiness levels and SFAHP (Spherical Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process). Optimal placement is achieved with a k-Nearest Neighbors (kNN) model tuned with minimal topological and physical pipeline system features. Feature engineering is performed with OPTICS (Ordering Points to Identify the Clustering Structure) by evaluating the pipe segment vulnerability to failure-prone areas. Both the optimal technology selection and placement methods are integrated through a proposed algorithm. The optimal placement of monitoring technology is demonstrated through a modified benchmark network (Net3). The results reveal an accurate model with robust performance and a harmonic mean of precision and recall of approximately 65%. The model effectively identifies pipe segments requiring monitoring to prevent failures over a period of 11 years. The benefits and areas of future exploratory research are explained to encourage improvements and additional applications. Full article

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26 pages, 4688 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Best to Use Forest Wood for Energy: Perspectives from Energy Efficiency and Environmental Considerations

by John J. Fitzpatrick, Jack Carroll, Strahinja Macura and Neil Murphy

Eng 2025, 6(5), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6050095 - 8 May 2025

Viewed by 890

Abstract

This paper examines how best to use forest wood for energy application, considering that it is a limited natural resource. Eight systems are considered, including wood stoves, steam systems (boiler, power plant, and combined heat and power (CHP)), and gasification combined systems (gas [...] Read more.

This paper examines how best to use forest wood for energy application, considering that it is a limited natural resource. Eight systems are considered, including wood stoves, steam systems (boiler, power plant, and combined heat and power (CHP)), and gasification combined systems (gas turbine and combined cycle power plant, CHP, and Fischer–Tropsch). The methodology uses energy analysis and modelling and environmental/sustainability considerations to compare the energy systems. In terms of energy conversion efficiency, steam boilers and high-efficiency wood stoves for heating applications provide the highest efficiencies (~80 to 90%) and should be considered. Steam CHP systems provide lower overall energy conversion efficiencies (~75 to 80%) but do provide some electrical energy, and thus should be considered. The use of wood for the production of electricity on its own should not be considered due to low efficiencies (~20 to 30%). Particulate emissions hinder the application of high-efficiency stoves, especially in urban areas, whereas for industrial-scale steam boilers and CHP systems, particle separators can negate this problem. Gasification/Fischer–Tropsch systems have a lower energy efficiency (~30 to 50%); however, a sustainability argument could be made for liquid fuels that have few sustainable alternatives. Full article

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18 pages, 7105 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of Digital Twin, IoT and LoRa in SCARA Robots for Decentralized Automation with Wireless Sensor Networks

by William Aparecido Celestino Lopes, Adilson Cunha Rusteiko, Cleiton Rodrigues Mendes, Nicolas Vinicius Cruz Honório and Marcelo Tsuguio Okano

Eng 2025, 6(5), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6050090 - 26 Apr 2025

Viewed by 889

Abstract

The integration of Digital Twin (DT), Internet of Things (IoT), and Long Range Wireless (LoRa) technology in industrial automation increases efficiency, flexibility, and real-time monitoring. This study proposes a decentralized automation architecture for SCARA robots, leveraging wireless sensor networks to improve scalability, reduce [...] Read more.

The integration of Digital Twin (DT), Internet of Things (IoT), and Long Range Wireless (LoRa) technology in industrial automation increases efficiency, flexibility, and real-time monitoring. This study proposes a decentralized automation architecture for SCARA robots, leveraging wireless sensor networks to improve scalability, reduce the number of infrastructure components, and optimizing data-driven decision-making. Experimental validation demonstrated a 74.9% reduction in cycle time, decreasing from 55.42 s to 13.91 s across all test scenarios. The system achieved a 98.6% packet delivery success rate, ensuring reliable communication, while latency remained between 1 and 2 s, maintaining synchronization between the real robot and its digital twin. The main contributions include the following: (i) a decentralized control framework for SCARA robots, (ii) an evaluation of LoRa-based wireless communication, and (iii) experimental validation of feasibility. The results confirm the effectiveness of the system in stable real-time data transmission and precise robotic movements, offering a cost-effective alternative to conventional structures. Despite the advantages, challenges such as data security, interoperability, and real-time synchronization require further research. This study provides insights into the practical implementation of DT, IoT, and LoRa in industrial robotics, paving the way for advancements in smart manufacturing and Industry 4.0. Full article

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24 pages, 580 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vulnerability and Risk Management to Ensure the Occupational Safety of Underground Mines

by Fîță Nicolae Daniel, Păsculescu Dragoș, Obretenova Mila Ilieva, Popescu Florin Gabriel, Lazăr Teodora, Cruceru Emanuel Alin, Lazăr Dan Cristian, Slușariuc Gabriela, Safta Gheorghe Eugen and Șchiopu Adrian Mihai

Eng 2025, 6(5), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6050088 - 25 Apr 2025

Viewed by 868

Abstract

Ensuring occupational safety in underground mines is a fundamental priority due to the major risks associated with this unfriendly work environment. This involves employing a set of technical, organizational, and educational measures to reduce the hazards for workers and minimize the risks of [...] Read more.

Ensuring occupational safety in underground mines is a fundamental priority due to the major risks associated with this unfriendly work environment. This involves employing a set of technical, organizational, and educational measures to reduce the hazards for workers and minimize the risks of accidents and occupational diseases due to electrical and mechanical causes. Old and precarious coal extraction methods, in conjunction with obsolete infrastructure and electrical and mechanical installations, lead to high accident risk, endangering the lives of underground workers when at work. Precarious working conditions and working materials alongside the carelessness of decision makers make underground mine-based work a major cause of accidents and professional illnesses. In this paper, the authors identify, estimate, prioritize, and evaluate the vulnerabilities within underground mines and discuss the actions and resources necessary to mitigate, stop, and/or eliminate these vulnerabilities, as well as a mitigation strategy for stopping and/or eliminating them to achieve increased occupational safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

17 pages, 6257 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling the Impact of LED Light on Growing Carrot Taproots: A Novel Hydroponic Cultivation System

by Masaru Sakamoto, Ayuhiko Funaki, Fumiya Sakagami, Taichi Kaida and Takahiro Suzuki

Eng 2025, 6(5), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6050087 - 25 Apr 2025

Viewed by 827

Abstract

Root crops typically develop and enlarge their storage organs in the soil, where they are naturally shielded from light exposure. This characteristic influences their physiological development and presents challenges for hydroponic cultivation, as taproot enlargement is often inhibited when submerged in water. To [...] Read more.

Root crops typically develop and enlarge their storage organs in the soil, where they are naturally shielded from light exposure. This characteristic influences their physiological development and presents challenges for hydroponic cultivation, as taproot enlargement is often inhibited when submerged in water. To overcome this limitation, this study introduced a novel hydroponic system that prevents direct submersion in the nutrient solution. By isolating the taproots from both soil and nutrient solution, this system allows precise control of the root-zone light environment using LED irradiation. Carrot taproots were cultivated under blue, green, and red LED light from 42 days after sowing to assess their specific responses to different wavelengths. The results revealed distinct pigment accumulation patterns influenced by light quality. Blue light induced anthocyanin accumulation in the epidermis and outer cortex within 2 days of exposure and also stimulated chlorophyll synthesis in these outer tissues. In contrast, green and red light treatments promoted chlorophyll accumulation primarily in the stele, with red light having the most pronounced effect. These findings suggest that carrot taproots exhibit specific physiological responses to light exposure, demonstrating their ability to adjust pigment biosynthesis depending on the wavelength. By integrating controlled lighting environments into hydroponic systems, this study provides new insights into root development mechanisms and presents a novel strategy for optimizing root crop cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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24 pages, 1950 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fuzzy-Based Decision Support for Strategic Management: Evaluating Electric Vehicle Attractiveness in the Digital Era

by Sónia Gouveia, Daniel H. de la Iglesia, José Luís Abrantes, Alfonso J. López Rivero and Eduardo Gouveia

Eng 2025, 6(5), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6050086 - 25 Apr 2025

Viewed by 650

Abstract

In an era marked by sustainability challenges and digital transformation, organizations face heightened uncertainty in strategic decision-making. This paper applies a conceptual tool, a fuzzy-based decision model, in the appraisal of the attractiveness of electric vehicle acquisition and navigates the multifaceted complexities of [...] Read more.

In an era marked by sustainability challenges and digital transformation, organizations face heightened uncertainty in strategic decision-making. This paper applies a conceptual tool, a fuzzy-based decision model, in the appraisal of the attractiveness of electric vehicle acquisition and navigates the multifaceted complexities of integrating economic, environmental, and infrastructural factors. A concise overview of fuzzy principles highlights their relevance to strategic management in uncertain contexts. The study uses a practical example to demonstrate how fuzzy set-based decision models assess EV attractiveness by synthesizing costs, environmental impact, vehicle depreciation, and energy independence variables. The findings reveal the fuzzy set-based decision model’s potential to enhance decision clarity and efficiency, offering managers a simple but robust framework for navigating complex trade-offs. Implications for sustainable strategic management and suggestions for future research on advanced decision support systems are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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42 pages, 55621 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Development of a Multifunctional Stepladder: Usability, Sustainability, and Cost-Effectiveness

by Elwin Nesan Selvanesan, Poh Kiat Ng, Kia Wai Liew, Kah Wei Gan, Peng Lean Chong, Jian Ai Yeow and Yu Jin Ng

Eng 2025, 6(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6040079 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 1081

Abstract

This study presents the design, development, and evaluation of a multifunctional stepladder that integrates four functionalities: a stepladder, Pilates chair, wheelchair, and walking aid. Unlike existing research that focuses on single-function assistive devices, this study uniquely integrates a stepladder, wheelchair, walking aid, and [...] Read more.

This study presents the design, development, and evaluation of a multifunctional stepladder that integrates four functionalities: a stepladder, Pilates chair, wheelchair, and walking aid. Unlike existing research that focuses on single-function assistive devices, this study uniquely integrates a stepladder, wheelchair, walking aid, and Pilates chair into one multifunctional device, offering a compact, space-saving solution that addresses multiple daily needs in a single design. Building upon previous research, which conceptualized a multifunctional stepladder by synthesizing ideas, features, and functions from patent literature, existing products, and scientific articles, this study focuses on the design and testing phases to refine and validate the concept. Using sustainable materials like mild steel and aluminium, the design was optimized through structural simulations, ensuring durability under loads of up to 100 kg. Usability tests revealed that the invention significantly reduced task completion times, saved five times the space compared to single-function products, and provided enhanced versatility. Cost analysis highlighted its affordability, with a retail price of MYR 1392—approximately 35% lower than the combined cost of its single-function counterparts. Participant feedback noted strengths such as eco-friendliness, practicality, and ergonomic design, alongside areas for improvement, including portability, armrests, and storage. Future work includes enhanced portability for stair navigation, outdoor usability tests, and integration of smart technologies. This multifunctional stepladder significantly contributes to caregivers by reducing the physical burden of managing multiple assistive devices, enhancing efficiency in daily caregiving tasks, and providing a safer, more convenient tool that supports both mobility and exercise for elderly users. This multifunctional stepladder also offers a sustainable, cost-effective, and user-centric solution, addressing usability gaps while supporting global sustainability and accessibility initiatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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29 pages, 8412 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity Analysis of Soil Hydraulic Parameters for Improved Flow Predictions in an Atlantic Forest Watershed Using the MOHID-Land Platform

by Dhiego da Silva Sales, Jader Lugon Junior, David de Andrade Costa, Renata Silva Barreto Sales, Ramiro Joaquim Neves and Antonio José da Silva Neto

Eng 2025, 6(4), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6040065 - 27 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1122

Abstract

Soil controls water distribution, which is crucial for accurate hydrological modeling. MOHID-Land is a physically based, spatially distributed model that uses van Genuchten–Mualem (VGM) functions to calculate water content in porous media. The hydraulic soil parameters of VGM are dependent on soil type [...] Read more.

Soil controls water distribution, which is crucial for accurate hydrological modeling. MOHID-Land is a physically based, spatially distributed model that uses van Genuchten–Mualem (VGM) functions to calculate water content in porous media. The hydraulic soil parameters of VGM are dependent on soil type and are typically estimated from experimental data; however, they are often obtained using pedotransfer functions, which carry significant uncertainty. As a result, calibration is frequently required to account for both the natural spatial variability of soil and uncertainties estimation. This study focuses on a representative Atlantic Forest watershed. It assesses the sensitivity of channel flow to VGM parameters using a mathematical approach based on residuals derivative, aimed at enhancing soil calibration efficiency for MOHID-Land. The model’s performance significantly improved following calibration, considering only five parameters. The NSE improved from 0.16 on the base simulation to 0.53 after calibration. A sensitivity analysis indicated the curve adjustment parameter (

n

) as the most sensitive parameter, followed by saturated water content (

θ_{s}

) considering the 10% variation. Additionally, a combined change in

θ_{s}

,

n

, residual water content (

θ_{r}

), curve adjustment parameter (

α

), and saturated conductivity (

K_{s a t}

) values by 10% significantly improves the model’s performance, by reducing channel flow peaks and increasing baseflow. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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36 pages, 3674 KB

Open AccessArticle

Regulation of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): Innovative Strategies and Economic Insights

by Rachael E. Josephs, Thomas Yap, Moones Alamooti, Toluwase Omojiba, Achouak Benarbia, Olusegun Tomomewo and Habib Ouadi

Eng 2025, 6(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6040061 - 22 Mar 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5242

Abstract

The advent of small modular reactors (SMRs) represents a transformative leap in nuclear technology. With their smaller size, modular construction, and safety features, SMRs address challenges faced by traditional reactors. However, these technological advancements pose significant regulatory challenges that must be addressed to [...] Read more.

The advent of small modular reactors (SMRs) represents a transformative leap in nuclear technology. With their smaller size, modular construction, and safety features, SMRs address challenges faced by traditional reactors. However, these technological advancements pose significant regulatory challenges that must be addressed to ensure their safe and effective integration into the energy grid. This paper presents robust regulatory strategies essential for the deployment of SMRs. We also perform economic and sensitivity analysis on a notional SMR project to assess its feasibility, profitability, and long-term viability, pinpointing areas for cost optimization and determining the project’s resilience to market trends and technological changes. Key findings highlight market demand as the most influential factor, with public acceptance, regulatory clarity, economic viability, and government support playing critical roles. The sensitivity analysis shows that SMRs could account for 3% to 9% of the energy market by 2050, with a base case of 4.5%, emphasizing the need for coordinated efforts among policymakers, industry stakeholders, and regulatory bodies. Technological maturity suggests current designs are viable, with future R&D focusing on market appeal and safety. By synthesizing these insights, the paper aims to guide regulatory authorities in facilitating informed decision-making, policy formulation, and the adoption of SMRs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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26 pages, 4618 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Enhanced Cloud Network Integrity and Fair Compensation Scheme Through Data Structures and Blockchain Enforcement

by Renato Racelis Maaliw III

Eng 2025, 6(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6030052 - 12 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1045

Abstract

The expansion of cloud-based storage has intensified concerns about integrity, security, and fair compensation for third-party auditors. Existing authentication methods often compromise privacy with high computational costs, punctuating the need for an efficient and transparent verification system. This study proposes a privacy-preserving authentication [...] Read more.

The expansion of cloud-based storage has intensified concerns about integrity, security, and fair compensation for third-party auditors. Existing authentication methods often compromise privacy with high computational costs, punctuating the need for an efficient and transparent verification system. This study proposes a privacy-preserving authentication framework that combines blockchain-driven smart contracts with an optimized ranked-based Merkle hash tree (RBMHT). Experimental results demonstrated that our approach lowers computational costs by 24.02% and reduces communication overhead by 86.22% compared to existing solutions. By minimizing redundant operations and limiting auditor–cloud interactions, the systems improve reliability and scalability. This makes it well-suited for applications where privacy and trust are critical. Beyond performance gains, the scheme constitutes self-executing smart contracts, preventing dishonest collusions. By bridging security, dependability, and fairness, our findings set a new standard for reliable cloud attestation for a more secure and transparent auditing system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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25 pages, 5650 KB

Open AccessArticle

Efficiency and Sustainability in Solar Photovoltaic Systems: A Review of Key Factors and Innovative Technologies

by Luis Angel Iturralde Carrera, Margarita G. Garcia-Barajas, Carlos D. Constantino-Robles, José M. Álvarez-Alvarado, Yoisdel Castillo-Alvarez and Juvenal Rodríguez-Reséndiz

Eng 2025, 6(3), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6030050 - 6 Mar 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5166

Abstract

PSS (Photovoltaic Solar Systems) are a key technology in energy transition, and their efficiency depends on multiple interrelated factors. This study uses a systematic review based on the PRISMA methodology to identify four main categories affecting performance: technological, environmental, design and installation, and [...] Read more.

PSS (Photovoltaic Solar Systems) are a key technology in energy transition, and their efficiency depends on multiple interrelated factors. This study uses a systematic review based on the PRISMA methodology to identify four main categories affecting performance: technological, environmental, design and installation, and operational factors. Notably, technological advances in materials such as perovskites and emerging technologies like tandem and bifacial cells significantly enhance conversion efficiency, fostering optimism in the field. Environmental factors, including solar radiation, temperature, and contaminants, also substantially impact system performance. Design and installation play a crucial role, particularly in panel orientation, solar tracking systems, and the optimization of electrical configurations. Maintenance, material degradation, and advanced monitoring systems are essential for sustaining efficiency over time. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the field by reviewing 113 articles and analyzing three key areas—materials, application of sizing technologies, and optimization—from 2018 to 2025. The paper also explores emerging trends, such as the development of energy storage systems and the integration of smart grids, which hold promise for enhancing photovoltaic module (PM) performance. The findings highlight the importance of integrating technological innovation, design strategies, and effective operational management to maximize the potential of PM systems, providing a solid foundation for future research and applications across residential, industrial, and large-scale contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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9 pages, 2670 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Performance Monitoring of a Double-Slope Passive Solar-Powered Desalination System Using Arduino Programming

by Ganesh Radhakrishnan and Kadhavoor R. Karthikeyan

Eng 2025, 6(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6020039 - 18 Feb 2025

Viewed by 660

Abstract

Solar energy is one of the promising renewable energies; it is clean, green, and accepted worldwide for targeting sustainable development through applications such as power generation, desalination, food preservation, etc. Solar-powered desalination has received more attention in recent times to meet the demand [...] Read more.

Solar energy is one of the promising renewable energies; it is clean, green, and accepted worldwide for targeting sustainable development through applications such as power generation, desalination, food preservation, etc. Solar-powered desalination has received more attention in recent times to meet the demand of pure water in the rural places of many countries where solar energy is abundant. In the present work, a double-slope passive solar desalination system was fabricated with readily available materials that can be installed and used in rural places, either for domestic purposes or in small-scale industries. The capacity of the desalination system fabricated to be filled with saline water is ~15 L. The performance of the desalination system is continuously monitored by recording the temperatures at various locations around the system, such as the outer surface of the glass, the inner surface of the glass, inside the basin, and outside the basin, through DHT11 sensors controlled by Arduino programming fed in the Arduino UNO board. The influence of solar radiation intensity and temperatures at various locations on the solar still on the thermal performance and production of desalination unit is analyzed by the data recorded by the Arduino program. A cumulative yield of fresh water of around 0.7–0.9 L is recorded every day, and the lowest yield of around 0.55 L was obtained on the third day of experimentation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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Review

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20 pages, 2243 KB

Open AccessReview

Prospects of Improving the Vibroacoustic Method for Locating Buried Non-Metallic Pipelines

by Vladimir Pshenin, Alexander Sleptsov and Leonid Dukhnevich

Eng 2025, 6(6), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6060121 - 2 Jun 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1479

Abstract

Acoustic methods are a promising direction when determining the position of buried non-metallic pipelines. Under difficult soil conditions, one of the most effective methods is the vibroacoustic method, which has a maximum range of application when acoustic waves propagate through the transported medium. [...] Read more.

Acoustic methods are a promising direction when determining the position of buried non-metallic pipelines. Under difficult soil conditions, one of the most effective methods is the vibroacoustic method, which has a maximum range of application when acoustic waves propagate through the transported medium. However, due to limited energy input into the pipeline, signal detection at significant distances from the source becomes challenging. This article considers the mechanism of acoustic oscillations attenuation in pipes and suggests possible directions for optimization of the investigated technology. The evaluation of mathematical modeling methods for the investigated process is conducted, and the key signal attenuation relationships are presented. The analysis allowed us to establish that the vibroacoustic method has the potential of increasing the efficiency by approximately 10–20%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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18 pages, 3794 KB

Open AccessReview

Vertiports: The Infrastructure Backbone of Advanced Air Mobility—A Review

by Paola Di Mascio, Giulia Del Serrone and Laura Moretti

Eng 2025, 6(5), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng6050093 - 30 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3900

Abstract

Technological innovation toward electrification and digitalization is revolutionizing aviation, paving the way for new aeronautical paradigms and novel modes to transport goods and people in urban and regional environments. Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) leverages vertical and digital mobility, driven by safe, quiet, sustainable, [...] Read more.

Technological innovation toward electrification and digitalization is revolutionizing aviation, paving the way for new aeronautical paradigms and novel modes to transport goods and people in urban and regional environments. Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) leverages vertical and digital mobility, driven by safe, quiet, sustainable, and cost-effective electric vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft. A key enabler of this transformation is the development of vertiports—dedicated infrastructure designed for VTOL operations. Vertiports are pivotal in integrating AAM into multimodal transport networks, ensuring seamless connectivity with existing urban and regional transportation systems. Their design, placement, and operational framework are central to the success of AAM, influencing urban accessibility, safety, and public acceptance. These facilities should accommodate passenger and cargo operations, incorporating charging stations, takeoff and landing areas, and optimized traffic management systems. Public and private sectors are investing in vertiports, shaping the regulatory and technological landscape for widespread adoption. As cities prepare for the future of aerial mobility, vertiports will be the cornerstone of sustainable, efficient, and scalable air transportation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Insights in Engineering Research)

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