Climate

17 pages, 2031 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Resilience of Chinese Ports to Tropical Cyclones: Operational Efficiency and Strategic Importance

by Mark Ching-Pong Poo, Wen Zhang, Leila Kamalian, Tianni Wang, Yui-yip Lau and Tina Ziting Xu

Climate 2024, 12(12), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12120214 - 9 Dec 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2667

This study evaluated the resilience of five major Chinese ports—Shanghai, Tsingtao, Shenzhen, Xiamen, and Qinzhou—against the impacts of tropical cyclones. These ports, as integral global maritime supply chain nodes, face rising vulnerabilities from climate-related disruptions such as typhoons, sea-level rise, and extreme temperature [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the resilience of five major Chinese ports—Shanghai, Tsingtao, Shenzhen, Xiamen, and Qinzhou—against the impacts of tropical cyclones. These ports, as integral global maritime supply chain nodes, face rising vulnerabilities from climate-related disruptions such as typhoons, sea-level rise, and extreme temperature fluctuations. Employing a resilience assessment framework, this study integrated climate and operational data to gauge how cyclone-induced events affect port performance, infrastructure, and economic stability. Multi-centrality analysis and the Borda count method were applied to assess each port’s strategic importance and operational efficiency under cyclone exposure. The findings highlight variations in resilience across the ports, with Shanghai and Tsingtao showing heightened risk due to their critical roles within international logistics networks. This study suggests strategies like strengthening infrastructure, improving emergency responses, and adopting climate-resilient policies to make China’s ports more sustainable and resilient to climate threats. This research offers actionable insights for policymakers and port authorities, contributing to a more climate-resilient maritime logistics framework. Full article

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20 pages, 2850 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Decoding Carbon Footprints: How U.S. Climate Zones Shape Building Emissions

by Ali Nouri and Ming Hu

Climate 2024, 12(12), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12120212 - 6 Dec 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1722

Abstract

The construction industry accounts for over 40% of carbon emissions in the United States, with embodied carbon—emissions associated with building materials and construction processes—remaining underexplored, particularly regarding the impact of location and climate. This study addresses this gap by investigating the influence of [...] Read more.

The construction industry accounts for over 40% of carbon emissions in the United States, with embodied carbon—emissions associated with building materials and construction processes—remaining underexplored, particularly regarding the impact of location and climate. This study addresses this gap by investigating the influence of different climate zones on the embodied carbon emissions of residential buildings. Using Building Information Modeling (BIM), 3D models were developed based on the 2021 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) and International Residential Code (IRC). A lifecycle assessment (LCA) was conducted using Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) to evaluate the embodied carbon of building materials during the product stage. The findings reveal that buildings in colder climates exhibit higher embodied carbon emissions, ranging from 25,768 kgCO₂e in Zone 1 to 40,129 kgCO₂e in Zone 8, due to increased insulation requirements. Exterior walls and roofs were identified as significant contributors, comprising up to 34% of total emissions. Sensitivity analysis further indicates that the window-to-wall ratio and interior wall design substantially affect embodied carbon, with baseline emissions around 170 kgCO₂e/m² in warm areas and 255 kgCO₂e/m² in cold areas. These results establish a baseline for lifecycle embodied carbon values across different climate zones in the United States and align with international standards. This study provides valuable insights for policymakers and designers, offering data to inform effective carbon reduction strategies and optimize building designs for sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)

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22 pages, 5572 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Application of Machine Learning and Hydrological Models for Drought Evaluation in Ungauged Basins Using Satellite-Derived Precipitation Data

by Anjan Parajuli, Ranjan Parajuli, Mandip Banjara, Amrit Bhusal, Dewasis Dahal and Ajay Kalra

Climate 2024, 12(11), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12110190 - 17 Nov 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3607

Abstract

Drought is a complex environmental hazard to ecosystems and society. Decision-making on drought management options requires evaluating and predicting the extremity of future drought events. In this regard, quantifiable indices such as the standardized precipitation index (SPI), the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI), [...] Read more.

Drought is a complex environmental hazard to ecosystems and society. Decision-making on drought management options requires evaluating and predicting the extremity of future drought events. In this regard, quantifiable indices such as the standardized precipitation index (SPI), the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI), and the standardized streamflow index (SSI) have been commonly used to characterize meteorological and hydrological drought. In general, the estimation and prediction of the indices require an extensive range of precipitation (SPI and SPEI) and discharge (SSI) datasets in space and time domains. However, there is a challenge for long-term and spatially extensive data availability, leading to the insufficiency of data in estimating drought indices. In this regard, this study uses satellite precipitation data to estimate and predict the drought indices. SPI values were calculated from the precipitation data obtained from the Centre for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing (CHRS) data portal for a study water basin. This study employs a hydrological model for calculating discharge and drought in the overall basin. It uses random forest (RF) and support vector regression (SVR) as machine learning models for SSI prediction for time scales of 1- and 3-month periods, which are widely used for establishing interactions between predictors and predictands that are both linear and non-linear. This study aims to evaluate drought severity variation in the overall basin using the hydrological model and compare this result with the machine learning model’s results. The results from the prediction model, hydrological model, and the station data show better correlation. The coefficients of determination obtained for 1-month SSI are 0.842 and 0.696, and those for the 3-month SSI are 0.919 and 0.862 in the RF and SVR models, respectively. These results also revealed more precise predictions of machine learning models in the longer duration as compared to the shorter one, with the better prediction result being from the SVR model. The hydrological model-evaluated SSI has 0.885 and 0.826 coefficients of determination for the 1- and 3-month time durations, respectively. The results and discussion in this research will aid planners and decision-makers in managing hydrological droughts in basins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coping with Flooding and Drought)

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22 pages, 2141 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Performance Evaluation of CMIP6 Climate Model Projections for Precipitation and Temperature in the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia

by Fekadie Bazie Enyew, Dejene Sahlu, Gashaw Bimrew Tarekegn, Sarkawt Hama and Sisay E. Debele

Climate 2024, 12(11), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12110169 - 22 Oct 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4741

Abstract

The projection and identification of historical and future changes in climatic systems is crucial. This study aims to assess the performance of CMIP6 climate models and projections of precipitation and temperature variables over the Upper Blue Nile Basin (UBNB), Northwestern Ethiopia. The bias [...] Read more.

The projection and identification of historical and future changes in climatic systems is crucial. This study aims to assess the performance of CMIP6 climate models and projections of precipitation and temperature variables over the Upper Blue Nile Basin (UBNB), Northwestern Ethiopia. The bias in the CMIP6 model data was adjusted using data from meteorological stations. Additionally, this study uses daily CMIP6 precipitation and temperature data under SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5 scenarios for the near (2015–2044), mid (2045–2074), and far (2075–2100) periods. Power transformation and distribution mapping bias correction techniques were used to adjust biases in precipitation and temperature data from seven CMIP6 models. To validate the model data against observed data, statistical evaluation techniques were employed. Mann–Kendall (MK) and Sen’s slope estimator were also performed to identify trends and magnitudes of variations in rainfall and temperature, respectively. The performance evaluation revealed that the INM-CM5-0 and INM-CM4-8 models performed best for precipitation and temperature, respectively. The precipitation projections in all agro-climatic zones under SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5 scenarios show a significant (p < 0.01) positive trend. The mean annual maximum temperature over UBNB is estimated to increase by 1.8 °C, 2.1 °C, and 2.8 °C under SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5 between 2015 and 2100, respectively. Similarly, the mean annually minimum temperature is estimated to increase by 1.5 °C, 2.1 °C, and 3.1 °C under SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5, respectively. These significant changes in climate variables are anticipated to alter the incidence and severity of extremes. Hence, communities should adopt various adaptation practices to mitigate the effects of rising temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)

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33 pages, 19908 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

On the Role of the Building Envelope on the Urban Heat Island Mitigation and Building Energy Performance in Mediterranean Cities: A Case Study in Southern Italy

by Alessandra Martinelli, Francesco Carlucci and Francesco Fiorito

Climate 2024, 12(8), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12080113 - 31 Jul 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3433

Abstract

The urban heat island (UHI) effect is one of the largest climate-related issues concerning our cities due to the localized temperature increase in highly urbanized areas. This paper aims to investigate the impact of UHI mitigation techniques in promoting climate resilience, by reducing [...] Read more.

The urban heat island (UHI) effect is one of the largest climate-related issues concerning our cities due to the localized temperature increase in highly urbanized areas. This paper aims to investigate the impact of UHI mitigation techniques in promoting climate resilience, by reducing urban air temperatures and cooling energy consumption in buildings. To this end, four mitigation solutions regarding the building envelope—green roofs, green walls, cool roofs, and cool walls—were investigated for the city of Bari in Southern Italy and compared with the current baseline scenario. Hence, five scenarios were simulated—using the ENVI-met microclimate software—during three representative summer days, and the resulting microclimate changes were assessed. Based on these analyses, new climate files—one for each scenario—were generated and used as input to run energy simulations in EnergyPlus to estimate the building cooling consumption. Coupling the microclimate and the consumption outcomes, the mitigation strategies were evaluated from both an urban and building point of view. The study shows that urban characteristics, mainly geometry and materials, are crucial for the UHI phenomenon. All the applied technologies seem to be effective. However, green walls proved to be more efficient in reducing outdoor temperatures (1 °C reduction in daily temperatures), while cool walls performed better in reducing cooling energy consumption, with an overall saving of 6% compared to the current scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Urban Futures in a Changing Climate)

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27 pages, 10897 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Historic Changes and Future Projections in Köppen–Geiger Climate Classifications in Major Wine Regions Worldwide

by Cristina Andrade, André Fonseca, João A. Santos, Benjamin Bois and Gregory V. Jones

Climate 2024, 12(7), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12070094 - 27 Jun 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6699

Abstract

A valuable tool for comprehending and characterizing climate patterns on a global scale is the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system. When it comes to wine production, the climate of a region plays an essential role in determining whether specific grape varieties can be cultivated, [...] Read more.

A valuable tool for comprehending and characterizing climate patterns on a global scale is the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system. When it comes to wine production, the climate of a region plays an essential role in determining whether specific grape varieties can be cultivated, largely determining the style of wine that can be made, and influencing the consistency of overall wine quality. In this study, the application of the Köppen–Geiger classification system to the latest Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) experiments has been explored. To establish a baseline for the historical period (1970–2000), the WorldClim dataset was used alongside a selection of an ensemble of 14 Global Climate Models. The evaluation of climate variability across winemaking regions is conducted by considering future climate projections from 2041 to 2060, which are based on different anthropogenic radiative forcing scenarios (Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, SSP2–4.5, and SSP5–8.5). The results are the most comprehensive documentation of both the historical climate classifications for most wine regions worldwide and the potential changes in these classifications in the future. General changes in climate types are projected to occur largely in a significant shift from a warm summer climate to a hot summer climate in temperate and dry zones worldwide (climate types C and B, respectively). This shift poses challenges for grape cultivation and wine production. The grape development process can be significantly affected by high temperatures, which could result in early ripening and changes in the grape berry’s aromatic compounds. As regions transition and experience different climates, wine producers are required to adapt their vineyard management strategies by implementing suitable measures that can effectively counter the detrimental impacts of abiotic stresses on grape quality and vineyard health. These adaptation measures may include changes in canopy and soil management, using different variety-clone-rootstock combinations, adopting irrigation methods, or shifting into other microclimatic zones, among other effective techniques. To ensure long-term sustainability, wine producers must consider the climatic change projections that are specific to their region, allowing them to make more informed decisions about vineyard management practices, reducing risks, and ultimately making the wine industry more resilient and adaptive to the ongoing effects of climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: Interdisciplinary Perspectives)

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18 pages, 10092 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantifying Drought Impacts Based on the Reliability–Resiliency–Vulnerability Framework over East Africa

by Hassen Babaousmail, Brian Odhiambo Ayugi, Zulfiqar Hammad, Donnata Alupot, Kokou Romaric Posset, Richard Mumo and Adharsh Rajasekar

Climate 2024, 12(7), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12070092 - 27 Jun 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2671

Abstract

Drought poses a significant threat to water resources in East Africa, necessitating a comprehensive assessment of its impacts for effective mitigation strategies. This study utilizes two global gridded SPEI datasets to analyze drought characteristics (i.e., frequency, duration, and severity) in East Africa from [...] Read more.

Drought poses a significant threat to water resources in East Africa, necessitating a comprehensive assessment of its impacts for effective mitigation strategies. This study utilizes two global gridded SPEI datasets to analyze drought characteristics (i.e., frequency, duration, and severity) in East Africa from 1981 to 2021. To estimate the sustainability of water resources over the region, the study employed the Reliability–Resiliency–Vulnerability framework (RRV) that aggregates the drought characteristics (i.e., frequency, duration, and severity). Drought is deemed to have occurred when the SPEI value falls below −1, so the threshold for water demand (RRV) is also computed at a threshold level of −1. The findings indicate pronounced changes in drought patterns across East Africa, with evidence of varying degrees of recovery and resilience in different regions. Employing the RRV framework over the East Africa region to determine how the region can cope with the effects of drought revealed a median range of RRV of 0.61 to 0.80, indicating a sustainable situation during the study period. This indicates that despite the recorded drought incidences, the water catchments of lakes, rivers, and major water towers are not threatened and, thus, less vulnerable. Although certain regions exhibit declining resilience and vulnerability to drought impacts, there is a need for targeted mitigation measures and policy interventions to safeguard water resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Climate Change and Human Impact on Freshwater Water Resources: Rivers and Lakes)

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11 pages, 536 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

On the Unforced or Forced Nature of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation: A Linear and Nonlinear Causality Analysis

by Umberto Triacca and Antonello Pasini

Climate 2024, 12(7), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12070090 - 26 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2240

Abstract

In recent years, there has been intense debate in the literature as to whether the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) is a genuine representation of natural climate variability or is substantially driven by external factors. Here, we perform an analysis of the influence of [...] Read more.

In recent years, there has been intense debate in the literature as to whether the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) is a genuine representation of natural climate variability or is substantially driven by external factors. Here, we perform an analysis of the influence of external (natural and anthropogenic) forcings on the AMO behaviour by means of a linear Granger causality analysis and by a nonlinear extension of this method. Our results show that natural forcings do not have any causal role on AMO in both linear and nonlinear analyses. Instead, a certain influence of anthropogenic forcing is found in a linear framework. Full article

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35 pages, 863 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Climate Change and Human Health in the Arctic: A Review

by Elena A. Grigorieva

Climate 2024, 12(7), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12070089 - 22 Jun 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8714

Abstract

Over recent decades, the Arctic has begun facing a range of climate-related challenges, from rising temperatures to melting ice caps and permafrost thaw, with significant implications for ecosystems and human well-being. Addressing the health impacts of these issues requires a comprehensive approach, integrating [...] Read more.

Over recent decades, the Arctic has begun facing a range of climate-related challenges, from rising temperatures to melting ice caps and permafrost thaw, with significant implications for ecosystems and human well-being. Addressing the health impacts of these issues requires a comprehensive approach, integrating scientific research, community engagement, and policy interventions. This study conducts a literature review to assess the effects of climate change on human health in northern latitudes and to compile adaptation strategies from the Arctic countries. A literature search was performed between January and April 2024 for papers published after 2000, using the electronic databases Web of Science, Pubmed, Science Direct, Scopus, Google Scholar, and eLibrary.RU, with specific questions formulated to direct the search: (i) What are the climate changes? (ii) How does climate change affect human health? (iii) What adaptation measures and policies are required? The key phrases “climate change”, “human health”, “adaptation practices”, and “Arctic” were employed for searching. Ultimately, 56 relevant studies were identified, reviewing health risks such as infectious diseases, mental health issues, and diseases connected with extreme weather events; wildfires and their associated pollution; permafrost degradation; pure water; and food quality. The paper also examines mitigation and adaptation strategies at all levels of governance, emphasizing the need for international cooperation and policy action to combat negative health outcomes, investments in healthcare infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and public health education. Incorporating diverse perspectives, including Indigenous knowledge, Community-Based Adaptation, EcoHealth and One Health approaches, is crucial for effectively addressing the health risks associated with climate change. In conclusion, the paper proposes adaptation strategies to mitigate the health impacts of climate change in the Arctic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Impact on Human Health)

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29 pages, 29751 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Beyond the First Tipping Points of Southern Hemisphere Climate

by Terence J. O’Kane, Jorgen S. Frederiksen, Carsten S. Frederiksen and Illia Horenko

Climate 2024, 12(6), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12060081 - 31 May 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2659

Abstract

Analysis of observations, reanalysis, and model simulations, including those using machine learning methods specifically designed for regime identification, has revealed changes in aspects of the Southern Hemisphere (SH) circulation and Australian climate and extremes over the last half-century that indicate transitions to new [...] Read more.

Analysis of observations, reanalysis, and model simulations, including those using machine learning methods specifically designed for regime identification, has revealed changes in aspects of the Southern Hemisphere (SH) circulation and Australian climate and extremes over the last half-century that indicate transitions to new states. In particular, our analysis shows a dramatic shift in the metastability of the SH climate that occurred in the late 1970s, associated with a large-scale regime transition in the SH atmospheric circulation, with systematic changes in the subtropical jet, blocking, zonal winds, and storm tracks. Analysis via nonstationary clustering reveals a regime shift coincident with a sharp transition to warmer oceanic sea surface temperatures and increased baroclinicity in the large scales of the Antarctic Circumpolar Circulation (ACC), extending across the whole hemisphere. At the same time, the background state of the tropical Pacific thermocline shoaled, leading to an increased likelihood of El Niño events. The SH climate shift in the late 1970s is the first hemispheric regime shift that can be directly attributed to anthropogenic climate change. These changes in dynamics are associated with additional regional tipping points, including reductions in mean and extreme rainfall in south-west Western Australia (SWWA) and streamflow into Perth dams, and also with increases in mean and extreme rainfall over northern Australia since the late 1970s. The drying of south-eastern Australia (SEA) occurred against a background of accelerating increases in average and extreme temperatures across the whole continent since the 1990s, implying further inflection points may have occurred. Analysis of climate model simulations capturing the essence of these observed shifts indicates that these systematic changes will continue into the late 21st century under high greenhouse gas emission scenarios. Here, we review two decades of work, revealing for the first time that tipping points characteristic of regime transitions are inferred to have already occurred in the SH climate system. Full article

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17 pages, 1552 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Adaptation through Climate-Smart Agriculture: Examining the Socioeconomic Factors Influencing the Willingness to Adopt Climate-Smart Agriculture among Smallholder Maize Farmers in the Limpopo Province, South Africa

by Koketso Cathrine Machete, Mmapatla Precious Senyolo and Lungile Sivuyile Gidi

Climate 2024, 12(5), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12050074 - 17 May 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3270

Abstract

Agriculture contributes to the South African economy, but this sector is highly vulnerable to climate change risks. Smallholder maize farmers are specifically susceptible to climate change impacts. The maize crop plays a crucial role in the country’s food security as is considered a [...] Read more.

Agriculture contributes to the South African economy, but this sector is highly vulnerable to climate change risks. Smallholder maize farmers are specifically susceptible to climate change impacts. The maize crop plays a crucial role in the country’s food security as is considered a staple food and feed. The study aimed at examining the socioeconomic factors influencing smallholder maize farmers’ willingness to adopt climate-smart agriculture in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. It was conducted in three different areas due to their specific agro-ecological zones. A multipurpose research design was used to gather data, and multistage random sampling was used to choose the study areas. Subsequently, 209 purposefully selected farmers were interviewed face-to-face using structured questionnaires and focus discussion groups. Descriptive results revealed that 81%, 67%, and 63% farmers in Ga-Makanye, Gabaza, and Giyani were willing to adopt CSA. Using the double-hurdle model, the t-test was significant at 1%, Prob > chi2 = 0. 0000, indicating a good model. At a 5% confidence level, education, crop diversification, and information about climate-smart agriculture (CSA) positively influenced adoption, while household size and agricultural experience negatively influenced it. It is recommended that the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform, and Rural Development provide CSA workshops and educational programs to farmers to enhance their knowledge and decision-making processes regarding adaptation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Changing Rainfall Patterns and Food Insecurity: Vulnerable Regions and Adaptation Strategies)

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17 pages, 509 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Two Decades of Integrated Flood Management: Status, Barriers, and Strategies

by Neil S. Grigg

Climate 2024, 12(5), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12050067 - 8 May 2024

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 10022

Abstract

Losses from flood disasters are increasing globally due to climate-driven forces and human factors such as migration and land use changes. The risks of such floods involve multiple factors and stakeholders, and frameworks for integrated approaches have attracted a global community of experts. [...] Read more.

Losses from flood disasters are increasing globally due to climate-driven forces and human factors such as migration and land use changes. The risks of such floods involve multiple factors and stakeholders, and frameworks for integrated approaches have attracted a global community of experts. The paper reviews the knowledge base for integrated flood risk management frameworks, including more than twenty bibliometric reviews of their elements. The knowledge base illustrates how integrated strategies for the reduction of flood risk are required at different scales and involve responses ranging from climate and weather studies to the construction of infrastructure, as well as collective action for community resilience. The Integrated Flood Management framework of the Associated Programme on Flood Management of the World Meteorological Organization was developed more than twenty years ago and is explained in some detail, including how it fits within the Integrated Water Resources Management concept that is managed by the Global Water Partnership. The paper reviews the alignment of the two approaches and how they can be used in tandem to reduce flood losses. Success of both integrated management approaches depends on governance and institutional capacity as well as technological advances. The knowledge base for flood risk management indicates how technologies are advancing, while more attention must be paid to social and environmental concerns, as well as government measures to increase participation, awareness, and preparedness. Ultimately, integrated flood management will involve solutions tailored for individual situations, and implementation may be slow, such that perseverance and political commitment will be needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of Flood Risk Assessment and Management)

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14 pages, 3263 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Machine Learning Identification of Attributes and Predictors for a Flash Drought in Eastern Australia

by Milton Speer, Joshua Hartigan and Lance M. Leslie

Climate 2024, 12(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12040049 - 8 Apr 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7050

Abstract

Flash droughts (FDs) are natural disasters that strike suddenly and intensify quickly. They occur almost anywhere, anytime of the year, and can have severe socio-economic, health and environmental impacts. This study focuses on a recent FD that began in the cool season of [...] Read more.

Flash droughts (FDs) are natural disasters that strike suddenly and intensify quickly. They occur almost anywhere, anytime of the year, and can have severe socio-economic, health and environmental impacts. This study focuses on a recent FD that began in the cool season of the Upper Hunter region of Eastern Australia, an important energy and agricultural local and global exporter that is both flood- and drought-prone. Here, the authors investigate the FD that started abruptly in May 2023 and extended to October 2023. The FD followed floods in November 2021 and much above-average May–October 2022 rainfall. Eight machine learning (ML) regression techniques were applied to the 60 May–October periods from 1963–2022, using a rolling windows attribution search from 45 possible climate drivers, both individually and in combination. The six most prominent climate drivers, and likely predictors, provide an understanding of the major contributors to the FD. Next, the 1963–2022 data were divided into two shorter timespans, 1963–1992 and 1993–2022, generally accepted as representing the early and accelerated global warming periods, respectively. The key attributes were markedly different for the two timespans. These differences are readily explained by the impacts of global warming on hemispheric and synoptic-scale atmospheric circulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Addressing Climate Change with Artificial Intelligence Methods)

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17 pages, 3026 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Space–Time Characterization of Extreme Precipitation Indices for the Semiarid Region of Brazil

by Ana Letícia Melo dos Santos, Weber Andrade Gonçalves, Lara de Melo Barbosa Andrade, Daniele Tôrres Rodrigues, Flávia Ferreira Batista, Gizelly Cardoso Lima and Cláudio Moisés Santos e Silva

Climate 2024, 12(3), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12030043 - 13 Mar 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3737

Abstract

Various indices of climate variability and extremes are extensively employed to characterize potential effects of climate change. Particularly, the semiarid region of Brazil is influenced by adverse effects of these changes, especially in terms of precipitation. In this context, the main objective of [...] Read more.

Various indices of climate variability and extremes are extensively employed to characterize potential effects of climate change. Particularly, the semiarid region of Brazil is influenced by adverse effects of these changes, especially in terms of precipitation. In this context, the main objective of the present study was to characterize the regional trends of extreme precipitation indices in the semiarid region of Brazil (SAB), using daily precipitation data from the IMERG V06 product, spanning the period from 1 January 2001 to 31 December 2020. Twelve extreme precipitation indices were considered, which were estimated annually, and their spatial and temporal trends were subsequently analyzed using the nonparametric Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope. The analysis revealed that the peripheral areas of the SAB, especially in the northwest and extreme south regions, exhibited higher intensity and frequency of extreme precipitation events compared to the central portion of the area. However, a negative trend in event intensity was noted in the north, while positive trends were identified in the south. The frequency of extreme events showed a predominance of negative trends across most of the region, with an increase in consecutive dry days particularly throughout the western SAB. The average total precipitation index was above 1000 mm in the north of the SAB, whereas in the central region, the precipitation averages were predominantly below 600 mm, with rainfall intensity values ranging between 6 and 10 mm/day. Over the span of 20 years, the region underwent an average of 40 consecutive dry days in certain localities. A negative trend was observed in most of the indices, indicating a reduction in precipitation intensity in future decades, with variations in some indices. The dry years observed towards the end of the analyzed period likely contributed to the observed negative trends in the majority of extreme precipitation indices. Such trends directly impact the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events in the SAB. The study is important for highlighting and considering the impacts of changes in precipitation extremes in the semiarid region of Brazil. Based on the obtained results, we advocate the implementation of public policies to address future challenges, such as incorporating adaptations in water resource management, sustainable agricultural practices, and planning for urban and rural areas. Full article

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18 pages, 284 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Secondary School Students’ Perceptions and Concerns on Sustainability and Climate Change

by Raquel de Rivas, Amparo Vilches and Olga Mayoral

Climate 2024, 12(2), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12020017 - 28 Jan 2024

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4865

Abstract

This research is framed in Education for Sustainability, aimed at promoting the inclusion of the principles and values of Sustainability in education from a holistic perspective. The study focuses on finding out the concerns and knowledge of secondary school students from Valencia (Spain), [...] Read more.

This research is framed in Education for Sustainability, aimed at promoting the inclusion of the principles and values of Sustainability in education from a holistic perspective. The study focuses on finding out the concerns and knowledge of secondary school students from Valencia (Spain), who were surveyed during the academic years 2019–2020, 2020–2021 and 2021–2022 about Sustainability and Climate Change. Examining their conceptions, initial ideas, possible shortcomings, and conceptual errors is necessary to build a teaching itinerary with the purpose of adapting and reorienting educational practice to changing situations and different social contexts. The analysis, which is part of a broader research project, focuses on studying what secondary school students know (or rather, what they do not know or are unaware of) about Sustainability and Climate Change, examining their interests and concerns. Our experimental design is based on a wide-ranging questionnaire addressed to students that also promotes initial reflections. The results show that the participating students are concerned about socio-environmental problems, particularly about Climate Change. Nevertheless, they show a limited knowledge of Sustainability. This situation must encourage the involvement of the whole educational community to achieve a greater understanding of the planetary crisis through Education for Sustainability with the final goal of ensuring an effective involvement of the younger generations who are beginning to make their own decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions between Climate Science and Education)

37 pages, 504 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Adaptation of Agriculture to Climate Change: A Scoping Review

by Elena Grigorieva, Alexandra Livenets and Elena Stelmakh

Climate 2023, 11(10), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11100202 - 6 Oct 2023

Cited by 128 | Viewed by 54731

Abstract

Since agricultural productivity is weather and climate-related and fundamentally depends on climate stability, climate change poses many diverse challenges to agricultural activities. The objective of this study is to review adaptation strategies and interventions in countries around the world proposed for implementation to [...] Read more.

Since agricultural productivity is weather and climate-related and fundamentally depends on climate stability, climate change poses many diverse challenges to agricultural activities. The objective of this study is to review adaptation strategies and interventions in countries around the world proposed for implementation to reduce the impact of climate change on agricultural development and production at various spatial scales. A literature search was conducted in June–August 2023 using electronic databases Google Scholar and Scientific Electronic Library eLibrary.RU, seeking the key words “climate”, “climate change”, and “agriculture adaptation”. Sixty-five studies were identified and selected for the review. The negative impacts of climate change are expressed in terms of reduced crop yields and crop area, impacts on biotic and abiotic factors, economic losses, increased labor, and equipment costs. Strategies and actions for agricultural adaptation that can be emphasized at local and regional levels are: crop varieties and management, including land use change and innovative breeding techniques; water and soil management, including agronomic practices; farmer training and knowledge transfer; at regional and national levels: financial schemes, insurance, migration, and culture; agricultural and meteorological services; and R&D, including the development of early warning systems. Adaptation strategies depend on the local context, region, or country; limiting the discussion of options and measures to only one type of approach—"top-down” or “bottom-up”—may lead to unsatisfactory solutions for those areas most affected by climate change but with few resources to adapt to it. Biodiversity-based, or “ecologically intensive” agriculture, and climate-smart agriculture are low-impact strategies with strong ecological modernization of agriculture, aiming to sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes while addressing the interrelated challenges of climate change and food security. Some adaptation measures taken in response to climate change may not be sufficient and may even increase vulnerability to climate change. Future research should focus on adaptation options to explore the readiness of farmers and society to adopt new adaptation strategies and the constraints they face, as well as the main factors affecting them, in order to detect maladaptation before it occurs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Adaptation Ways for Smallholder Farmers)

22 pages, 3778 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Bamboo as a Nature-Based Solution (NbS) for Climate Change Mitigation: Biomass, Products, and Carbon Credits

by Chunyu Pan, Guomo Zhou, Anil Kumar Shrestha, Jialu Chen, Robert Kozak, Nuyun Li, Jinliang Li, Yeyun He, Chunguang Sheng and Guangyu Wang

Climate 2023, 11(9), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11090175 - 24 Aug 2023

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 22939

Abstract

Bamboo, a rapidly growing woody grass prevalent in pan-tropical zones, holds promising potential as a nature-based solution (NbS) for climate change mitigation. In this systematic review of 91 research articles, we critically assess the scope and constraints of bamboo’s role in mitigating climate [...] Read more.

Bamboo, a rapidly growing woody grass prevalent in pan-tropical zones, holds promising potential as a nature-based solution (NbS) for climate change mitigation. In this systematic review of 91 research articles, we critically assess the scope and constraints of bamboo’s role in mitigating climate change across three dimensions: as a carbon sink in biomass form, as carbon storage in bamboo products, and as a contributor to carbon project credits. Our analysis reveals that existing studies disproportionately focus on 36 limited species, such as Phyllostachys pubescens and Bambusa vulgaris, with geographic concentration in Asia (91%) and limited studies from Africa (7%) and South America (1%). While many studies emphasize the carbon-saving benefits of bamboo products compared with traditional goods, there is a noticeable gap in comprehensive evaluations of carbon pools from individual bamboo forests encompassing all product varieties. While bamboo forests offer significant carbon trading potential, their global role is restricted by the absence of internationally accepted methodologies and the presence of debates about classifying bamboo as a tree species. This extensive review highlights the multifaceted value of bamboo in climate change mitigation, thereby highlighting its significance as a critical component for informed policymaking and the development of sustainable practices in future climate strategies worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Deforestation and Forest Degradation)

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14 pages, 2270 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Generation Z Worries, Suffers and Acts against Climate Crisis—The Potential of Sensing Children’s and Young People’s Eco-Anxiety: A Critical Analysis Based on an Integrative Review

by Irida Tsevreni, Nikolaos Proutsos, Magdalini Tsevreni and Dimitris Tigkas

Climate 2023, 11(8), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11080171 - 14 Aug 2023

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 13153

Abstract

The adverse and severe impacts of climate-induced natural hazards, which are expected to be aggravated by climate change, are forming a wider outline of the environmental crisis, being a source of negative emotions for human societies. Children and young people, in particular, are [...] Read more.

The adverse and severe impacts of climate-induced natural hazards, which are expected to be aggravated by climate change, are forming a wider outline of the environmental crisis, being a source of negative emotions for human societies. Children and young people, in particular, are one of the most vulnerable social groups to this distress. In this research, we intend to analyze the eco-anxiety and climate anxiety aspects of Generation Z, based on a critical review of studies on children’s and young people’s ecological feelings worldwide, alongside a study of actual data on natural disasters per country since the year 2000. The results of the research revealed that (a) Generation Z worries in the Global North and suffers in the Global South, (b) Generation Z acts against climate change, and (c) there is an existential dimension of children’s and young people’s eco-anxiety. The study also highlights dimensions of eco-anxiety that are under-researched and are important to explore in the future. Empathizing with Generation Z’s emotional state in relation to ecological crisis and climate change may affect and highlight new directions in environmental thought and awareness. Full article

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29 pages, 15892 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Precipitation and Hydrological Droughts in South America through Statistically Downscaled CMIP6 Projections

by Glauber Willian de Souza Ferreira, Michelle Simões Reboita, João Gabriel Martins Ribeiro and Christie André de Souza

Climate 2023, 11(8), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11080166 - 2 Aug 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6196

Abstract

Drought events are critical environmental threats that yield several socioeconomic impacts. Such effects are even more relevant for South America (SA) since different activities essential for the continent, such as agriculture and energy generation, depend highly on water resources. Thus, this study aimed [...] Read more.

Drought events are critical environmental threats that yield several socioeconomic impacts. Such effects are even more relevant for South America (SA) since different activities essential for the continent, such as agriculture and energy generation, depend highly on water resources. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate future changes in precipitation and hydrological drought occurrence in SA through climate projections from eight global climate models (GCMs) of CMIP6. To this end, statistical downscaling was applied to the projections obtained using the quantile delta mapping technique, and the method proved to be efficient in reducing systematic biases and preserving GCMs’ trends. For the following decades, the results show considerable and statistically significant reductions in precipitation over most of SA, especially during the austral spring, with the most intense signal under the SSP5-8.5 forcing scenario. Furthermore, GCMs showed mixed signals about projections of the frequency and intensity of drought events. Still, they indicated agreement regarding the increased duration and severity of events over the continent and a substantial proportion of moderate and severe events over most of Brazil during the 21st century. These results can be helpful for better management of water resources by decision-makers and energy planners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Warming and Extreme Drought)

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18 pages, 3240 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Exploring Low-Carbon Design and Construction Techniques: Lessons from Vernacular Architecture

by Ming Hu

Climate 2023, 11(8), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11080165 - 31 Jul 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8778

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive review of low-carbon materials and construction techniques commonly used in vernacular buildings. The study highlights the relevance of vernacular architecture in the context of the shift towards sustainable construction practices. A combination of a climatic zone map, vernacular [...] Read more.

This paper presents a comprehensive review of low-carbon materials and construction techniques commonly used in vernacular buildings. The study highlights the relevance of vernacular architecture in the context of the shift towards sustainable construction practices. A combination of a climatic zone map, vernacular language type map, and continent map is used to identify the vernacular regions. Eight bio-based low-carbon materials, including wood, adobe, rammed earth, cob, sod, thatch, bamboo, and straw bales, are discussed, along with their characteristics, availability, and environmental impacts. The construction techniques associated with these materials are explained, emphasizing their simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and adaptability. The paper also explores two important design approaches: design for disassembly and design for modularity that were used in vernacular building. The review found the use of low-carbon materials and construction techniques derived from vernacular architecture can contribute to minimizing waste, reducing environmental impacts, and promoting a circular economy in the building industry. This research provides valuable insights for architects, engineers, and policymakers seeking sustainable alternatives in the construction sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Built Environment and Human Comfort)

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14 pages, 1104 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Towards Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions Agriculture in North Africa through Climate-Smart Agriculture: A Systematic Review

by Youssef Brouziyne, Ali El Bilali, Terence Epule Epule, Victor Ongoma, Ahmed Elbeltagi, Jamal Hallam, Fouad Moudden, Maha Al-Zubi, Vincent Vadez and Rachael McDonnell

Climate 2023, 11(7), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11070139 - 30 Jun 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4578

Abstract

North Africa (NA) is supposed to lower emissions in its agriculture to honor climate action commitments and to impulse sustainable development across Africa. Agriculture in North Africa has many assets and challenges that make it fit to use the tools of Climate-Smart Agriculture [...] Read more.

North Africa (NA) is supposed to lower emissions in its agriculture to honor climate action commitments and to impulse sustainable development across Africa. Agriculture in North Africa has many assets and challenges that make it fit to use the tools of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) for mitigation purposes. This study represents a first attempt to understand if CSA practices are sufficiently established in NA to contribute to reducing agriculture emissions. A PRISMA-inspired systematic review was carried out on an initial 147 studies retrieved from Scopus, Google Scholar, and the Web of Science databases, as well as from gray literature. 11 studies were included in the final analysis since they report the mitigation and co-benefits of CSA-based practices within NA. A bias risk was identified around the optimal inclusion of studies produced in French, and a specific plan was set for its minimization. Synthesis results revealed that most studies focused either on improving soil quality (nine studies) or managing enteric fermentation (two studies). The review revealed a poor establishment of the CSA framework in the region, especially in sequestering GHG emissions. A set of recommendations has been formulated to address the identified gaps from research orientations and organizational perspectives and empower the CSA as an ally for mitigation in north African agriculture. Full article

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21 pages, 1097 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Nanofertilizer Use for Adaptation and Mitigation of the Agriculture/Climate Change Dichotomy Effects

by Raquel Saraiva, Quirina Ferreira, Gonçalo C. Rodrigues and Margarida Oliveira

Climate 2023, 11(6), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11060129 - 10 Jun 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5309

Abstract

Agriculture is considered a significant climate change (CC) driver due to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the loss of fertilizers that contribute to water eutrophication. On the other hand, climate change effects are already impacting agriculture, endangering food security. This paper explores the [...] Read more.

Agriculture is considered a significant climate change (CC) driver due to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the loss of fertilizers that contribute to water eutrophication. On the other hand, climate change effects are already impacting agriculture, endangering food security. This paper explores the dichotomies of the effects of agriculture on CC as well as of CC on agriculture, focusing on the contribution that nanofertilizers can bring to this complex system in both directions. The strategies to reduce CC while adapting and mitigating its effects must be a global effort. It is not possible to focus only on the reduction in GHG emissions to stop the effects that are already being felt worldwide. Nanofertilizers, especially slow- and controlled-release nanofertilizers, can reduce the nutrient input and also boost productivity while mitigating some CC effects, such as soil nutrient imbalance and agricultural emissions. As so, this review highlights the benefits of nanofertilizers and their role as a part of the strategy to reduce the reach of CC and mitigate its ever-growing effects, and presents some guidelines for the increased use of these materials in order to enhance their efficacy in this strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Review Feature Papers for Climate)

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17 pages, 6180 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of Escalating Heat Waves on Students’ Well-Being and Overall Health: A Survey of Primary School Teachers

by Betty Lala and Aya Hagishima

Climate 2023, 11(6), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11060126 - 7 Jun 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 66504

Abstract

Children in developing countries such as India will experience severe consequences of climate change. Primary school students, in particular, are the most vulnerable to extreme weather conditions, such as heat waves intensifying due to climate change. This will adversely impair their development, well-being, [...] Read more.

Children in developing countries such as India will experience severe consequences of climate change. Primary school students, in particular, are the most vulnerable to extreme weather conditions, such as heat waves intensifying due to climate change. This will adversely impair their development, well-being, and learning outcomes. However, significant research gaps exist in understanding and mitigating children’s vulnerabilities. There is an urgent need for a deeper understanding of the impact of heat waves on children’s health and well-being in India. Further, the discussion on the state of heat safety in Indian primary schools is limited. This study addresses these gaps by surveying 335 primary school teachers in seven Indian cities. The data gathered from the field survey offers a better understanding of classroom experiences and challenges encountered by children and teachers during heat waves. It underscores several aspects of students’ vulnerability to heat exposure and its adverse impact on their health, such as absence from school, physical symptoms of heat distress, etc. Furthermore, it highlights the pressing need for classroom heat risk management in light of climate change and makes several policy prescriptions in primary schools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions between Climate Science and Education)

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21 pages, 43854 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Changing Water Cycle under a Warming Climate: Tendencies in the Carpathian Basin

by Imre Miklós Jánosi, Tibor Bíró, Boglárka O. Lakatos, Jason A. C. Gallas and András Szöllosi-Nagy

Climate 2023, 11(6), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11060118 - 26 May 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5198

Abstract

In this mini-review, we present evidence from the vast literature that one essential part of the coupled atmosphere–ocean system that makes life on Earth possible, the water cycle, is exhibiting changes along with many attributes of the global climate. Our starting point is [...] Read more.

In this mini-review, we present evidence from the vast literature that one essential part of the coupled atmosphere–ocean system that makes life on Earth possible, the water cycle, is exhibiting changes along with many attributes of the global climate. Our starting point is the 6th Assessment Report of the IPCC, which appeared in 2021, where the almost monograph-size Chapter 8, with over 1800 references, is devoted entirely to the water cycle. In addition to listing the main observations on the Earth globally, we focus on Europe, particularly on the Carpathian (Pannonian) Basin. We collect plausible explanations of the possible causes behind an observably accelerating and intensifying water cycle. Some authors still suggest that changes in the natural boundary conditions, such as solar irradiance or Earth’s orbital parameters, explain the observations. In contrast, most authors attribute such changes to the increasing greenhouse gas concentrations since the industrial revolution. The hypothesis being tested, and which has already yielded convincing affirmative answers, is that the hydrological cycle intensifies due to anthropogenic impacts. The Carpathian Basin, a part of the Danube watershed, including the sub-basin of the Tisza River, is no exception to these changes. The region is experiencing multiple drivers contributing to alterations in the water cycle, including increasing temperatures, shifting precipitation regimes, and various human impacts. Full article

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18 pages, 7286 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluating the Efficacy of Different DEMs for Application in Flood Frequency and Risk Mapping of the Indian Coastal River Basin

by Parth Gangani, Nikunj K. Mangukiya, Darshan J. Mehta, Nitin Muttil and Upaka Rathnayake

Climate 2023, 11(5), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11050114 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4567

Abstract

Floods are among the most occurring natural hazards that cause severe damage to infrastructure and loss of life. In India, southern Gujarat is affected during the monsoon season, facing multiple flood events in the Damanganga basin. As the basin is one of the [...] Read more.

Floods are among the most occurring natural hazards that cause severe damage to infrastructure and loss of life. In India, southern Gujarat is affected during the monsoon season, facing multiple flood events in the Damanganga basin. As the basin is one of the data-scarce regions, evaluating the globally available dataset for flood risk mitigation studies in the Damanganga basin is crucial. In the present study, we compared four open-source digital elevation models (DEMs) (SRTM, Cartosat-1, ALOS-PALSAR, and TanDEMX) for hydrodynamic (HD) modeling and flood risk mapping. The simulated HD models for multiple flood events using HEC-RAS v6.3 were calibrated by adopting different roughness coefficients based on land-use land cover, observed water levels at gauge sites, and peak flood depths in the flood plain. In contrast to the previous studies on the Purna river basin (the neighboring basin of Damanganga), the present study shows that Cartosat-1 DEM provides reliable results with the observed flood depth. Furthermore, the calibrated HD model was used to determine the flood risk corresponding to 10, 25, 50, and 100-year return period floods calculated using Gumbel’s extreme value (GEV) and log-Pearson type III (LP-III) distribution techniques. Comparing the obtained peak floods corresponding to different return periods with the observed peak floods revealed that the LP-III method gives more reliable estimates of flood peaks for lower return periods, while the GEV method gives comparatively more reliable estimates for higher return period floods. The study shows that evaluating different open-source data and techniques is crucial for developing reliable flood mitigation plans with practical implications. Full article

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19 pages, 8666 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Hydrometeorological Trends and Drought Severity in Water-Demanding Mediterranean Islands under Climate Change Conditions

by Efthymia Stathi, Aristeidis Kastridis and Dimitrios Myronidis

Climate 2023, 11(5), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11050106 - 15 May 2023

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3337

Abstract

Global climate change has emerged as a problem in recent years, and its effects will likely continue to increase in the future. Several scientific studies conducted in the Mediterranean region have demonstrated relatively stationary trends for annual precipitation and significant upward trends for [...] Read more.

Global climate change has emerged as a problem in recent years, and its effects will likely continue to increase in the future. Several scientific studies conducted in the Mediterranean region have demonstrated relatively stationary trends for annual precipitation and significant upward trends for mean annual temperature. These trends present several implications, especially in the Greek islands that serve as major summer tourist destinations where the population is already unable to meet their water demands. The aim of this study is to investigate both long- and short-term variations in temperature and precipitation on three Greek islands in the Mediterranean Sea (Mykonos, Naxos, and Kos). The temperature and rainfall trends, as well as their magnitudes at yearly, seasonal, and monthly time steps, were determined using the non-parametric Mann–Kendall trend test. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was employed to identify the drought periods. According to the results, precipitation slightly increased (almost stationary) in the three islands, although this rise was not statistically significant. All three islands experienced a sharp and statistically significant increase in their mean annual air temperatures. The region may experience drought episodes as a result of the high temperature increase, which would drastically reduce the amount of water, available for use due to the increased evapotranspiration. For the Mediterranean region, the necessity for a drought management strategy to stop or diminish the severity of drought episodes and their effects has grown into a matter of great concern. It is crucial to take measures and conduct relevant research in order to create the conditions for adaptation and mitigation of climate change consequences and the increased appearance of drought phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change Impacts on Hydrologic Variables across Timescales and Spatial Scale)

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27 pages, 1110 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Enhancing Climate Neutrality and Resilience through Coordinated Climate Action: Review of the Synergies between Mitigation and Adaptation Actions

by Grigorios L. Kyriakopoulos and Ioannis Sebos

Climate 2023, 11(5), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11050105 - 10 May 2023

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 9112

Abstract

Recently, reported long-term climate change consequences, such as rising temperatures and melting glaciers, have emphasized mitigation and adaptation actions. While moderating the severity of climate changes, precautionary human actions can also protect the natural environment and human societies. Furthermore, public and private collaboration [...] Read more.

Recently, reported long-term climate change consequences, such as rising temperatures and melting glaciers, have emphasized mitigation and adaptation actions. While moderating the severity of climate changes, precautionary human actions can also protect the natural environment and human societies. Furthermore, public and private collaboration can leverage resources and expertise, resulting in more impactful mitigation and adaptation actions for effective climate change responses. A coordinated and strategic approach is necessary in order to prioritize these actions across different scales, enabling us to maximize the benefits of climate action and ensure a coordinated response to this global challenge. This study examines the interplay between climate mitigation and adaptation actions in Greece and the European Union (EU). We conducted a literature search using relevant keywords. The search results were systematically approached in alignment with two pairs of thematic homologous entities, enabling the review of these literature findings to be organized and holistically investigated. In this respect, the three fields of agriculture, energy, and multi-parametric determinants of climate neutrality have emerged and been discussed. Our analysis also focused on the key implemented and planned mitigation and adaptation climate actions. Through this review, we identified the most important motives and challenges related to joint adaptation and mitigation actions. Our findings underscore the need for a comprehensive approach to climate action planning that incorporates both adaptation and mitigation measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Adaptation and Mitigation Practices and Frameworks)

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22 pages, 1819 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Viticultural Manipulation and New Technologies to Address Environmental Challenges Caused by Climate Change

by Qun Sun, Gabriel Granco, Leah Groves, Jully Voong and Sonet Van Zyl

Climate 2023, 11(4), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11040083 - 6 Apr 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8463

Abstract

Climate change is a critical challenge for the global grape and wine industry, as it can disrupt grapevine growth, production, and wine quality. Climate change could influence the cost-effectiveness and growth of the wine industry in different wine regions since grapevine development is [...] Read more.

Climate change is a critical challenge for the global grape and wine industry, as it can disrupt grapevine growth, production, and wine quality. Climate change could influence the cost-effectiveness and growth of the wine industry in different wine regions since grapevine development is deeply dependent on weather (short-term) and climate (long-term) conditions. Innovation and new technologies are needed to meet the challenge. This review article addresses the impact of climate change on grapevines, such as vine phenology, pest and disease pressure, crop load, and grape and wine composition. It also reviews recent advances in the areas of viticultural manipulation and relevant technologies to potentially reduce the impact of climate change and help growers improve grape quality. Remote sensing is used for vineyard microclimate monitoring; thermal sensors combined with UAVs, aircraft, or satellites are used for water management; soil electrical conductivity sensors have been developed for soil mapping. Viticultural manipulations, such as regulated deficit irrigation for water use efficiency and berry-ripening delay for growing quality fruit, are also discussed. The review assesses future directions for further technological development, such as soil and vine water monitoring devises, precision viticulture, and artificial intelligence in vineyards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)

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13 pages, 3975 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Climate Change Impact on the Cultural Heritage Sites in the European Part of Russia over the Past 60 Years

by Elena Vyshkvarkova and Olga Sukhonos

Climate 2023, 11(3), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11030050 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10622

Abstract

Climate change is causing damage to infrastructure, ecosystems, and social systems, including cultural heritage sites. In the European part of Russia, there are 20 UNESCO-listed cultural heritage sites situated in different climatic conditions. This study assesses the impact of climate change on these [...] Read more.

Climate change is causing damage to infrastructure, ecosystems, and social systems, including cultural heritage sites. In the European part of Russia, there are 20 UNESCO-listed cultural heritage sites situated in different climatic conditions. This study assesses the impact of climate change on these sites by using ERA5 re-analysis data to calculate two frost damage indices and two salt weathering indices for the period 1960–2020. The findings indicate a rise in frost damage and salt weathering at cultural heritage sites in northern Europe, primarily due to changes in air temperature and water in the atmosphere, which are the main parameters responsible for the destruction of stone and brick structures. Given the observed and predicted trends in the main meteorological parameters, the detrimental destructive impact of climate change on cultural heritage sites will only increase. In view of the significant length of Russia from north to south and the difference in climatic conditions, measures for the adaptation and protection of cultural heritage sites must be adapted to local conditions and consider the material from which the object is made. Full article

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20 pages, 4295 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Long-Term Seasonal Drought Trends in the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor

by Sherly Shelton and Ross D. Dixon

Climate 2023, 11(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11020045 - 12 Feb 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6754

Abstract

In recent years, drought events have influenced agriculture, water-dependent industries, and energy supply in many parts of the world. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is particularly susceptible to drought events due to large-scale monsoon circulation anomalies. Using the 0.5 × 0.5 resolution rainfall [...] Read more.

In recent years, drought events have influenced agriculture, water-dependent industries, and energy supply in many parts of the world. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is particularly susceptible to drought events due to large-scale monsoon circulation anomalies. Using the 0.5 × 0.5 resolution rainfall and potential evapotranspiration data set from the Climatic Research Unit (CRU), we assessed the changes in seasonal drought variation and effects of climate variables on drought over the CPEC for the period of 1980 to 2018 using the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI). Our results show a statistically significant negative trend of SPEI over the hyper-arid region for two monsoons (December–February and June–September) and intra-monsoonal seasons (March–May and October–November), suggesting that the hyper-arid region (southern and southwestern part of the CPEC) is experiencing more frequent drought. A high probability for the occurrence of winter (30–35%) and summer (20–25%) droughts are observed in hyper-arid regions and gradually decreases from south to north of the CPEC. Decreasing seasonal rainfall and increasing potential evapotranspiration with increasing temperature in hyper-arid and arid regions resulted in frequent drought events during the winter monsoon season (from December to February). The findings from this study provide a theoretical basis for the drought management of the CPEC and a framework for understanding changes in drought in this region from climate projections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coping with Flooding and Drought)

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22 pages, 6185 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Heatwave Variability and Structure in South Africa during Summer Drought

by Innocent L. Mbokodo, Mary-Jane M. Bopape, Thando Ndarana, Sifiso M. S. Mbatha, Tshimbiluni P. Muofhe, Mukovhe V. Singo, Nkosinathi G. Xulu, Tumelo Mohomi, Kingsley K. Ayisi and Hector Chikoore

Climate 2023, 11(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11020038 - 5 Feb 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 13781

Abstract

Pronounced subsidence leading to summer drought over southern Africa causes warmer than average surface air temperatures or even heatwave (HW) conditions. We investigated the occurrence of HWs during the summer drought over South Africa based on station data and the ECMWF ERA5 reanalyses. [...] Read more.

Pronounced subsidence leading to summer drought over southern Africa causes warmer than average surface air temperatures or even heatwave (HW) conditions. We investigated the occurrence of HWs during the summer drought over South Africa based on station data and the ECMWF ERA5 reanalyses. Temperature observations from the South African Weather Service were analyzed for seasonality and long-term trends (1981–2020) as background to the occurrence and variability of HWs. We focused on three severe El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-induced drought seasons, i.e., 1982/83, 1991/92, and 2015/16, to investigate HW characteristics. While 1997/98 was among the strongest El Niño seasons, the impacts were not as severe because it coincided with an intense Angola low, which allowed for rain-bearing cloud bands to form. Results showed that the hottest months were spread across the austral summer season from December to February. Regions experiencing high mean maximum temperatures and high HW frequencies exhibited a strong ENSO signal, with record HWs occurring during 2015/16. The establishment and persistence of a middle-level high-pressure system over Botswana/Namibia (Botswana High) appears to trigger the longest-lasting HWs during drought seasons. The Botswana high is usually coupled with a near-surface continental heat low and/or tropical warm air advection towards the affected region. It was also found that intense ENSO-induced drought events coincided with high HW frequency over South Africa, such as during 1982/83, 1991/92, and the recent 2015/16 events. The results of this study contribute to understanding drought and heat wave dynamics in a region experiencing rapid warming as a result of climate change. Full article

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18 pages, 865 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Towards a Safe Hydrogen Economy: An Absolute Climate Sustainability Assessment of Hydrogen Production

by Kevin Dillman and Jukka Heinonen

Climate 2023, 11(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11010025 - 15 Jan 2023

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5943

Abstract

Policymakers and global energy models are increasingly looking towards hydrogen as an enabling energy carrier to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors (projecting growth in hydrogen consumption in the magnitude of hundreds of megatons). Combining scenarios from global energy models and life cycle impacts of different [...] Read more.

Policymakers and global energy models are increasingly looking towards hydrogen as an enabling energy carrier to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors (projecting growth in hydrogen consumption in the magnitude of hundreds of megatons). Combining scenarios from global energy models and life cycle impacts of different hydrogen production technologies, the results of this work show that the life cycle emissions from proposed configurations of the hydrogen economy would lead to climate overshoot of at least 5.4–8.1× of the defined “safe” space for greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 and the cumulative consumption of 8–12% of the remaining carbon budget. This work suggests a need for a science-based definition of “clean” hydrogen, agnostic of technology and compatible with a “safe” development of the hydrogen economy. Such a definition would deem blue hydrogen environmentally unviable by 2025–2035. The prolific use of green hydrogen is also problematic however, due to the requirement of a significant amount of renewable energy, and the associated embedded energy, land, and material impacts. These results suggest that demand-side solutions should be further considered, as the large-scale transition to hydrogen, which represents a “clean” energy shift, may still not be sufficient to lead humanity into a “safe” space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)

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30 pages, 13168 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Climate Change Impacts on the Hydrology of the Brahmaputra River Basin

by Wahid Palash, Sagar Ratna Bajracharya, Arun Bhakta Shrestha, Shahriar Wahid, Md. Shahadat Hossain, Tarun Kanti Mogumder and Liton Chandra Mazumder

Climate 2023, 11(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11010018 - 5 Jan 2023

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 11879

Abstract

Climate change (CC) is impacting the hydrology in the basins of the Himalayan region. Thus, this could have significant implications for people who rely on basin water for their lives and livelihoods. However, there are very few studies on the Himalayan river basins. [...] Read more.

Climate change (CC) is impacting the hydrology in the basins of the Himalayan region. Thus, this could have significant implications for people who rely on basin water for their lives and livelihoods. However, there are very few studies on the Himalayan river basins. This study aims to fill this gap by presenting a water balance for the Brahmaputra River Basin using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Results show that snowmelt contributed about 6% of the total annual flow of the whole Brahmaputra, 21% of the upper Brahmaputra, and 5% of the middle Brahmaputra. The basin-wide average annual water yield (AWY) is projected to increase by 8%, with the maximum percentage increase in the pre-monsoon season. The annual snowmelt is projected to decrease by 17%, with a marked decrease during the monsoon but an increase in other seasons and the greatest percentage reduction in the upper Brahmaputra (22%). The contribution of snowmelt to AWY is projected to decrease while rain runoff will increase across the entire Brahmaputra and also in the upper and middle Brahmaputra. The impact assessment suggests that the upper Brahmaputra will be most affected by CC, followed by the middle Brahmaputra. The results can be used to support future water management planning in the basin taking into account the potential impact of CC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Responses for Water and Environmental Security)

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17 pages, 6369 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing the Effects of Drought on Rice Yields in the Mekong Delta

by Kim Lavane, Pankaj Kumar, Gowhar Meraj, Tran Gia Han, Luong Hong Boi Ngan, Bui Thi Bich Lien, Tran Van Ty, Nguyen Truong Thanh, Nigel K. Downes, Nguyen Dinh Giang Nam, Huynh Vuong Thu Minh, Suraj Kumar Singh and Shruti Kanga

Climate 2023, 11(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11010013 - 3 Jan 2023

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 5341

Abstract

In contrast to other natural disasters, droughts may develop gradually and last for extended periods of time. The World Meteorological Organization advises using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) for the early identification of drought and understanding of its characteristics over various geographical areas. [...] Read more.

In contrast to other natural disasters, droughts may develop gradually and last for extended periods of time. The World Meteorological Organization advises using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) for the early identification of drought and understanding of its characteristics over various geographical areas. In this study, we use long-term rainfall data from 14 rain gauge stations in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta (1979–2020) to examine correlations with changes in rice yields. Results indicate that in the winter–spring rice cropping season in both 2016 and 2017, yields declined, corresponding with high humidity levels. Excessive rainfall during these years may have contributed to waterlogging, which in turn adversely affected yields. The results highlight that not only drought, but also humidity has the potential to adversely affect rice yield. Full article

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13 pages, 261 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

by Norma F. Kanarek, Qi Wang, Tak Igusa, Tara Kirk Sell, Zachary Anthony Cox, James M. Kendra and Jonathan Links

Climate 2022, 10(11), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10110159 - 23 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2341

Abstract

Objective: Understanding long-term disaster effects is key to building theories of recovery and informing policymaking. Findings regarding long-term recovery are inconsistent, with some scholars finding that disasters have little long-term impact, and others asserting otherwise. To assist in resolving this discord, we apply [...] Read more.

Objective: Understanding long-term disaster effects is key to building theories of recovery and informing policymaking. Findings regarding long-term recovery are inconsistent, with some scholars finding that disasters have little long-term impact, and others asserting otherwise. To assist in resolving this discord, we apply a conceptual framework and computational model of community resilience (“COPEWELL”) that places community functioning (CF) at the center of evaluating the effects of disaster over time. Using flooding as a disaster type, we hypothesize a change in baseline CF trend when a flood-related federally declared disaster event occurs. Methods: We used county-level flood-related federally declared disaster events (2010–2014) and selected population demographics to study their effects on annual CF trends among United States counties (N = 3141). Results: In multivariate analysis of baseline CF, we found a significant negative relationship of prior five-year flood status, federal regions relative to the Northeast (Region I), lower total earnings, and greater population size. Annual CF trend was 0.09% (95%CI: 0.01%–0.16%). In multivariate analysis, significant predictors included baseline CF (β = −0.0178, −0.0047–−0.0309), any concurrent flood-related federally declared disaster events (−0.0024, −0.0040–−0.0008), ten-year prior flood events (−0.0017, −0.0034–−0.0000) and concurrent population change (−0.0186, −0.0338–−0.0035). Conclusions: Recent floods depress baseline CF, while concurrent and ten-year-ago floods depress trend in CF. Resilience may potentially be modified by raising baseline CF and maintaining population over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters and Extreme Hazards under Changing Climate)

20 pages, 4295 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Compound Risk of Air Pollution and Heat Days and the Influence of Wildfire by SES across California, 2018–2020: Implications for Environmental Justice in the Context of Climate Change

by Shahir Masri, Yufang Jin and Jun Wu

Climate 2022, 10(10), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10100145 - 1 Oct 2022

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5082

Abstract

Major wildfires and heatwaves have begun to increase in frequency throughout much of the United States, particularly in western states such as California, causing increased risk to public health. Air pollution is exacerbated by both wildfires and warmer temperatures, thus adding to such [...] Read more.

Major wildfires and heatwaves have begun to increase in frequency throughout much of the United States, particularly in western states such as California, causing increased risk to public health. Air pollution is exacerbated by both wildfires and warmer temperatures, thus adding to such risk. With climate change and the continued increase in global average temperatures, the frequency of major wildfires, heat days, and unhealthy air pollution episodes is projected to increase, resulting in the potential for compounding risks. Risks will likely vary by region and may disproportionately impact low-income communities and communities of color. In this study, we processed daily particulate matter (PM) data from over 18,000 low-cost PurpleAir sensors, along with gridMET daily maximum temperature data and government-compiled wildfire perimeter data from 2018–2020 in order to examine the occurrence of compound risk (CR) days (characterized by high temperature and high PM_2.5) at the census tract level in California, and to understand how such days have been impacted by the occurrence of wildfires. Using American Community Survey data, we also examined the extent to which CR days were correlated with household income, race/ethnicity, education, and other socioeconomic factors at the census tract level. Results showed census tracts with a higher frequency of CR days to have statistically higher rates of poverty and unemployment, along with high proportions of child residents and households without computers. The frequency of CR days and elevated daily PM_2.5 concentrations appeared to be strongly related to the occurrence of nearby wildfires, with over 20% of days with sensor-measured average PM_2.5 > 35 μg/m³ showing a wildfire within a 100 km radius and over two-thirds of estimated CR days falling on such days with a nearby wildfire. Findings from this study are important to policymakers and government agencies who preside over the allocation of state resources as well as organizations seeking to empower residents and establish climate resilient communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Outdoor-Indoor Air Pollution in Urban Environments)

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17 pages, 2248 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A New Way to Obtain Climate Files in Areas with the Presence of Microclimates by Applying the Sandia Method: A Galician Case Study

by Antonio Couce-Casanova, Juan de Dios Rodríguez-García, María Isabel Lamas and José A. Orosa

Climate 2022, 10(10), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10100140 - 25 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2237

Abstract

In order to obtain reliable energy simulation results, it is essential to have accurate climate files corresponding to specific geographical locations. The present work describes a selection process of the Typical Meteorological Months (TMM) that will generate the Typical Meteorological Years (TMY) in [...] Read more.

In order to obtain reliable energy simulation results, it is essential to have accurate climate files corresponding to specific geographical locations. The present work describes a selection process of the Typical Meteorological Months (TMM) that will generate the Typical Meteorological Years (TMY) in eight locations of the Community of Galicia for an analysis period between 2008 and 2017 (10 years). The region of Galicia, located in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, due to its particular orography, is prone to the generation of differentiated microclimates in relatively close locations. The process of selecting the typical meteorological months has been carried out following the Sandia Laboratories method. In the present work, data from terrestrial meteorological stations have been combined with solar radiation data obtained from satellite images. Finally, for the validation and comparative study of results, files have been generated in Energy Plus Weather (epw) format. Trends have been checked and typical statistics have been used to analyse the correlations between the files generated with the Sandia method, and the usual reference files (LT, WY, BY). It is observed that with the eight files generated, new differentiated climates are detected, which will affect the improvement of the precision of the energy simulations of buildings that are going to be carried out. For example, in the case of the Campus Lugo and Pedro Murias stations, located in the same climatic zone according to Spanish regulations, differences are observed in the annual averages: DTm (13.7%), WV (41%) or GHI (9%). Full article

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16 pages, 3738 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Compound Extremes of Air Temperature and Precipitation in Eastern Europe

by Elena Vyshkvarkova and Olga Sukhonos

Climate 2022, 10(9), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10090133 - 5 Sep 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4293

Abstract

The spatial distribution of compound extremes of air temperature and precipitation was studied over the territory of Eastern Europe for the period 1950–2018. Using daily data on air temperature and precipitation, we calculated the frequency and trends of the four indices—cold/dry (CD), cold/wet [...] Read more.

The spatial distribution of compound extremes of air temperature and precipitation was studied over the territory of Eastern Europe for the period 1950–2018. Using daily data on air temperature and precipitation, we calculated the frequency and trends of the four indices—cold/dry (CD), cold/wet (CW), warm/dry (WD) and warm/wet (WW). The connection between these indices and large-scale patterns in the ocean–atmosphere system, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), the East Atlantic (EA) and Scandinavia (SCAND) patterns, was also studied. The positive and statistically significant trends in the region were observed for the warm extremes (especially the WW index) in all seasons, with maximum values in the winter season, while negative trends were obtained for the cold extremes. The NAO index has a strong positive and statistically significant correlation with the warm compound indices (WD and WW) in the northern part of Eastern Europe in winter like the EA pattern, but with smaller values. The spatial distribution of the correlation coefficients between compound extremes and the SCAND index in the winter season is opposite to the correlation coefficients with the NAO index. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disasters and Extreme Hazards under Changing Climate)

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24 pages, 58796 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Spatiotemporal Changes in Mean and Extreme Climate: Farmers’ Perception and Its Agricultural Implications in Awash River Basin, Ethiopia

by Addisu Damtew, Ermias Teferi, Victor Ongoma, Richard Mumo and Befikadu Esayas

Climate 2022, 10(6), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10060089 - 20 Jun 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4264

Abstract

The increase in the intensity and frequency of climate extremes threatens socioeconomic development. This study examines variability of mean and extreme climate, farmers’ perception of the changes, and impacts in the Awash River Basin. Daily rainfall and temperature data were used to analyze [...] Read more.

The increase in the intensity and frequency of climate extremes threatens socioeconomic development. This study examines variability of mean and extreme climate, farmers’ perception of the changes, and impacts in the Awash River Basin. Daily rainfall and temperature data were used to analyze 23 extreme climate indices. The Mann–Kendall test was used to assess the magnitude and significance of the changes. Results show an increase in minimum (0.019–0.055 °C/year) and maximum temperatures (0.049–0.09 °C/year), while total rainfall is on a downward trend (from −3.84 mm/year to −10.26 mm/year). Warm extreme temperature indicators, including warmest day (TXx), warmest night (TNx), warm day (TX90p), warm night (TN90p), and warm spell duration indicator (WSDI), show a significant increasing trend (p < 0.05). Nevertheless, except the tepid–cool humid agroecology zone, cold extreme temperature indicators in cool days (TN10p), cool nights (TX10p), and cold spell duration (CSDI) are declining. Extreme precipitation indices, including maximum 1-day precipitation amount (RX1day), count of days when precipitation ≥10 mm (R10 mm), maximum 5-day precipitation amount (RX5day), count of days when precipitation ≥20 mm (R20mm), very wet days (R95p), extreme wet days (R99p), and total precipitation (PRCPTOT), show a decreasing trend. The perception of most farmers’ on climate change and climate extremes agreed with climate records. The major impacts perceived and asserted over all agroecologies are food price inflation, crop productivity decline, crop pests and diseases spread, livestock disease increase, and the emergence of pests and weeds. The increasing trend in extreme warm temperatures, decreasing trend in the cold extreme, and declining trend in precipitation indicators affected agricultural productivity and farmers whose livelihood depends on rainfed agriculture. This agroecology-specific study provides critical information to policymakers, decision makers, and farmers about the potential impacts of climate change and extreme events, leading to the development of agroecology-based adaptation measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate and Weather Extremes)

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20 pages, 4398 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Remarkable Resilience of Forest Structure and Biodiversity Following Fire in the Peri-Urban Bushland of Sydney, Australia

by Elise Pendall, Alison Hewitt, Matthias M. Boer, Yolima Carrillo, Nancy F. Glenn, Anne Griebel, Jason H. Middleton, Peter J. Mumford, Peter Ridgeway, Paul D. Rymer and Greg L. Steenbeeke

Climate 2022, 10(6), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10060086 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5878

Abstract

In rapidly urbanizing areas, natural vegetation becomes fragmented, making conservation planning challenging, particularly as climate change accelerates fire risk. We studied urban forest fragments in two threatened eucalypt-dominated (scribbly gum woodland, SGW, and ironbark forest, IF) communities across ~2000 ha near Sydney, Australia, [...] Read more.

In rapidly urbanizing areas, natural vegetation becomes fragmented, making conservation planning challenging, particularly as climate change accelerates fire risk. We studied urban forest fragments in two threatened eucalypt-dominated (scribbly gum woodland, SGW, and ironbark forest, IF) communities across ~2000 ha near Sydney, Australia, to evaluate effects of fire frequency (0–4 in last 25 years) and time since fire (0.5 to >25 years) on canopy structure, habitat quality and biodiversity (e.g., species richness). Airborne lidar was used to assess canopy height and density, and ground-based surveys of 148 (400 m²) plots measured leaf area index (LAI), plant species composition and habitat metrics such as litter cover and hollow-bearing trees. LAI, canopy density, litter, and microbiotic soil crust increased with time since fire in both communities, while tree and mistletoe cover increased in IF. Unexpectedly, plant species richness increased with fire frequency, owing to increased shrub richness which offset decreased tree richness in both communities. These findings indicate biodiversity and canopy structure are generally resilient to a range of times since fire and fire frequencies across this study area. Nevertheless, reduced arboreal habitat quality and subtle shifts in community composition of resprouters and obligate seeders signal early concern for a scenario of increasing fire frequency under climate change. Ongoing assessment of fire responses is needed to ensure that biodiversity, canopy structure and ecosystem function are maintained in the remaining fragments of urban forests under future climate change which will likely drive hotter and more frequent fires. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate System Uncertainty and Biodiversity Conservation)

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27 pages, 5895 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Tipping Points and Changes in Australian Climate and Extremes

by Jorgen S. Frederiksen and Stacey L. Osbrough

Climate 2022, 10(5), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10050073 - 19 May 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5802

Abstract

Systematic changes, since the beginning of the 20th century, in average and extreme Australian rainfall and temperatures indicate that Southern Australian climate has undergone regime transitions into a drier and warmer state. South-west Western Australia (SWWA) experienced the most dramatic drying trend with [...] Read more.

Systematic changes, since the beginning of the 20th century, in average and extreme Australian rainfall and temperatures indicate that Southern Australian climate has undergone regime transitions into a drier and warmer state. South-west Western Australia (SWWA) experienced the most dramatic drying trend with average streamflow into Perth dams, in the last decade, just 20% of that before the 1960s and extreme, decile 10, rainfall reduced to near zero. In south-eastern Australia (SEA) systematic decreases in average and extreme cool season rainfall became evident in the late 1990s with a halving of the area experiencing average decile 10 rainfall in the early 21st century compared with that for the 20th century. The shift in annual surface temperatures over SWWA and SEA, and indeed for Australia as a whole, has occurred primarily over the last 20 years with the percentage area experiencing extreme maximum temperatures in decile 10 increasing to an average of more than 45% since the start of the 21st century compared with less than 3% for the 20th century mean. Average maximum temperatures have also increased by circa 1 °C for SWWA and SEA over the last 20 years. The climate changes in rainfall an d temperatures are associated with atmospheric circulation shifts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate and Weather Extremes)

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22 pages, 2687 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Climate History of the Principality of Transylvania during the Maunder Minimum (MM) Years (1645–1715 CE) Reconstructed from German Language Sources

by Martin Stangl and Ulrich Foelsche

Climate 2022, 10(5), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10050066 - 9 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4814

Abstract

This paper deals with the climate in the former Grand Duchy of Transylvania, now one of the three major geographical provinces of Romania, within the so-called Maunder Minimum (MM) (1645–1715), an astrophysically defined part of the Little Ice Age (LIA), which was characterized [...] Read more.

This paper deals with the climate in the former Grand Duchy of Transylvania, now one of the three major geographical provinces of Romania, within the so-called Maunder Minimum (MM) (1645–1715), an astrophysically defined part of the Little Ice Age (LIA), which was characterized by reduced solar activity. The historical data from Transylvania are compared with that from Germany, Austria and Switzerland. This comparison for the period 1645–1715 shows good agreement but also reveals geographic characteristics of the region. For the first time, we present here a comparison between the four geographic areas in text and tabular form. Quotes from mostly German-language sources are reproduced in English translation. The results clearly help to identify regional climatic differences during the MM. Furthermore, we examine for a longer period (1500–1950) the extent to which the climate of Transylvania might have been affected by long-term fluctuations in solar activity, as deduced from isotopic reconstructions from ice cores. This way we compared astrophysical conditions with climatological ones in order to see if any probable relations do indeed show up. This comparison suggests a certain solar influence but the agreement is not very pronounced. Future investigation in a pan-European context is needed to reach reliable statements. Some results are unexpected—such as an unusually small number of severe winters during the last decades of the MM, where extreme cold was restricted to a few years, like the extreme winters 1699/1700 and 1708/1709. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Solar Variability)

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33 pages, 694 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Adaptation Strategies and Approaches for Managing Fire in a Changing Climate

by Martha Sample, Andrea E. Thode, Courtney Peterson, Michael R. Gallagher, William Flatley, Megan Friggens, Alexander Evans, Rachel Loehman, Shaula Hedwall, Leslie Brandt, Maria Janowiak and Christopher Swanston

Climate 2022, 10(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10040058 - 8 Apr 2022

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 14528

Abstract

As the effects of climate change accumulate and intensify, resource managers juggle existing goals and new mandates to operationalize adaptation. Fire managers contend with the direct effects of climate change on resources in addition to climate-induced disruptions to fire regimes and subsequent ecosystem [...] Read more.

As the effects of climate change accumulate and intensify, resource managers juggle existing goals and new mandates to operationalize adaptation. Fire managers contend with the direct effects of climate change on resources in addition to climate-induced disruptions to fire regimes and subsequent ecosystem effects. In systems stressed by warming and drying, increased fire activity amplifies the pace of change and scale of severe disturbance events, heightening the urgency for management action. Fire managers are asked to integrate information on climate impacts with their professional expertise to determine how to achieve management objectives in a changing climate with altered fire regimes. This is a difficult task, and managers need support as they incorporate climate adaptation into planning and operations. We present a list of adaptation strategies and approaches specific to fire and climate based on co-produced knowledge from a science–management partnership and pilot-tested in a two-day workshop with natural resource managers and regional stakeholders. This “menu” is a flexible and useful tool for fire managers who need to connect the dots between fire ecology, climate science, adaptation intent, and management implementation. It was created and tested as part of an adaptation framework used widely across the United States and should be applicable and useful in many fire-prone forest ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Adaptation and Mitigation Practices and Frameworks)

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20 pages, 1941 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Climate Change, Voluntary Immobility, and Place-Belongingness: Insights from Togoru, Fiji

by Merewalesi Yee, Annah E. Piggott-McKellar, Celia McMichael and Karen E. McNamara

Climate 2022, 10(3), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10030046 - 20 Mar 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7688

Abstract

Many low-lying communities around the world are increasingly experiencing coastal hazard risks. As such, climate-related relocation has received significant global attention as an adaptation response. However, emerging cases of populations resisting relocation in preference for remaining in place are emerging. This paper provides [...] Read more.

Many low-lying communities around the world are increasingly experiencing coastal hazard risks. As such, climate-related relocation has received significant global attention as an adaptation response. However, emerging cases of populations resisting relocation in preference for remaining in place are emerging. This paper provides an account of residents of Togoru, a low-lying coastal settlement on Viti Levu Island, Fiji. Despite facing significant coastal impacts in the form of coastal erosion, tidal inundation, and saltwater intrusion, Togoru residents are opposing plans for relocation; instead opting for in-situ adaptation. We conceptualize place-belongingness to a land and people—through personal, historic and ancestral, relational, cultural, economic, and legal connections—as critical to adaptation and mobility decision-making. We argue that for adaptation strategies to be successful and sustainable, they must acknowledge the values, perspectives, and preferences of local people and account for the tangible and intangible connections to a place. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Adaptation and Mitigation Practices and Frameworks)

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15 pages, 3658 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Changing Air Quality and the Ozone Weekend Effect during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Toronto, Ontario, Canada

by William A. Gough and Vidya Anderson

Climate 2022, 10(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10030041 - 15 Mar 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5145

Abstract

Air pollutants, NO, NO₂, and O₃, were examined from April to June 2020 and compared to a 10-year (2010–2019) climatology of these pollutants for two monitoring sites in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, coinciding with local lockdown measures during the first [...] Read more.

Air pollutants, NO, NO₂, and O₃, were examined from April to June 2020 and compared to a 10-year (2010–2019) climatology of these pollutants for two monitoring sites in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, coinciding with local lockdown measures during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. NO and NO₂ values were lower than any of the preceding 10 years at the two Toronto sites for both weekdays and weekends. Ozone concentrations did not have a corresponding decrease and in fact increased for weekdays, similar to other parts of the world. The well-documented ozone weekend effect was considerably muted during the morning rush hour throughout this pandemic period. A Fisher exact test on hourly averaged data revealed statistically significant record hourly minimums for NO and NO₂, but this was not found for ozone, consistent with the aggregate ranking results. These findings are likely the result of considerably reduced vehicular traffic during this time and ozone chemistry in a NOx-saturated (VOC limited) environment. This has important implications for ozone abatement strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air and Water Quality in a Changing World)

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16 pages, 284 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Climate Emergencies in Australian Local Governments: From Symbolic Act to Disrupting the Status Quo?

by Anthony Greenfield, Susie Moloney and Mikael Granberg

Climate 2022, 10(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10030038 - 9 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4828

Abstract

This paper examines the emerging phenomenon of climate emergency declarations. We focus on the case of Victoria Australia and the 30 councils who have declared a climate emergency with a particular focus on three councils. We explore the drivers, meanings, and implications and [...] Read more.

This paper examines the emerging phenomenon of climate emergency declarations. We focus on the case of Victoria Australia and the 30 councils who have declared a climate emergency with a particular focus on three councils. We explore the drivers, meanings, and implications and to what extent the subsequent plans reflect a reframing of local government roles and actions. We find the emergency declaration movement is catalysing councils beyond symbolic declarations potentially opening up space for change and disruption. Of interest in this paper is also the principal and theoretical implications for citizens, local government, and for research that is connected with this emerging trend. We highlight conclusions, ideas, and perspectives that can be drawn from this study of the Australian practice of climate emergency declarations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthropogenic Climate Change: Social Science Perspectives)

12 pages, 4412 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Air Pollution within Different Urban Forms in Manchester, UK

by Mohammad Taleghani

Climate 2022, 10(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10020026 - 16 Feb 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5849

Abstract

Air pollution causes millions of mortalities and morbidities in large cities. Different mitigation strategies are being investigated to alleviate the negative impacts of different pollutants on people. Designing proper urban forms is one of the least studied strategies. In this paper, we modelled [...] Read more.

Air pollution causes millions of mortalities and morbidities in large cities. Different mitigation strategies are being investigated to alleviate the negative impacts of different pollutants on people. Designing proper urban forms is one of the least studied strategies. In this paper, we modelled air pollution (NO₂ concentration) within four hypothetical neighbourhoods with different urban forms: single, courtyard, linear east-west, and linear north-south scenarios. We used weather and air pollution data of Manchester as one of the cities with high NO₂ levels in the UK. Results show that the pollution level is highly dependent on the air temperature and wind speed. Annually, air pollution is higher in cold months (45% more) compared to summer. Likewise, the results show that during a winter day, the concentration of air pollution reduces during the warm hours. Within the four modelled scenarios, the air pollution level in the centre of the linear north-south model is the lowest. The linear building blocks in this scenario reduce the concentration of the polluted air and keep a large area within the domain cleaner than the other scenarios. Understanding the location of air pollution (sources) and the direction of prevailing wind is key to design/plan for a neighbourhood with cleaner air for pedestrians. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air and Water Quality in a Changing World)

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23 pages, 4939 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Bioaerosols as Evidence of Atmospheric Circulation Anomalies over the Okhotsk Sea and Shantar Islands in the Late Glacial–Holocene

by Nadezhda Razjigaeva, Larisa Ganzey, Tatiana Grebennikova, Vladimir Ponomarev, Ludmila Mokhova, Vladimir Chakov and Mikhail Klimin

Climate 2022, 10(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10020024 - 9 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3929

Abstract

Allochthonous biofossil distribution in the blanket peat bog of Bolshoy Shantar Island was used to analyze atmospheric circulation anomalies in the north-western Okhotsk Sea over the last 12.6 ka. The main aim of this study was to determine periods of intensification of deep [...] Read more.

Allochthonous biofossil distribution in the blanket peat bog of Bolshoy Shantar Island was used to analyze atmospheric circulation anomalies in the north-western Okhotsk Sea over the last 12.6 ka. The main aim of this study was to determine periods of intensification of deep cyclones and extreme storms. The composition of bioaerosols is significantly influenced by atmospheric zonal and meridional transport anomalies associated with anomalies of the monsoon system of Northeast Asia, atmospheric fronts and cyclone trajectories. Marine diatoms enter the peatland from the sea during extreme storms and record the passage of sea cyclones in the autumn-winter, whereas the distribution of allochthonous pollen indicates the intensity of continental cyclones. We used Pinus pumila pollen as an indicator of heavy snowfalls and winter cyclone activity. Fifteen phases of extreme storms were identified. Changes in ice coverage also played an important role in bioaerosol emission. During cold periods, emissions of bioaerosols mainly occurred in the open sea, whereas during warm periods, emissions occurred near the coast. The recurrence and intensity of cyclones during the cold seasons depends on displacement of the Siberian High and Aleutian Low. Periods of continental cyclones intensified in spring-summer and coincided with periods of active winter cyclogenesis. Full article

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15 pages, 2721 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Combined Effect of High-Resolution Land Cover and Grid Resolution on Surface NO₂ Concentrations

by Carlos Silveira, Joana Ferreira, Paolo Tuccella, Gabriele Curci and Ana I. Miranda

Climate 2022, 10(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10020019 - 5 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2927

Abstract

High-resolution air quality simulations are often performed using different nested domains and resolutions. In this study, the variability of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) concentrations estimated from two nested domains focused on Portugal (D2 and D3), with 5 and 1 km horizontal grid [...] Read more.

High-resolution air quality simulations are often performed using different nested domains and resolutions. In this study, the variability of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) concentrations estimated from two nested domains focused on Portugal (D2 and D3), with 5 and 1 km horizontal grid resolutions, respectively, was investigated by applying the WRF-Chem model for the year 2015. The main goal and innovative aspect of this study is the simulation of a whole year with high resolutions to analyse the spatial variability under the simulation grids in conjunction with detailed land cover (LC) data specifically processed for these high-resolution domains. The model evaluation was focused on Portuguese air quality monitoring stations taking into consideration the station typology. As main results, it should be noted that (i) D3 urban LC categories enhanced pollution hotspots; (ii) generally, modelled NO₂ was underestimated, except for rural stations; (iii) differences between D2 and D3 estimates were small; (iv) higher resolution did not impact model performance; and (v) hourly D2 estimates presented an acceptable quality level for policy support. These modelled values are based on a detailed LC classification (100 m horizontal resolution) and coarse spatial resolution (approximately 10 km) emission inventory, the latter suitable for portraying background air pollution problems. Thus, if the goal is to characterise urban/local-scale pollution patterns, the use of high grid resolution could be advantageous, as long as the input data are properly represented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air and Water Quality in a Changing World)

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32 pages, 6344 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing Changes in 21st Century Mean and Extreme Climate of the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta in California

by Minxue He

Climate 2022, 10(2), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10020016 - 29 Jan 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4311

Abstract

This work aims to assess potential changes in the mean and extreme precipitation and temperature across the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta (Delta) in California in the 21st century. The study employs operative climate model projections from the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5). [...] Read more.

This work aims to assess potential changes in the mean and extreme precipitation and temperature across the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta (Delta) in California in the 21st century. The study employs operative climate model projections from the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5). Specifically, 64 individual downscaled daily projections (1/16 degree, approximately 6 by 6 km) on precipitation and temperature from 32 Global Circulation Models (GCMs) under two emission scenarios (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) from 2020–2099 are utilized for the analysis. The results indicate increasing warming (in mean, minimum, and maximum temperature) further into the future under both emission scenarios. Warming also exhibits a strong seasonality, with winters expecting lower and summers expecting higher increases in temperature. In contrast, for mean annual total precipitation, there is no consistent wetter or drier signal. On average, the changes in annual total precipitation are minimal. However, dry season precipitation is projected to decline. The study also shows that the number of wet days is projected to decrease while the number of very wet (daily precipitation over 10 mm) and extremely wet (daily precipitation over 20 mm) days is projected to increase. Moreover, the study illustrates that only about half of the changes in total annual precipitation are projected to come from changes in the wettest 10% of wet days. In contrast, a majority of changes in variance of the annual precipitation comes from changes in variance of the wettest 10% of the wet days. This suggests that fluctuations in large storms are projected to dictate the variability of precipitation in the Delta. Additionally, a general upward trend in dry conditions measured by the Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index is expected during the projection period. The trending signal is stronger at multi-year temporal scales (one to four years) and under the higher emission scenario. These change patterns are generally similar across three sub-regions of the Delta (i.e., North, South, and West), even though some changes in the South Delta are the most pronounced. This study further discusses challenges posed by these changes to the Delta’s water supply and ecosystems, along with the Delta’s resiliency and potential ways to address these challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Extremes: Human-Environment Consequences and Adaptation Measures)

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