Journal Description
Climate
Climate
is a scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal of climate science published online monthly by MDPI. The American Society of Adaptation Professionals (ASAP) is affiliated with Climate and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), GeoRef, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences) / CiteScore - Q2 (Atmospheric Science)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 21.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
3.2 (2024);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.5 (2024)
Latest Articles
The Range of Projected Change in Vapour Pressure Deficit Through 2100: A Seasonal and Regional Analysis of the CMIP6 Ensemble
Climate 2025, 13(7), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070143 (registering DOI) - 9 Jul 2025
Abstract
Vapour pressure deficit (VPD) is frequently used to assess the impact of climate change on wildfires, vegetation, and other phenomena dependent on atmospheric moisture. A common aim of projection studies is to sample the full range of changes projected by climate models. Although
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Vapour pressure deficit (VPD) is frequently used to assess the impact of climate change on wildfires, vegetation, and other phenomena dependent on atmospheric moisture. A common aim of projection studies is to sample the full range of changes projected by climate models. Although characterization of model spread in projected temperature and rainfall is common, similar analyses are lacking for VPD. Here, we analyze the range of change in projected VPD from a 15-member CMIP6 model ensemble using the SSP-370 scenario. Projected changes are calculated for 2015–2100 relative to the historical period 1850–2014, and the resulting changes are analyzed on a seasonal and regional basis, the latter using continents based on IPCC reference regions. We find substantial regional differences including higher increases in VPD in areas towards the equatorial regions, indicating increased vulnerability to climate change in these areas. Seasonal assessments reveal that regions in the Northern Hemisphere experience peak VPD changes in summer (JJA), correlating with higher temperatures and lower relative humidity, while Southern Hemisphere areas like South America see notable increases in all seasons. We find that the mean projected change in seasonal VPD ranges from 0.02–0.23 kPa in Europe, 0.04–0.19 kPa in Asia, 0.02–0.16 kPa in North America, 0.15–0.33 kPa in South America, 0.10–0.18 kPa in Oceania, and 0.21–0.31 kPa in Africa. Our analysis suggests that for most regions, no two models span the range of projected change in VPD for all seasons. The overall projected change space for VPD identified here can be used to interpret existing studies and support model selection for future climate change impact assessments that seek to span this range.
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(This article belongs to the Section Weather, Events and Impacts)
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The Calculation and Mapping of the Moisture Indices of the East Kazakhstan Region for the Preventive Assessment of the Climate–Hydrological Background
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Dmitry Chernykh, Kamilla Rakhymbek, Roman Biryukov, Andrey Bondarovich, Lilia Lubenets and Yerzhan Baiburin
Climate 2025, 13(7), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070142 - 8 Jul 2025
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The assessment of the hydrological functions of landscapes and the landscape–hydrological background is an important instrument for minimizing damage from rivers and preventing water conflicts under conditions of data scarcity for hydrological modeling. To assess the climate–hydrological background of the East Kazakhstan region,
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The assessment of the hydrological functions of landscapes and the landscape–hydrological background is an important instrument for minimizing damage from rivers and preventing water conflicts under conditions of data scarcity for hydrological modeling. To assess the climate–hydrological background of the East Kazakhstan region, the Selyaninov Hydro-thermal Coefficient and the Vysotsky–Ivanov Moisture Coefficient were used. The East Kazakhstan region is a typical continental arid and semi-arid region. The presence of mountain ranges, such as the Altai, makes the climate and environment in the region highly varied. A dataset from 30 weather stations for the period 1961–2023 was used for calculations. Three interpolation methods and landscape extrapolation were used to construct maps of the coefficients. Over the observation period, the values of the moisture indices at the weather stations in the region fluctuated within a wide range. Both coefficients are in the range from extra arid to extra humid climates.
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Climate Risk and Vulnerability Assessment in the Province of Almeria (Spain) Under Different Climate Change Scenarios
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Sara Barilari, Yaiza Villar-Jiménez, Giusy Fedele, Alfredo Reder and Iván Ramos-Diez
Climate 2025, 13(7), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070141 - 4 Jul 2025
Abstract
Climate change represents a major global challenge, with semi-arid regions like the province of Almería being particularly vulnerable. Almería’s dependence on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and tourism, coupled with the absence of perennial rivers, increases its exposure to extreme events including heatwaves,
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Climate change represents a major global challenge, with semi-arid regions like the province of Almería being particularly vulnerable. Almería’s dependence on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture and tourism, coupled with the absence of perennial rivers, increases its exposure to extreme events including heatwaves, droughts, and extreme precipitation events like storms. This study proposes a semi-quantitative methodology to assess climate risk across different sectors at the municipal level, combining indicators of hazard, exposure and vulnerability within the framework of the IPCC AR6. Exposure and vulnerability indicators were derived from regional, national and European datasets, while hazards were characterized using downscaled Essential Climate Variables. After data collection, the indicators were normalized using a percentile-based approach to ensure their comparison and replicability, especially in data-scarce contexts. The results reveal both sectoral and spatial patterns of risk under three different climate change scenarios, highlighting municipalities with a higher level of exposure, vulnerability and risk. Although the static nature of exposure and vulnerability indicators represents a limitation in future risk quantification, the findings remain valuable for identifying priority areas for targeted adaptation and mitigation strategies. The proposed semi-quantitative risk methodology based on indicators is of great interest and relevance for understanding differences at local scales, as well as for implementing adaptation and mitigation solutions adjusted to the real needs of each municipality.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change Impacts at Various Geographical Scales (2nd Edition))
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The Impact of Climate Change and Water Consumption on the Inflows of Hydroelectric Power Plants in the Central Region of Brazil
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Filipe Otávio Passos, Benedito Cláudio da Silva, José Wanderley Marangon de Lima, Marina de Almeida Barbosa, Pedro Henrique Gomes Machado and Rafael Machado Martins
Climate 2025, 13(7), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070140 - 4 Jul 2025
Abstract
There is a consensus that climate change has affected society. The increase in temperature and reduction in precipitation for some regions of the world have had implications for the intensity and frequency of extreme events. This scenario is worrying for various sectors of
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There is a consensus that climate change has affected society. The increase in temperature and reduction in precipitation for some regions of the world have had implications for the intensity and frequency of extreme events. This scenario is worrying for various sectors of water use, such as hydroelectric power generation and agriculture. Reduced flows in river basins, coupled with increased water consumption, can significantly affect energy generation and food production. Within this context, this paper presents an analysis of climate change impacts in a large basin of Brazil between the Amazon and Cerrado biomes, considering the effects of water demands. Inflow projections were generated for seven power plant reservoirs in the Tocantins–Araguaia river basin, using projections from five climate models. The results indicate significant reductions in flows, with decreases of more than 50% in the average flow. For minimum flows, there are indications of reductions of close to 85%. The demand for water, although growing, represents a smaller part of the effects, but should not be disregarded, since it impacts the dry periods of the rivers and can generate conflicts with energy production.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Economics)
Open AccessArticle
Addressing Climate Resilience in the African Region: Prioritizing Mental Health and Psychosocial Well-Being in Disaster Preparedness and Response Planning for Mainstream Communities and Migrants
by
Belayneh Fentahun Shibesh and Nidhi Nagabhatla
Climate 2025, 13(7), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070139 - 3 Jul 2025
Abstract
Climate change represents a complex and multifaceted challenge for health systems, particularly in the African region, where the research has predominantly focused on physical health impacts while overlooking critical mental health dimensions. Our central hypothesis is that integrating culturally adapted mental health and
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Climate change represents a complex and multifaceted challenge for health systems, particularly in the African region, where the research has predominantly focused on physical health impacts while overlooking critical mental health dimensions. Our central hypothesis is that integrating culturally adapted mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) into climate resilience frameworks and disaster response planning will significantly reduce psychological distress (e.g., anxiety, depression, and trauma) and enhance adaptive capacities among both mainstream and migrant communities in disaster-prone African regions. This rapid review methodology systematically explores the intricate relationships between climate change, mental health, and migration by examining the existing literature and identifying significant information gaps. The key findings underscore the urgent need for targeted research and strategic interventions that specifically address mental health vulnerabilities in the context of climate change. This review highlights how extreme weather events, environmental disruptions, and forced migration create profound psychological stressors that extend beyond immediate physical health concerns. This research emphasizes the importance of developing comprehensive adaptation strategies integrating mental health considerations into broader climate response frameworks. Recommendations emerging from this assessment call for immediate and focused attention on developing specialized research, policies, and interventions that recognize the unique mental health challenges posed by climate change in African contexts. We also note the current limitations in the existing national adaptation plans, which frequently overlook mental health dimensions, thereby underscoring the necessity of a more holistic and nuanced approach to understanding climate change’s psychological impacts. In this exploratory study, we intended to provide a crucial preliminary assessment of the complex intersections between climate change, mental health, and migration, offering valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and healthcare professionals seeking to develop more comprehensive and responsive strategies in an increasingly challenging environmental landscape.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coping with Flooding and Drought)
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Frequency Analysis and Trend of Maximum Wind Speed for Different Return Periods in a Cold Diverse Topographical Region of Iran
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Leila Alimohamadian and Raoof Mostafazadeh
Climate 2025, 13(7), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070138 - 2 Jul 2025
Abstract
This study examines the trends and statistical characteristics of daily maximum wind speed across various synoptic stations in Ardabil Province, Iran, with diverse topography. Using daily wind speed data from multiple synoptic stations, the research focuses on three primary objectives: assessing changes in
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This study examines the trends and statistical characteristics of daily maximum wind speed across various synoptic stations in Ardabil Province, Iran, with diverse topography. Using daily wind speed data from multiple synoptic stations, the research focuses on three primary objectives: assessing changes in daily maximum wind speed, fitting various statistical distributions to the data, and estimating wind speed values for different return periods. In this research, the temporal changes were evaluated while analyzing the frequency of the data, and then the maximum wind speed values were calculated and analyzed for different return periods by fitting frequency distributions. The analysis reveals notable variability in maximum wind speeds across stations. The trend analysis, conducted using the nonparametric Mann–Kendall method, reveals significant positive trends in maximum wind speed at Meshgin-Shahr and Sareyn (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, data from Khalkhal station displays a significant decreasing trend, while other stations, like Ardabil and Parsabad, show no meaningful trends. According to the statistical distributions analysis, the Fisher–Tippett T2 mirrored distribution demonstrates the best fit for Ardabil, with an absolute difference of 2.52%, while the Laplace distribution yields the lowest discrepancies for Bilesavar (3.50%) and Ardabil Airport (3.83%). This ranking indicates that, despite similar first-ranked distributions in some stations, secondary models show variability, suggesting localized influences on wind speed that modify distributional fit. As a conclusion, the Laplace (std) distribution stands out as the best-fit model for several stations, showing relative consistency across several stations. These findings demonstrate the necessity of site-specific statistical modeling to accurately represent wind speed patterns across the diverse landscapes of Ardabil Province. Based on the results, comparing the wind characteristics in the study area with those of other regions in Iran, as well as analyzing the reported trends, can be useful in determining the impact of the region’s climatic conditions and topography on wind patterns. This research offers key insights into wind speed variability and trends in Ardabil, crucial for climate adaptation and risk management of extreme wind events.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wind‑Speed Variability from Tropopause to Surface)
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Should We Use Quantile-Mapping-Based Methods in a Climate Change Context? A “Perfect Model” Experiment
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Mathieu Vrac, Harilaos Loukos, Thomas Noël and Dimitri Defrance
Climate 2025, 13(7), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070137 - 1 Jul 2025
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This study assesses the use of Quantile-Mapping methods for bias correction and downscaling in climate change studies. A “Perfect Model Experiment” is conducted using high-resolution climate simulations as pseudo-references and coarser versions as biased data. The focus is on European daily temperature and
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This study assesses the use of Quantile-Mapping methods for bias correction and downscaling in climate change studies. A “Perfect Model Experiment” is conducted using high-resolution climate simulations as pseudo-references and coarser versions as biased data. The focus is on European daily temperature and precipitation under the RCP 8.5 scenario. Six methods are tested: an empirical Quantile-Mapping approach, the “Cumulative Distribution Function—transform” (CDF-t) method, and four CDF-t variants with different parameters. Their performance is evaluated based on univariate and multivariate properties over the calibration period (1981–2010) and a future period (2071–2100). The results show that while Quantile Mapping and CDF-t perform similarly during calibration, significant differences arise in future projections. Quantile Mapping exhibits biases in the means, standard deviations, and extremes, failing to capture the climate change signal. CDF-t and its variants show smaller biases, with one variant proving particularly robust. The choice of discretization parameter in CDF-t is crucial, as the low number of bins increases the biases. This study concludes that Quantile Mapping is not appropriate for adjustments in a climate change context, whereas CDF-t, especially a variant that stabilizes extremes, offers a more reliable alternative.
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The Gender–Climate–Security Nexus: A Case Study of Plateau State
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T. Oluwaseyi Ishola and Isaac Luginaah
Climate 2025, 13(7), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070136 - 30 Jun 2025
Abstract
This study investigates the gendered nexus between climate change, food insecurity, and conflict in Plateau State, Nigeria. This region in north-central Nigeria is marked by recurring farmer–herder clashes and climate-induced environmental degradation. Drawing on qualitative methods, including interviews, gender-disaggregated focus groups, and key
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This study investigates the gendered nexus between climate change, food insecurity, and conflict in Plateau State, Nigeria. This region in north-central Nigeria is marked by recurring farmer–herder clashes and climate-induced environmental degradation. Drawing on qualitative methods, including interviews, gender-disaggregated focus groups, and key informant discussions, the research explores how climate variability and violent conflict interact to exacerbate household food insecurity. The methodology allows the capture of nuanced perspectives and lived experiences, particularly emphasizing the differentiated impacts on women and men. The findings reveal that irregular rainfall patterns, declining agricultural yields, and escalating violence have disrupted traditional farming systems and undermined rural livelihoods. The study also shows that women, though they are responsible for household food management, face disproportionate burdens due to restricted mobility, limited access to resources, and a heightened exposure to gender-based violence. Grounded in Conflict Theory, Frustration–Aggression Theory, and Feminist Political Ecology, the analysis shows how intersecting vulnerabilities, such as gender, age, and socioeconomic status, shape experiences of food insecurity and adaptation strategies. Women often find creative and local ways to cope with challenges, including seed preservation, rationing, and informal trade. However, systemic barriers continue to hinder sustainable progress. This study emphasized the need for integrating gender-sensitive interventions into policy frameworks, such as land tenure reforms, targeted agricultural support for women, and improved security measures, to effectively mitigate food insecurity and promote sustainable livelihoods, especially in conflict-affected regions.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 2nd Edition)
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Satellite-Based Seasonal Fingerprinting of Methane Emissions from Canadian Dairy Farms Using Sentinel-5P
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Padmanabhan Jagannathan Prajesh, Kaliaperumal Ragunath, Miriam Gordon and Suresh Neethirajan
Climate 2025, 13(7), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070135 - 27 Jun 2025
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Methane (CH4) emissions from dairy farming represent a substantial yet under-quantified share of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions. This study provides an in-depth, satellite-based fingerprinting analysis of methane emissions from Canada’s dairy sector, using Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI data. We utilized a robust quasi-experimental design,
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Methane (CH4) emissions from dairy farming represent a substantial yet under-quantified share of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions. This study provides an in-depth, satellite-based fingerprinting analysis of methane emissions from Canada’s dairy sector, using Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI data. We utilized a robust quasi-experimental design, pairing 14 dairy-intensive zones with eight non-dairy reference regions, to analyze methane emissions from 2019 to 2024. A dynamic, region-specific baseline approach was implemented to remove temporal non-stationarity and isolate dairy-specific methane signals. Dairy regions exhibited consistently higher methane concentrations than reference areas, with an average methane anomaly of 17.4 ppb. However, this concentration gap between dairy and non-dairy regions notably narrowed by 57.23% (from 24.42 ppb in 2019 to 10.44 ppb in 2024), driven primarily by accelerated methane increases in non-dairy landscapes and a pronounced one-year contraction during 2022–2023 (−39.29%). Nationally, atmospheric methane levels rose by 3.83%, revealing significant spatial heterogeneity across provinces. Notably, an inverse relationship between the initial methane concentrations in 2019 and subsequent growth rates emerged, indicating spatial convergence. The seasonal analysis uncovered consistent spring minima and fall–winter maxima across regions, reflecting the combined effects of seasonal livestock management practices, atmospheric transport dynamics, and biogeochemical processes. The diminishing dairy methane anomaly suggests complex interplay of intensifying background methane emissions from climate-driven wetland fluxes, increasing fossil fuel extraction activities, and diffuse agricultural emissions. These findings underscore the emerging challenges in attributing sector-specific methane emissions accurately from satellite observations, highlighting both the capabilities and limitations of current satellite monitoring approaches.
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Key Motivations, Barriers, and Enablers Toward Net-Zero Cities: An Integrated Framework and Large Survey in Japan
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Fedor Myasoedov and Dimiter Savov Ialnazov
Climate 2025, 13(7), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070134 - 25 Jun 2025
Abstract
Ensuring consistent progress toward cities’ net-zero emission goals requires understanding key dimensions of urban climate governance—particularly the motivations driving municipalities toward net zero and the critical barriers and enablers along this pathway. Current knowledge on these critical aspects is fragmented, lacking a holistic
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Ensuring consistent progress toward cities’ net-zero emission goals requires understanding key dimensions of urban climate governance—particularly the motivations driving municipalities toward net zero and the critical barriers and enablers along this pathway. Current knowledge on these critical aspects is fragmented, lacking a holistic framework and empirical prioritization of key factors. We developed an integrated analytical framework and empirically distilled the most salient motivations, barriers, and enablers through a large-scale survey targeting 489 net-zero-committed municipalities—known as “Zero Carbon Cities”—across Japan. With responses from 309 municipalities, we deliver the first systematic mapping of factors perceived as most influential by Japanese local authorities. The results indicate that municipalities are primarily motivated by seizing local economic development opportunities (enhanced local energy conditions, financial gains and savings, and local industry revitalization), future-proofing communities against disasters, and enhancing the local quality of life. Key barriers and enablers were identified across four categories: municipal resources and authority (budgets, dedicated staff, and empowered climate agencies), knowledge and expertise (staff climate competence), institutional coherence (cross-departmental coordination and stakeholder involvement), and political will and leadership (the presence of climate champions and awareness within city halls and among residents). Accordingly, we discuss implications and derive recommendations toward strengthened local action in Japan and beyond.
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(This article belongs to the Section Policy, Governance, and Social Equity)
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Open AccessReview
Climate-Sensitive Health Outcomes in Kenya: A Scoping Review of Environmental Exposures and Health Outcomes Research, 2000–2024
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Jessica Gerard, Titus Kibaara, Iris Martine Blom, Jane Falconer, Shamsudeen Mohammed, Zaharat Kadri-Alabi, Roz Taylor, Leila Abdullahi, Robert C. Hughes, Bernard Onyango and Ariel A. Brunn
Climate 2025, 13(7), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070133 - 20 Jun 2025
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Climate change threatens health and social development gains in Kenya, necessitating health policy planning for risk reduction and mitigation. To understand the state of knowledge on climate-related health impacts in Kenya, a scoping review of 25 years of environmental health research was conducted.
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Climate change threatens health and social development gains in Kenya, necessitating health policy planning for risk reduction and mitigation. To understand the state of knowledge on climate-related health impacts in Kenya, a scoping review of 25 years of environmental health research was conducted. In compliance with a pre-registered protocol, nine bibliographic databases and grey literature sources were searched for articles published from 2000 to 2024. Of 19,234 articles screened, 816 full texts were reviewed in duplicate, and a final 348 articles underwent data extraction for topic categorisation, trend analysis, and narrative summary. Most of the studies (97%, n = 336) were journal articles, with 64% published after 2014 (n = 224). The health topics centred on vector-borne diseases (45%, n = 165), primarily vector abundance (n = 111) and malaria (n = 67), while mental health (n = 12) and heat exposure (n = 9) studies were less frequent. The research was geographically concentrated on the Lake Victoria Basin, Rift Valley, and Coastal regions, with fewer studies from the northern arid and semi-arid regions. The findings show a shift from a focus on infectious diseases towards broader non-communicable outcomes, as well as regional disparities in research coverage. This review highlights the development of baseline associations between environmental exposures and health outcomes in Kenya, providing a necessary foundation for evidence-informed climate change and health policy. However, challenges in data and study designs limit some of the evidentiary value.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate, Ecosystem and Human Health: Impacts and Adaptation)
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Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies of the Populations of Abuja and Ouagadougou in West Africa to the Various Impacts of Extreme Climate Events in Urban Areas
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Aliou Gadiaga, Appollonia Aimiosino Okhimamhe, Michael Thiel and Oble Neya
Climate 2025, 13(7), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13070132 - 20 Jun 2025
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Urban settings in West Africa are increasingly experiencing extreme weather events, such as heat waves, floods, and windstorms. Climate phenomena exacerbated by global climate change are not unique to this region but reflect a broader trend of worldwide environmental changes. However, how local
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Urban settings in West Africa are increasingly experiencing extreme weather events, such as heat waves, floods, and windstorms. Climate phenomena exacerbated by global climate change are not unique to this region but reflect a broader trend of worldwide environmental changes. However, how local communities in tropical cities in the global south adapt to these extreme events is not fully understood. Understanding local adaptation strategies is crucial in enhancing our ability to develop context-specific policies that address climate vulnerabilities. This study aimed to analyse the adaptation and mitigation strategies employed by the urban residents of Abuja and Ouagadougou in response to recurrent floods, heat waves, and windstorms. To investigate adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change in urban areas, this study collected quantitative data from a sample of 840 households in Abuja and 840 households in Ouagadougou. The results revealed that the participants of each city used different strategies to adapt to and mitigate heat waves, floods, and windstorms. However, the level of adoption of these measures differed among the respondents. The findings revealed a low level of adoption of climate change mitigation measures. Context-specific policies must prioritise strengthening local adaptation strategies, addressing socioeconomic disparities, and fostering urban design solutions tailored to each city’s unique environmental and infrastructural challenges.
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Open AccessArticle
Recovery and Reconstructions of 18th Century Precipitation Records in Italy: Problems and Analyses
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Antonio della Valle, Francesca Becherini and Dario Camuffo
Climate 2025, 13(6), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060131 - 19 Jun 2025
Abstract
Precipitation is one of the main meteorological variables in climate research and long records provide a unique, long-term knowledge of climatic variability and extreme events. Moreover, they are a prerequisite for climate modeling and reanalyses. Like all meteorological observations, in the early period,
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Precipitation is one of the main meteorological variables in climate research and long records provide a unique, long-term knowledge of climatic variability and extreme events. Moreover, they are a prerequisite for climate modeling and reanalyses. Like all meteorological observations, in the early period, every observer used a personal measuring protocol. Instruments and their locations were not standardized and not always specified in the observer’s metadata. The situation began to change in 1873 with the foundation of the International Meteorological Committee, though the complete standardization of protocols, instruments, and exposure was reached in 1950 with the World Meteorological Organization. The aim of this paper is to present and discuss the methodology needed to recover and reconstruct early precipitation records and to provide high-quality dataset of precipitation usable for climate studies. The main issues that have to be addresses are described and critically analyzed based on the longest Italian precipitation series to which the methodology was successfully applied.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Variability in the Mediterranean Region (Second Edition))
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Open AccessReview
Recent Advances in Understanding the Impact of Environmental Heat Stress on Sheep Production and Reproductive Performance: A Subtropical Climate Perspective
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Jabulani Nkululeko Ngcobo, István Egerszegi and Khathutshelo Agree Nephawe
Climate 2025, 13(6), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060130 - 18 Jun 2025
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The subtropics are affected by severe climate change, which may induce heat stress in animals. Moreover, the region is significantly seasonal; hence, mitigating climate risks and implementing climate adaptation measures are necessary. Sustainable Development Goals 1, 2, and 13 call for no poverty,
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The subtropics are affected by severe climate change, which may induce heat stress in animals. Moreover, the region is significantly seasonal; hence, mitigating climate risks and implementing climate adaptation measures are necessary. Sustainable Development Goals 1, 2, and 13 call for no poverty, zero hunger, and climate action. These are the most severe problems affecting food security in the modern world. Food security refers to a situation in which all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, proper, and healthy food that satisfies their dietary requirements. Nevertheless, the projected increase in the human population implies a greater demand for employment opportunities; hence, developing countries are building more industrial areas. The burning of fossil fuels in various industries potentiates climate change and environmental pollution. It is predicted that the ecological temperature will increase by almost 2.3–4.8 °C by 2100 due to climate change. Agriculture and animal products remain vital in Africa as drivers of the economy and transformation for sustainable livelihood and development. Sheep production has long been used as a source of income and livelihood and provides jobs for people who live in rural areas. It is also sometimes used for ritual ceremonies and to pay penalties to local authorities. Nevertheless, sheep have been identified to be sensitive to heat stress, characterized by low reproductive performance, low microbiota quantities, and poor general health. There are different strategies for mitigating heat stress; however, many smallholder farmers have limited access to education and lack the financial support required to incorporate artificial shade and plant trees for shade to limit heat stress. In this review, we aim to understand the effects of environmental heat stress on sheep production and reproductive performance. Based on this review, it can be concluded that heat stress can threaten food security if not addressed, especially for farmers who depend on sheep rearing. As a result, future studies are recommended to understand different adaptation methods that can be used to mitigate the heat stress effect on sheep productivity, reproductivity, and general health.
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Open AccessArticle
Hydrologic and Hydraulic Modeling for Flood Risk Assessment: A Case Study of Periyar River Basin, Kerala, India
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S. Renu, Beeram Satya Narayana Reddy, Sanjana Santhosh, Sreelekshmi, V. Lekshmi, S. K. Pramada and Venkataramana Sridhar
Climate 2025, 13(6), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060129 - 18 Jun 2025
Abstract
Floods pose a substantial threat to both life and property, with their frequency and intensity escalating due to climate change. A comprehensive hydrological and hydraulic modeling approach is essential for understanding flood dynamics and developing effective future flood risk management strategies. The accuracy
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Floods pose a substantial threat to both life and property, with their frequency and intensity escalating due to climate change. A comprehensive hydrological and hydraulic modeling approach is essential for understanding flood dynamics and developing effective future flood risk management strategies. The accuracy of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) directly impacts the reliability of hydrologic simulations. This study focuses on evaluating the efficacy of two DEMs in hydrological modeling, specifically investigating their potential for daily discharge simulation in the Periyar River Basin, Kerala, India. Recognizing the limitations of the Hydrologic Engineering Center’s Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS) with the available dataset, a novel hybrid model was developed by integrating HEC-HMS outputs with an Artificial Neural Network (ANN). While precipitation, lagged precipitation, and lagged discharge served as inputs to the ANN, the hybrid model also incorporated HEC-HMS simulations as an additional input. The results demonstrated improved performance of the hybrid model in simulating daily discharge. The Hydrologic Engineering Center’s River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) was employed to predict flood inundation areas for both historical and future scenarios in the Aluva region of the Periyar River Basin, which was severely impacted during the 2018 Kerala floods. By integrating hydrological and hydraulic modeling approaches, this study aims to enhance flood prediction accuracy and contribute to the development of effective flood mitigation strategies.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extreme Precipitation and Responses to Climate Change)
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Exploring Impacts of Environmentally Focused Imagery on Pro-Environment Behaviours and Climate Anxiety
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Zac Coates, Scott Brown and Michelle Kelly
Climate 2025, 13(6), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060128 - 16 Jun 2025
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Climate change poses a significant threat to sustainability and may result in psychological distress, such as climate anxiety, which may play a critical role in influencing pro-environment behaviours. This study aimed to investigate how indirect exposure to environmentally focused imagery may impact pro-environment
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Climate change poses a significant threat to sustainability and may result in psychological distress, such as climate anxiety, which may play a critical role in influencing pro-environment behaviours. This study aimed to investigate how indirect exposure to environmentally focused imagery may impact pro-environment behaviours and climate anxiety. A total of 283 participants completed our task, with findings indicating that participants who viewed negative environmental imagery had a significant reduction in preference for eco-friendly transportation options compared to participants in other conditions; we saw no significant difference in preference for these participants. When examining the effects of environmental imagery on climate anxiety, we found no significant differences in the level of climate anxiety based on priming condition, indicating that climate anxiety may be more robust to situational events than associated behaviours. This study identifies the potential maladaptive effects of negative climate imagery on pro-environment behaviours and highlights the trait-like nature of climate anxiety. These findings identify the potential for disengagement with behaviour due to negative messaging and imagery associated with climate change and extreme weather events. Future research should explore the long-term stability of climate anxiety and how different forms of exposure to climate change may influence climate anxiety and pro-environment behaviours.
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Open AccessArticle
Machine Learning Indicates Stronger Future Thunderstorm Downbursts Affecting Southeast Australian Airports
by
Milton Speer, Lance Leslie and Shuang Wang
Climate 2025, 13(6), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060127 - 15 Jun 2025
Abstract
Thunderstorms downbursts can be hazardous during aircraft landing and take-off. A warming climate increases low- to mid-level troposphere water vapor, typically transported from high sea-surface temperature regions. Consequently, the future occurrence and intensity of destructive wind gusts from wet microburst thunderstorms are expected
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Thunderstorms downbursts can be hazardous during aircraft landing and take-off. A warming climate increases low- to mid-level troposphere water vapor, typically transported from high sea-surface temperature regions. Consequently, the future occurrence and intensity of destructive wind gusts from wet microburst thunderstorms are expected to increase. Wet microbursts are downdrafts from heavily precipitating thunderstorms and are several kilometers in diameter, often producing near-surface extreme wind gusts. Brisbane airport recorded a wet microburst wind gust of 157 km/h in November 2016. Numerous locations in eastern Australia experience warm season (October to March) wet microbursts. Here, eight machine learning techniques comprising forward and backward linear regression, radial basis forward and backward support vector regression, polynomial-based forward and backward support vector regression, and forward and backward random forest selection were employed. They identified primary attributes for increased atmospheric instability by warm moist air influx from regions of high sea-surface temperatures. The climate drivers detected here are indicative of increased future eastern Australian warm season thunderstorm downbursts, occurring as wet microbursts. They suggest a greater frequency and intensity of impacts on aircraft safety and operations affecting major east coast airports, such as Sydney and Brisbane, and smaller aircraft at inland regional airports in southeastern Australia.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extreme Weather Detection, Attribution and Adaptation Design)
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Synoptic and Dynamic Analyses of an Intense Mediterranean Cyclone: A Case Study
by
Ahmad E. Samman
Climate 2025, 13(6), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060126 - 15 Jun 2025
Abstract
On 3 February 2006, a powerful Mediterranean cyclone instigated a widespread dust storm across Saudi Arabia. Meteorological observations from one station recorded strong westerly to southwesterly winds, with gusts reaching 40 m/s, accompanied by thunderstorms and dust storms. This study delves into the
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On 3 February 2006, a powerful Mediterranean cyclone instigated a widespread dust storm across Saudi Arabia. Meteorological observations from one station recorded strong westerly to southwesterly winds, with gusts reaching 40 m/s, accompanied by thunderstorms and dust storms. This study delves into the formation and development of this significant Mediterranean cyclone, which impacted the Mediterranean basin and the Arabian Peninsula from 26 January to 4 February 2006. Utilizing ECMWF ERA5 reanalysis data, this research analyzes the synoptic and dynamic conditions that contributed to the cyclone’s evolution and intensification. The cyclone originated over the North Atlantic as cold air from higher latitudes and was advected southward, driven by a strong upper-level trough. The initial phase of cyclogenesis was triggered by baroclinic instability, facilitated by an intense upper-level jet stream interacting with a pre-existing low-level baroclinic zone over coastal regions. Upper-level dynamics enhanced surface frontal structures, promoting the formation of the intense cyclone. As the system progressed, low-level diabatic processes became the primary drivers of its evolution, reducing the influence of upper-level baroclinic mechanisms. The weakening of the upper-level dynamics led to the gradual distortion of the low-level baroclinicity and frontal structures, transitioning the system to a more barotropic state during its mature phase. Vorticity analysis revealed that positive vorticity advection and warm air transport toward the developing cyclone played key roles in its intensification, leading to the development of strong low-level winds. Atmospheric kinetic energy analysis showed that the majority of the atmospheric kinetic energy was concentrated at 400 hPa and above, coinciding with intense jet stream activity. The generation of the atmospheric kinetic energy was primarily driven by cross-contour flow, acting as a major energy source, while atmospheric kinetic energy dissipation from grid to subgrid scales served as a major energy sink. The dissipation pattern closely mirrored the generation pattern but with the opposite sign. Additionally, the horizontal flux of the atmospheric kinetic energy was identified as a continuous energy source throughout the cyclone’s lifecycle.
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(This article belongs to the Section Weather, Events and Impacts)
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Assessment of Run-of-River and Hydropower Plants in Peru: Current and Potential Sites, Historical Variability (1981–2020), and Climate Change Projections (2035–2100)
by
Leonardo Gutierrez, Adrian Huerta, Harold Llauca, Luc Bourrel and Waldo Lavado-Casimiro
Climate 2025, 13(6), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060125 - 12 Jun 2025
Abstract
Hydropower is the main source of renewable energy and the most feasible for implementation in remote areas without access to conventional energy grids. Therefore, knowledge of actual, potential, and future perspectives of sustainable hydropower projects is decisive for their viability. This study aims
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Hydropower is the main source of renewable energy and the most feasible for implementation in remote areas without access to conventional energy grids. Therefore, knowledge of actual, potential, and future perspectives of sustainable hydropower projects is decisive for their viability. This study aims to estimate the present and future potential capacity of Peru’s hydropower system and from the potential small hydroelectric plants, specifically Run-of-River class. First, we employed geospatial databases and hydroclimatological products to describe the current hydropower system and potential sites for Run-of-River projects. The findings identified 11,965 potential sites for Run-of-River plants. Second, we executed and validated a hydrological model to estimate historical daily streamflows (1981–2020) and hydropower parameters for actual and potential sites. It was determined there is an installed capacity of 5.2 GW in the current hydropower system and a total potential capacity of 29.1 GW for Run-of-River plants, mainly distributed in the northern and central Andes. Finally, we evaluated future changes driven by ten global climate models under three emission scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5), compared with the baseline period of 1981–2010 with two future time slices. The main results about capacity indicated that operational hydroelectric plants (Run-of-River plants) are projected to decrease by 0.5 to −5.4% (−7.2 to −2.2%) during 2036–2065 and by −9.2 to 3.8% (1.8 to −11.9%) during 2071–2100. These outcomes provide relevant information to support policymakers in addressing sustainable development gaps in the coming decades and stakeholders involved in the implementation and mitigation of climate change impacts on hydropower projects in Peru.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate Adaptation and Mitigation)
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The Interplay Between Climate Change Exposure, Awareness, Coping, and Anxiety Among Individuals with and Without a Chronic Illness
by
Shiri Shinan-Altman and Yaira Hamama-Raz
Climate 2025, 13(6), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060124 - 11 Jun 2025
Abstract
Climate change poses a significant threat to mental health, including the emergence of climate change anxiety (CCA). In this study, we examined whether exposure to climate-related events was associated with higher CCA through the mediating roles of climate change awareness and ecological coping
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Climate change poses a significant threat to mental health, including the emergence of climate change anxiety (CCA). In this study, we examined whether exposure to climate-related events was associated with higher CCA through the mediating roles of climate change awareness and ecological coping strategies and whether these pathways differed by chronic illness status. In February 2025, 600 Israeli adults (50% female; mean age ≈ 50) completed an online self-report questionnaire assessing climate change exposure, awareness, coping, and anxiety. Data were analyzed using moderated mediation models, controlling for gender, age, and education. Greater climate change exposure was associated with an increased awareness and higher use of problem-focused coping, which, in turn, predicted elevated CCA. Meaning-focused coping was not associated with anxiety overall; however, among the participants without a chronic illness, it was linked to higher CCA. Climate change awareness alone was not associated with anxiety. A significant serial mediation was found via awareness and problem-focused coping, and a moderated mediation was found via meaning-focused coping among those without a chronic illness. Coping strategies play a key role in climate change anxiety. Although health status may influence this process, tailored interventions should prioritize coping styles in climate adaptation efforts.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Confronting the Climate Change and Health Nexus: Interactions, Impacts, and Adaptation Strategies)
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