Vertiports: The Infrastructure Backbone of Advanced Air Mobility—A Review

Abstract

Technological innovation toward electrification and digitalization is revolutionizing aviation, paving the way for new aeronautical paradigms and novel modes to transport goods and people in urban and regional environments. Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) leverages vertical and digital mobility, driven by safe, quiet, sustainable, and cost-effective electric vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft. A key enabler of this transformation is the development of vertiports—dedicated infrastructure designed for VTOL operations. Vertiports are pivotal in integrating AAM into multimodal transport networks, ensuring seamless connectivity with existing urban and regional transportation systems. Their design, placement, and operational framework are central to the success of AAM, influencing urban accessibility, safety, and public acceptance. These facilities should accommodate passenger and cargo operations, incorporating charging stations, takeoff and landing areas, and optimized traffic management systems. Public and private sectors are investing in vertiports, shaping the regulatory and technological landscape for widespread adoption. As cities prepare for the future of aerial mobility, vertiports will be the cornerstone of sustainable, efficient, and scalable air transportation.

1. Introduction

The Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) sector is evolving, integrating three-dimensional mobility and digitalization through innovative, safe, quiet, sustainable, and cost-effective vehicles [1]. AAM encompasses both Urban Air Mobility (UAM) for intracity transport [2] and Regional Air Mobility (RAM) for intercity and rural connectivity [3], enabling a multimodal transport approach that enhances accessibility within local and regional transportation systems [4]. AAM transport services primarily involve electric vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft—piloted, remotely operated, or fully autonomous—along with their supporting infrastructures [5]. An Advanced Air Mobility ecosystem consists of five key components:

• Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing aircraft (eVTOLs) that operate vertical operations using electric power [6]. Some VTOL aircraft enable conventional or short takeoff and landing. These aircraft combine the vertical agility of helicopters with the aerodynamic efficiency of fixed-wing airplanes.
• Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) services, ensuring the airworthiness and reliability of AAM aircraft.
• Flight operations management, encompassing all activities from ticketing and piloting to ground assistance.
• Physical infrastructure, including vertiports, repurposed helipads, small airports, rooftops of large buildings, parking lots, and aircraft hangars.
• Digital infrastructure, comprising remote surveillance systems, air traffic management (ATM), unmanned traffic management (UTM), and an integrated connectivity network [7].

eVTOLs comprise various aircraft types, including fixed-wing planes, helicopters, and rotorcraft (e.g., cyclogyros or cyclocopters) [8]. These aircraft enhance accessibility and mobility across urban, metropolitan, and regional areas while supporting environmental sustainability, enhancing quality of life, and improving public safety [9]. In recent years, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), which fall under the VTOL category [10], have been increasingly deployed across several sectors, including infrastructure inspection, public surveillance, entertainment (e.g., sports broadcasting and cinematography), as well as private and military operations [11]. On a global scale, AAM has generated significant interest from the public and private sectors. In many countries, government-led initiatives have supported the growth of established aerospace companies and startups, contributing to local economic development and technological innovation [12,13]. With urban populations projected to increase 3% per decade, transportation systems in densely populated areas are expected to face mounting challenges [14]. Urban Air Mobility (UAM), a key subset of AAM, is emerging as a novel transportation solution for passengers and goods movement within high-density urban environments [15]. Recent advances in electrification, automation, and digitalization are reshaping the aviation sector, enabling the development of innovative aerial transportation systems tailored for urban areas [16]. UAM incorporates cutting-edge technologies such as electric propulsion, autonomous flight systems, and 5G connectivity networks [17]. A range of aircraft architecture is required to meet diverse operational needs, particularly regarding flight time and range. Several UAM applications, especially in cargo and medical transport, are already operational in non-European countries [18]. In Europe, pilot projects and demonstrators are currently evaluating the feasibility of UAM [19], with commercial services expected to launch within three to five years [20]. UAM is anticipated to offer environmental benefits and improved mobility for both citizens and businesses, particularly in commercial and emergency use cases [21]. The focus is primarily on electric VTOL (eVTOL) aircraft, which produce near-zero emissions, unlike conventional VTOLs that rely on combustion engines. eVTOL propulsion systems range from battery-electric and hybrid-electric to newer renewable technologies like hydrogen fuel cells [22]. Beyond emission reduction, eVTOLs help minimize noise pollution, contributing to aviation’s environmental sustainability. As such, eVTOLs represent a viable solution for passenger and cargo transportation within urban and regional contexts. Ugwueze et al. provided a comprehensive review on eVTOL aircraft development, identifying key concepts, enablers, and challenges [23]. Bacchini and Cestino compared electric VTOL configurations, analyzing different aircraft designs and their impact on vertiport infrastructure [24]. Nevertheless, public trust and social acceptance will be crucial for the widespread adoption of UAM [25]. A recent study conducted by the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) examined public perceptions of UAM, including market analyses, quantitative and qualitative surveys, and detailed noise impact assessments [14]. Safety emerged as a leading concern, although more than 50% of participants expressed confidence in the cybersecurity and reliability of UAM technologies [26].

For successful large-scale deployment, VTOL aircraft must meet rigorous safety requirements and comply with detailed regulatory frameworks to ensure both in-flight and ground safety. Experts from aerospace research institutions, academia, regulatory authorities, and industry stakeholders have identified key technical and operational prerequisites for safe VTOL operations [27]:

• Redundant propulsion systems to enhance operational reliability;
• Vertical takeoff and landing capabilities suited for dense, space-limited urban environments;
• Fail-safe structural designs to mitigate the consequences of system failures;
• Initial piloted flights to gather empirical data, refine procedures, and pave the way for full autonomy.

Although the literature on AAM and UAM is steadily growing, vertiports are often addressed marginally or mainly from a technological standpoint, with limited attention to their integrated planning and operational and regulatory dimensions. This study contributes to the field by reviewing vertiport development through a multidisciplinary lens, focusing on their role in multimodal transport integration, safety requirements, airspace coordination (U-space), and current European regulatory trends. By bringing together diverse perspectives and sources, we aim to support ongoing discussions on vertiport implementation and provide a structured overview to guide future research and policy. In the near future, continued collaboration between the aviation industry, regulatory agencies, and European Union stakeholders shall establish a robust and unified operational framework for UAM.

2. Methods

The authors conducted a systematic literature review to analyze the development of infrastructure for Advanced Air Mobility (AAM), focusing on vertiports and related systems. The review methodology followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020) guidelines [28], ensuring a transparent and replicable process. The authors performed comprehensive literature searches in the following electronic databases, Scopus, Web of Science, and IEEE Xplore, covering publications from January 2018 to March 2025. A manual search involved guidelines and technical reports from 2003. The keywords used included: “Advanced Air Mobility”, “Urban Air Mobility”, “Unmanned Aerial Systems”, “Vertiport”, “U-space”, and “eVTOL aircraft”. Boolean operators and truncations were applied where necessary to broaden the search scope. The inclusion criteria were peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, technical reports, and studies published in English between 2018 and 2025, and research focused on AAM infrastructure, vertiport design, regulations, airspace management, or operational challenges. Exclusion criteria included editorials, opinion pieces, and non-peer-reviewed content; articles unrelated to infrastructure or operational aspects of AAM; and studies focused exclusively on aircraft technology without connection to vertiport or AAM systems. Two authors independently screened the titles and abstracts of all retrieved records. Articles that met the inclusion criteria were read in full. Disagreements were resolved by the third author when necessary. A standardized data extraction form was used to collect relevant information from the selected studies, including:

• Study objective and scope;
• Geographic context;
• Type of infrastructure or regulatory focus;
• Key findings related to vertiport planning, safety, or operations.

The extracted data were analyzed thematically and categorized into five main areas: infrastructure requirements, aircraft characteristics, regulatory frameworks, U-space management, and application scenarios. The synthesis focused on common challenges, technological trends, and policy gaps across the included studies. Figure 1 presents a PRISMA flow diagram illustrating the identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion stages of the review.

The work selection strategy identified 68 peer-reviewed indexed research papers, and 16 standards, guidelines, and technical reports.

3. Air Mobility Sector: State of the Art

The Italian Civil Aviation Authority has identified 40 potential applications for Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) [29], categorized into four macro-sectors:

• Passenger transport in urban and extra-urban areas (air taxis);
• Transport of general goods and biomedical materials (medical and goods delivery);
• Inspection and mapping of areas and infrastructures (aerial surveying and monitoring);
• Complementary services, such as agricultural support.

As a result, vertiports should be highly accessible and well-integrated with existing transportation networks, including roads, train stations, buses, and other public transit services. While they can be located in various settings, vertiports are primarily expected to be situated in urban areas and near airports to improve air taxi operations within cities and between urban centers and airports. In this study, “vertiport” refers to dedicated airports designed for UAM operations, accommodating passenger and cargo transport.

3.1. Passenger Transport

Passenger transport includes applications involving various types of aircraft, primarily eVTOLs, either piloted or unmanned, for passenger transportation, services, and specialized missions (e.g., air taxis, airport shuttles, emergency response vehicles, and tourist air tours). The growing urban population is expected to increase congestion, leading to longer commute times and major economic and environmental consequences [30]. As a result, new mobility solutions, including AAM, are essential. Passenger vertiports will have facilities to support boarding, disembarking, passenger waiting areas, and electric charging stations for eVTOLs [31]. Cargo operations, on the other hand, will be decentralized and located at dedicated sites separate from passenger operations, although occasional use of passenger vertiports for cargo transport may occur. One of the world’s first operational vertiports, “Air-One”, is located in Coventry, UK [6]. In 2022, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued air carrier certificates for commercial flights carrying up to four passengers over distances of up to 150 miles [32].

A real-world example of urban AAM implementation is the project to deploy VTOLs for the 2026 Winter Olympics [33]. Milan’s municipality, in collaboration with the operator of Milan’s Linate and Malpensa airports, has signed an agreement to introduce the first flying taxis for transportation to and from Olympic venues. This initiative aligns with the Italian Civil Aviation Authority (ENAC)’s National Strategic Plan, which outlines vertiport development within Milan’s metropolitan area. A total of seventeen locations have been identified, including two airport sites. The network will consist of six regional and nine urban vertiports. In Milan, strategic vertiports will be placed at Linate and Malpensa airports, Porta Romana (the site of the Olympic Village), and CityLife [33]. A one-way flight from the airport to the city center costs around EUR 150 but it is expected to drop to approximately EUR 80 [34].

3.2. Freight Transport

Traditional land-based delivery systems face significant challenges, such as traffic congestion, scheduling constraints, and delays in load transfers, which hinder companies from providing timely deliveries while simultaneously increasing their carbon footprint [35]. Over the past few years, the demand for more efficient delivery solutions has grown, primarily driven by the rapid growth of e-commerce. The COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated the adoption of commercial drones for vaccine deliveries, which also contributed to a notable rise in food and goods deliveries via UAVs. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) present several advantages in freight transportation, including reduced delivery times, lower operational costs, and a reduced environmental impact. Additionally, delivery speed has become a crucial factor in customer loyalty, particularly in last-mile logistics. Advances in UAV technology are expected to address increasing market demands. However, UAV freight operations in populated areas have been less profitable than those in less congested regions, primarily due to the high costs associated with safety, technology, and infrastructure requirements [36]. Nevertheless, the market for UAV-based delivery is projected to experience substantial growth, expanding from USD 0.3 billion today to USD 4 billion by 2035 [36]. The anticipated market segmentation is 60% for deliveries, 15% for agricultural applications (such as cultivation and fertilization), 10% for emergency transport, 10% for heavy load transport, and 5% for maintenance and air treatment [37].

Much of the infrastructure and operational framework used for passenger vertiports can be applied to cargo flight vertiports [38] as well. In certain cases, a vertiport may be operated by a single air operator or a limited number of companies, particularly in business-to-customer (B2C) deliveries, hospital logistics, or medical supply transport. Close coordination between vertiport and air operators is crucial for optimizing flight scheduling and improving network efficiency. Conversely, if a vertiport is open to multiple air operators without shared commercial interests, the potential for logistical optimization is significantly reduced. Two primary modes of cargo flight can be identified:

• Direct cargo transport: The UAV takes off and lands with cargo on board. The cargo vertiport is co-located with a logistics hub, and the vertiport location depends on the proximity of the cargo depot.
• In-flight cargo pickup and delivery: The UAV departs and returns to the vertiport without carrying cargo. During the flight, goods are picked up and delivered to different locations. In this case, the vertiport is dedicated solely to flight operations, and its location is optimized for flight efficiency, safety, and public acceptance.

Globally, UAV-based logistics have expanded significantly. In the United States, Japan, Rwanda, Ghana, and Nigeria, the world’s largest autonomous delivery network is already operational, delivering on-demand vaccines, blood, prescription medications, and medical supplies directly to hospitals, healthcare facilities, and patients’ homes [39].

3.3. Inspection and Mapping of Areas and Infrastructures

The inspection market for VTOLs includes applications across both industrial and non-industrial sectors, such as public surveillance, entertainment, private use, and military operations. This sector currently represents the largest market for vertical mobility and is a mature segment. According to [37], the market is projected to reach USD 35 billion by 2035, with services allocation as follows: 30% for inspections and monitoring, 30% for agriculture and forestry, 15% for media and entertainment, 10% for private use (e.g., hobbies), and 15% for other activities.

A key transition in this market will be the shift from Visual Line of Sight (VLOS) to Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) operations. In 2020, the Spanish air safety agency authorized BVLOS operations for drones to inspect power lines, in partnership with an electric company, a drone operator, and a telecommunications provider [40]. These operations utilized 4G and 5G communication technologies to ensure continuous control of the drones during flight.

3.4. Complementary Services

Vertical mobility relies on a wide range of ancillary and complementary services to ensure the efficient and safe delivery of its core functions. These services include vertiport development, air traffic management (ATM), maintenance, and certification [41]. The growth and scalability of this service segment will be closely linked to the advancement and adoption of the other sectors within the AAM ecosystem [42]. However, the efficiency and optimization of support services will impact the performance, scalability, and sustainability of vertical mobility [43]. As a key strategic component of the sector, the service market will not only contribute to ongoing innovation but also drive operational improvements, thereby creating new business opportunities and enhancing the long-term viability of the sector [44].

4. Aircraft and Vertiports for Vertical Operations

According to [45], a vertiport is designated area—whether on land, water, or structure—designated for the takeoff and landing operations of vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft. Vertiport design follows EASA guidelines for Visual Flight Rule (VFR) vertiports, which are based on established heliport design and construction standards [46]. A vertiport typically includes several key components:

• Touchdown and lift-off area (TLOF): Vertiports must provide designated zones for landing and takeoff that comply with safety margins for obstacle clearance and emergency landing requirements;
• Final approach and takeoff area (FATO): These zones must ensure sufficient space for aircraft maneuvering, maintaining unobstructed approach and departure;
• Safety area around the FATO;
• Aircraft stands;
• Battery charging facilities for eVTOLs;
• Taxiing and ground movement areas (for self-powered or externally assisted VTOL movement);
• Passenger facilities, including boarding, disembarking, and waiting areas.

In 2024, the FAA released guidance for vertiports and related infrastructure to accommodate eVTOL aircraft [47]. These standards provide recommendations for the geometric configuration and layout of takeoff and landing zones (Figure 2). The size of these areas depends on the reference aircraft controlling dimension (CD), which is the maximum distance between two opposite points on the aircraft, measured on a flat, level plane and accounting for all extendable components (e.g., wingtip to wingtip, rotor tip to rotor tip, rotor tip to wingtip, or fuselage to rotor tip).

As noted by Preis [48], the sizing of VTOL aerodromes and the estimation of throughput are crucial for ensuring effective vertiport design. Preis’s methodology provides valuable insights into how layout planning and capacity estimation can be optimized for VTOL operations, which directly applies to the sizing of TLOF and FATO areas [48]. According to [47], the TLOF should be positioned on level ground or a flat structure centered within the FATO. The FATO must be designed to withstand dynamic loads up to 150% of the VTOL’s maximum takeoff weight. Additionally, the FATO and the safety area should match the TLOF’s shape (whether circular, square, or rectangular). The FAA’s guidelines also address vertiport development at airports, indicating that as eVTOL traffic volumes increase, dedicated facilities and procedures may be required to prevent interference with other airport operations [47]. The TLOF should ensure easy access to the airport terminal for vertiports located within airport premises. During VFR operations, preferred eVTOL approach and departure paths should ideally align with the prevailing wind direction. Furthermore, alternative flight paths should be separated from the primary flight path by at least 135 degrees to minimize operational conflicts. Multiple TLOF/FATO areas should be available to support capacity and contingency planning, as each arrival or departure temporarily occupies a TLOF/FATO. While the FATO and safety area are typically co-located within the vertiport infrastructure, the TLOF and aircraft stand areas may be positioned separately. In addressing scalability, Qanbari and Skorupski highlighted the importance of multi-pad configurations and CPN analysis for handling large volumes of eVTOL traffic and optimizing vertiport throughput [49]. Figure 3 shows various vertiport configurations:

• Air taxiing configuration: The TLOF and stand area are combined, allowing the VTOL to hover over the vertiport surface using its propulsion system, without requiring takeoff or landing from the FATO;
• Ground movement configuration: The TLOF and FATO are combined, but the stand area is located away from the FATO, requiring ground movement of the VTOL. In this case, the aircraft is either self-propelled or transported via an external system.

The vertical ascent phase of a VTOL may be limited to the initial stage of takeoff, after which the flight path transitions into a relatively shallow climb [50]. Xiang et al. provided a comprehensive overview of the challenges associated with autonomous eVTOL operations, specifically addressing how various flight paths and trajectory deviations impact safety and efficiency in real-world applications [51]. The key parameters for vertiport location selection involve various factors, such as proximity to high-demand areas, accessibility via existing transport networks, and the environmental impact of operations. Mercan et al. emphasized the importance of urban infrastructure compatibility and market demand in selecting vertiport locations for Urban Air Mobility [52]. Mendonca et al. discussed advanced air mobility vertiport considerations, focusing on design parameters such as operational requirements and regulatory compliance for vertiports in urban and peri-urban environments [53]. Furthermore, Maksoud et al. introduced a performance-based approach to vertiport design, evaluating how various design factors contribute to operational efficiency and performance metrics, particularly in high-density urban areas like the UAE [54]. The use of a K-Means algorithm and noise analysis for vertiport location optimization was explored by [55] in their study on UAM operations in Seoul. Their work highlights how environmental factors, particularly noise pollution, impact vertiport site selection in highly urbanized environments. Similarly, Lim and Hwang analyzed on-demand mobility applications and implemented an optimization model for the Seoul metro area, focusing on the operational efficiency of vertiports based on demand patterns and traffic flows [56]. Vascik and Hansman presented a model for vertiport capacity envelopes, exploring how topological and operational factors impact the overall capacity of vertiports [57]. Ahn and Hwang provided a capacity analysis of vertiports for UAM, with a specific application to Gimpo Airport in Korea [58]. The capacity and throughput of vertiports were deepened by Guerreiro et al., who investigated the impact of scheduling systems on vertiport operations in managing multiple aircraft arrivals and departures [59]. Rimjha and Trani identify the critical factors affecting vertiport capacity, including aircraft movement, traffic density, and regulatory constraints [60]. Saxena et al. contributed by analyzing vertiport terminal scheduling and conducting a throughput analysis for multiple surface directions [61]. Niklaß et al. took a collaborative approach to model urban air transportation systems, including U-space operations, vertiport management, and air traffic control [62].

Figure 4 illustrates a rooftop vertiport with an unobstructed “clear” trajectory (green line). In contrast, a ground-level vertiport may present challenges, as the same VTOL could face potential obstructions in its flight path, reducing the feasibility of a safe vertical takeoff (red line). As with airports, studying obstacles surrounding the flight infrastructure is crucial for vertiports [63].

EASA sets comprehensive requirements to ensure that Urban Air Mobility (UAM) operations can effectively adapt to urban environments and accommodate various VTOL configurations [64]. These requirements define three primary vertiport configurations that affect takeoff profiles [65]:

• Elevated Conventional Takeoff: The VTOL departs from an elevated structure within the city (Figure 5a). This configuration allows for potential trajectory deviations due to failures, improving operational safety.
• Conventional Takeoff: The VTOL takes off in an area free of surrounding obstacles. This vertiport may include a small runway to facilitate a rolling takeoff, enhancing energy efficiency for specific VTOL types and mission profiles. Obstacle tolerance is incorporated into the trajectory design to mitigate risk during failure (Figure 5b).
• Vertical Takeoff: This configuration is suitable for operations in highly constrained, obstacle-rich areas. The VTOL follows a predominantly vertical trajectory, minimizing horizontal displacement within complex urban settings (Figure 5c).

In addition to the takeoff profiles outlined above, safety objectives play a critical role in determining the location, design, and operational parameters of vertiports and VTOL trajectories [65]. Jiang et al. contributed valuable insights to vertiport location optimization considering the multidimensional demand of Urban Air Mobility (UAM) [66]. eVTOL aircraft intended for commercial transport should meet the same reliability standards as traditional commercial airliners. This requirement translates to a safety threshold of 10⁻⁹, meaning that a catastrophic failure is statistically acceptable only once per billion flight hours [67]. Vertiports should include contingency plans for aircraft experiencing technical failures, ensuring safe rerouting or emergency landings at alternative sites. Moreover, standardized procedures for ground operations (e.g., charging and taxiing procedures) are essential for maintaining safe and efficient UAM systems.

Vertiports are primarily based on heliport design, but they more closely resemble helipads. EASA has introduced technical specifications to ensure obstacle-free operations for VTOL aircraft [65]. A key feature is the “obstacle-free volume”—a funnel-shaped airspace above the vertiport, which reduces the risk of midair collisions during takeoff and landing operations (Figure 6).

Safety objectives also vary by aircraft certification categories. According to EASA regulations, the “Enhanced” category is required for VTOL operations in high-density urban airspace, particularly for commercial passenger air transport services and air taxis [67]. VTOLs operating in congested urban environments should be capable of Continued Safe Flight and Landing (CSFL), as an immediate emergency landing outside a vertiport may not be feasible in an urban landscape (Figure 7a). The “Basic” category applies to VTOLs with lower safety requirements, depending on the passenger capacity (i.e., 0–1, 2–6, or 7–9 passengers). This category is suitable for non-commercial passenger air transport in less congested areas, where VTOLs can perform a controlled emergency landing in open spaces (Figure 7b).

Concerning vertiports for passenger VTOL operations, EASA distinguishes multiple vertiport classifications (Figure 8).

The blue circles in Figure 7 represent standard airports, heliports, or vertiports authorized for VTOL operations. These serve as departure points for VTOL aircraft. The orange squares indicate CSFL airfields, which provide only minimal facilities and services, meaning VTOL aircraft may land at these locations, but they may not be able to take off from them. Operationally, vertiports are categorized as takeoff vertiports, alternate vertiports, alternate en-route vertiports for CSFL, and emergency landing sites. A takeoff vertiport is the designated location from which each flight originates. An alternate vertiport serves as a diversion point in case of emergencies, adverse weather, or other operational issues. Alternate en-route vertiports for CSFL provide minimal facilities and services to support CSFL operations in an emergency landing.

Vertiport design is complex, balancing safety, accessibility, and environmental impacts. While rooftop vertiports offer space-saving advantages in urban centers, they face challenges like wind turbulence and limited accessibility. Ground-level vertiports, on the other hand, provide more straightforward integration with existing transport systems but are constrained by limited space in densely populated urban areas. The choice between these two configurations requires careful consideration of the local urban and specific operational requirements.

5. U-Space Management for Vertiports

Operations at vertiports will be managed through U-space, an automated ATM system designed to handle various flight control tasks, such as flight sequencing, landing clearances, taxiing instructions, and other critical control tasks. The management of U-space requires sophisticated theoretical models and methodologies for effective air traffic management in increasingly congested airspaces. Zhang et al. proposed a queuing theory-based method for assessing vertiport capacity in UAM environments, which can significantly enhance the operational planning and management of vertiports by modeling traffic flows and wait times, thus improving the system’s efficiency and reliability in high-demand situations [68]. Bucchignani et al. review methodologies for wind field reconstruction within U-space, focusing on the use of meteorological data and computational models to enhance the reliability and efficiency of UAS operations in various weather conditions [69]. U-space serves as the European ATM framework for unmanned aerial systems (UASs). The CORUS project developed three editions of the U-space Concept of Operations [70]. U-space services are primarily ground-based, with a focus on ensuring safety, security, and flight efficiency. In Italy, ENAV (the Italian air traffic control services provider) is leading the U-space implementation for low-altitude air traffic management, particularly for remotely piloted aircraft and other UAV categories [71]. The designated airspace for drones extends up to 120 m above ground level, with additional restricted zones near airports and critical infrastructure. Remotely piloted vehicles are authorized to operate within this airspace according to technical specifications set by EASA [65].

A vertiport operator is responsible for the following duties:

• Establishing and enforcing minimum operational and equipment requirements for VTOLs utilizing the vertiport and ensuring compliance.
• Communicating the operational status of the vertiport, including landing, departure, and parking availability.
• Providing essential information and services, such as ground obstacle maps, designated landing and departure paths, and potentially local weather conditions.

VTOL aircraft operating within the U-space airspace surrounding a vertiport are managed by one or more U-space service providers (USSPs) responsible for authorizing operations based on slot availability and infrastructure capacity. Swaid et al. developed a U-space modeling framework to assess air traffic management efficiency in Hamburg with simulation models [72]. Barrado et al. described the U-space concept of operations for integrating low-altitude aerial operations with existing airspace management systems [73]. Fas-Millán et al. investigated real-world applications of U-space in enhancing the management of UAS operations [74]. Tang et al. (2021) focused on U-space algorithms for conflict resolution services in dense urban environments [75].

Most vertiports are surrounded by a Vertiport Traffic Zone (V-TZ), a designated section of U-space airspace designed to protect approach areas and governed by specific operational rules. Flight planning and landing authorization are coordinated by the U-space service provider (USSP), which manages requests from UAS operators seeking access to vertiports. Access booking to the vertiport is part of the U-space flight plan (U-Plan); however, it does not constitute takeoff or landing authorization. Final takeoff and landing authorization must be obtained before actual operations commence. For initial implementations, vertiports are assumed to be surrounded by uncontrolled airspace, except for vertiports located near airports, which may be within a controlled airspace. In future operational environments, vertiports may be located closer to airports. In such cases, air taxi operations will interact with ATM, potentially integrating through U-space services and a collaborative Air Traffic Control (ATC) interface. VTOL aircraft will be visible to ATC systems via the Human–Machine Interface, ensuring that Air Traffic Control Officers can supervise and coordinate operations.

The operational environment, available services, and applicable flight rules within U-space differ between scheduled and on-demand passenger services. In a passenger-scheduled service, a UAS operator maximizes vertiport utilization by operating flights determined by safety and regulatory requirements and UAM constraints. Each flight is scheduled with allowances for tactical adjustments, using minimum-sized four-dimensional airspace volumes to reduce the risk of conflict with other air traffic. The Flight Authorization Service verifies that each scheduled flight is conflict-free. In cases where strategic conflicts arise, flight speed or routing adjustments ensure that takeoff and landing schedules remain unaffected. Throughout the journey, the pilot receives tactical separation instructions from U-space, ensuring safe and efficient integration with other air traffic. As the UAS approaches the destination vertiport, the pilot verifies landing slot availability, and the aircraft follows a designated arrival path to execute a safe landing.

In an on-demand air taxi service, the ride-hailing system verifies vertiport availability and candidate aircraft for the requested trip. The ride-hailing application interfaces with the UAS operator’s Operational Plan Preparation and Optimization Service. The U-plan is finalized and submitted to the Flight Authorization Service for approval. If conflicts arise, the operator’s business logic algorithms determine the best resolution, and the finalized plan is simultaneously presented to departure and arrival vertiports. Then, the in-flight operations utilize the same U-space services for flight monitoring and tactical adjustments.

6. Vertiport Regulatory Framework

The development and implementation of Urban Air Mobility (UAM) are intrinsically linked to vertiports [76]. A well-defined regulatory framework is necessary to ensure that vertiports meet safety, operational, and environmental requirements while integrating seamlessly with existing urban and regional transportation networks [77,78]. The development of AAM requires updating existing aviation regulations to include eVTOL aircraft. The current regulatory frameworks primarily address traditional aviation, which may not be suitable for the unique characteristics of eVTOL operations. The integration of eVTOLs into regulated airspace presents a critical regulatory challenge. The regulation of vertiports involves multiple stakeholders, including aviation authorities, municipal governments, and private operators, to establish guidelines for site selection, airspace integration, and operational procedures [79].

FAA and EASA have each developed guidelines for vertiport design, airspace management, and operational procedures. The Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) and the Joint Authorities for Rulemaking on Unmanned Systems (JARUS) also contribute to the regulatory landscape by establishing safety and operational standards for integrating vertiports within controlled airspace [80].

In Europe, EASA has a leading role in developing regulations specific to vertiports. The Prototype Technical Specifications for the Design of VFR Vertiports [46] provide technical guidance for vertiports that will accommodate eVTOL aircraft. These specifications outline key elements such as landing and takeoff area requirements, obstacle clearance zones, and operational safety measures. Additionally, EASA has introduced Special Conditions for VTOL-capable aircraft, which establish specific airworthiness and operational requirements for aircraft using vertiports. The transition from conventional aviation regulations to tailored guidelines for UAM infrastructure reflects the need for adaptable frameworks that address emerging technologies. The Regulation (EU) 2019/947 [81] outlines operational rules and procedures for UAV flights, including operator certification and classification of UAVs based on their level of risk and intended use.

One of the most complex regulatory aspects is the certification of vertiports. EASA mandates that vertiports comply with safety thresholds similar to traditional aviation infrastructure [82]. The Type Certification (TC) process for vertiports involves a comprehensive review of site selection criteria, airspace compatibility, and emergency response capabilities. This certification process ensures that vertiports can support high-frequency operations while maintaining stringent safety standards. Given the rapid advancements in UAM, efforts are underway to streamline certification timelines to facilitate faster market adoption.

The Italian Civil Aviation Authority (ENAC) regulates vertiport development and ensures compliance with European directives. The Regolamento UAS-IT [83] includes provisions to integrate vertiports into the national airspace system. This regulation aligns with EASA guidelines while addressing specific national requirements for site selection, urban integration, and noise impact assessments [82]. Additional regulatory documents support vertiport deployment. According to [84], ENAC establishes airspace management procedures for vertiports, defining restricted zones and operational constraints to prevent conflicts with traditional aviation traffic. Furthermore, [84] provides guidelines on operational requirements for vertiports, including pilot training, ground control coordination, and emergency response planning.

Although regulatory bodies such as EASA and the FAA are making strides, the regulatory frameworks for eVTOLs are still in their infancy. Many existing regulations do not fully account for the technological capabilities and risks specific to eVTOLs, such as autonomous operations and urban integration. This regulatory gap may result in delayed deployment and could ultimately hinder AAM’s growth if not addressed swiftly.

7. Discussion and Conclusions

The emergence of Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) marks a paradigm shift in urban and regional transportation systems, utilizing technological advancements to tackle increasing urban congestion and environmental concerns. By integrating electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft, AAM has the potential to redefine mobility by merging vertical transportation with existing infrastructure, promoting sustainability, efficiency, and accessibility. The deployment of eVTOL technology, alongside supporting infrastructure, presents an opportunity to reduce traffic congestion, lower emissions, and optimize urban mobility networks. AAM leverages innovative technologies, including distributed propulsion, 5G communication, and autonomous flight systems, to enhance operational efficiency and safety. However, the successful realization of AAM depends on overcoming critical technical, regulatory, and social barriers.

One of the key challenges in AAM adoption is ensuring safety and reliability, which requires comprehensive regulatory frameworks and rigorous testing protocols. As AAM technologies such as eVTOLs progress rapidly, existing regulatory frameworks have struggled to keep up. Current regulations primarily focus on traditional aviation technologies, which may not be suitable for eVTOLs that operate in urban environments with different safety and operational considerations. The gap between technological development and regulatory approval is significant, creating a mismatch between what is technologically possible and what is legally permissible. This misalignment hinders the rapid deployment of AAM technologies. The integration of vertiports into urban environments presents several logistical and infrastructural challenges. Urban areas are often space-constrained, and noise pollution from eVTOLs is a critical concern. Additionally, public acceptance remains an ongoing challenge, as residents may be resistant to the introduction of new, potentially disruptive technologies. However, the need for sustainable, multimodal transport solutions in cities is growing. Vertiports must be designed not only for technical feasibility but also for public acceptance, environmental sustainability, and integration with existing infrastructure. Additionally, the economic viability of AAM services depends on their scalability and cost reduction, achieved through technological advancements, optimized operational models, and economies of scale. While technological innovations in eVTOLs have been the subject of much excitement, many reviews have failed to address the disconnect between technological advancements and the ability of existing infrastructure to support these innovations. For example, while many studies have demonstrated the viability of eVTOLs, few address the practical difficulties of implementing vertiports at scale in cities. This contradiction highlights the need for empirical research on the economic, social, and logistical challenges of vertiport deployment.

Collaboration among industry stakeholders, regulatory authorities, and urban planners is essential for addressing these challenges. Investments in research and development, alongside pilot programs and public engagement initiatives, will play a pivotal role in building trust and refining AAM deployment strategies. Harmonized international regulations will be critical in establishing uniform safety protocols, cybersecurity measures, and environmental sustainability standards. Regulatory agencies, such as the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), are instrumental in defining certification processes and operational guidelines for eVTOL aircraft. The development of vertiports and their integration into multimodal transportation hubs underscore the necessity of infrastructure investment and strategic urban planning.

The initial applications of AAM, such as medical supply delivery and infrastructure inspections, highlight its immediate benefits. Future deployments, including passenger transportation services, will demonstrate this potential, as evidenced by the planned use of VTOLs for the 2026 Winter Olympics in Milan. However, regional disparities in AAM adoption emphasize the need for global cooperation and knowledge-sharing initiatives to ensure the equitable advancement of AAM technologies. While AAM technologies, especially eVTOLs, have made significant strides in development, several critical challenges remain. These challenges include the regulatory lag in adapting frameworks to emerging technologies and the practical difficulties in integrating vertiports into already-congested urban spaces. Future research must bridge these gaps by addressing the regulatory issues, logistical barriers, and empirical data needs that hinder the deployment of AAM systems.

As technological innovation accelerates, AAM represents a transformative opportunity to reimagine urban and regional mobility in a way that is efficient, sustainable, and accessible. By addressing technical, regulatory, and public acceptance challenges, AAM can achieve widespread adoption, ultimately contributing to enhanced quality of life, economic growth, and the modernization of transportation ecosystems worldwide.