Beverages — Open Access Journal

Transition metals, including copper, iron, and manganese, are known to catalyze the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in beer leading to reduced product stability. Metals in beer are generally derived from raw ingredients. The present study aims to evaluate the impact of brewing and dry-hopping using hops treated with copper-based fungicides (CBFs) on the final transition metal content of model buffer solutions and pilot-scale systems of wort and beer. Copper levels in model wort and beer solutions were elevated (105.6% and 230.4% increase, respectively) when CBF-treated hops were used. In laboratory-prepared wort, elevated copper concentrations were not observed when CBF-treated hops were used for boiling. Dry hopping of beer using CBF-treated hops led to significant increases in total copper content (ca. 75 µg/kg vs. ca. 40–50 µg/kg in the control-hopped beer) when yeast was absent from the treated beer, but not when yeast was present. It was observed that manganese levels were significantly elevated in all hopped beers (ca. 495–550 µg/kg vs. 90–125 µg/kg in the unhopped control), regardless of hop treatment. A hop varietal thiol, 4-Mercapto-4-methylpentan-2-one, was spiked into treated beers, and the rate of oxidative loss was monitored during aging. Rates of thiol loss in treated beer samples did not differ across CBF treatments but were significantly lower in unhopped controls in the absence of yeast (p < 0.0001) and correlated significantly with total manganese content of the beers (R² = 0.4228, p = 0.0006). The rate of staling in hopped beers as measured by the rate of 1-hydroxyethyl radical generation did not differ among hop treatments, suggesting that excess copper content contributed from the hops does not negatively impact the oxidative stability of the beers. These findings suggest that brewers can use CBF-treated hops without any negative implications for the shelf stability of their beers and do not contraindicate the use of CBF in hops production when necessary. Full article

Due to socioeconomic changes, the demand for and interest in alcoholic beverages have recently been increasing. Among various alcoholic drinks, consumer preference for wine could be varied. It might be related with its complexity, as wine is known to have characteristics that are difficult to understand. Several factors, such as intrinsic or extrinsic factors interact to influence wine complexity and consumer perception. Many studies have been conducted to understand the complexity of wine, allowing deeper insight into its perception by consumers. Studies over the last decade on wine sensory perception using descriptive analysis and consumer tests were reviewed. Additionally, chemical analysis studies were included because flavor constituents information would contribute to a better understanding of sensory perception. Descriptive sensory analysis of wine was reviewed considering panels and flavor characterization for better understanding wine-related research. Several consumer studies regarding liking/preference, emotion, context, and extrinsic factors to understand consumer preference or perception were reviewed. Research on chemical constituents may affect consumer perception and is thus presented in this review. However, most of the research was focused on a narrow range of wine, thus is missing overall wine category evaluations. Furthermore, evaluations were mainly in wine-producing countries, resulting in limited understanding of an emergent market. This review will help guide wine researchers and industry by providing information on factors influencing consumer wine perception. Full article

Background: Donkey milk is used in infant nutrition for the treatment of children affected by cow’s milk protein allergy, thanks to its hypo-allergenicity, mainly due to its protein profile, which is very close to that of human milk. Furthermore, donkey milk is characterized by the presence of a fair amount of bioactive proteins, that may have a positive impact on human health. Despite the presence of numerous articles that describe the chemical composition and nutraceutical properties of donkey milk, few works have been performed to determine its vitamin profile; therefore, the purpose of this work is to give further information on the B-vitamins profile of donkey milk. Methods: B-vitamins have been determined through a reversed-phase liquid chromatography analysis. Results: The results indicated that donkey milk (DM) contains thiamine 0.661 ± 0.26 μM, riboflavin 0.168 ± 0.04 μM, nicotinic acid 18.75 ± 1.92 μM, pyridoxine 5.38 ± 3.3 5μM, and folic acid 0.83 ± 0.08 μM. Conclusions: Donkey milk contains a high quantity of nicotinic acid, known for its lipid-lowering effect, and a good amount of vitamin B6 and folic acid, the latter very important for children’s growth. To notice, vitamin B6 has been determined for the first time in donkey milk. Full article

Pulsed light is an emerging non-thermal technology viable for foodstuff sanitation. The sanitation is produced through the use of high energy pulses during ultra-short periods of time (ns to µs). The pulsed light induces irreversible damages at the DNA level with the formation of pyrimidine dimers, but also produces photo-thermal and photo-physical effects on the microbial membranes that lead to a reduction in the microbial populations. The reduction caused in the microbial populations can reach several fold, up to 4 log CFU/mL decrement. A slight increase of 3 to 4 °C in temperature is observed in treated food; nonetheless, this increase does not modify either the nutritional properties of the product or its sensory profile. The advantages of using pulsed light could be used to a greater extent in the winemaking industry. Experimental trials have shown a positive effect of reducing native yeast and bacteria in grapes to populations below 1–2 log CFU/mL. In this way, pulsed light, a non-thermal technology currently available for the sanitation of foodstuffs, is an alternative for the reduction in native microbiota and the later control of the fermentative process in winemaking. This certainly would allow the use of fermentation biotechnologies such as the use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in mixed and sequential fermentations to preserve freshness in wines through the production of aroma volatile compounds and organic acids, and the production of wines with less utilization of SO₂ in accordance with the consumers’ demand in the market. Full article

Flavor continues to be a driving force for coffee’s continued growth in the beverage market today. Studies have identified the sensory aspects and volatile and non-volatile compounds that characterize the flavor of different coffees. This review discusses aspects that influence coffee drinking and aspects such as environment, processing, and preparation that influence flavor. This summary of research studies employed sensory analysis (either descriptive and discrimination testing and or consumer testing) and chemical analysis to determine the impact aspects on coffee flavor. Full article

Rose apple fruits (Syzygium agueum Alston cv. Taaptimjan) were used to produce cider to overcome their limitation of short shelf life. Following fermentation, alternative pasteurization conditions at 63 °C for 15 s and at 71 °C for 6 s were compared. The effects of pasteurization conditions on physicochemical properties, microbial safety, antioxidant capacity, and sensory properties of the cider were investigated during storage for 6 months at refrigerated temperature. The unpasteurized cider had 5.9% ethanol content with TSS of 4.1 °Brix. Alcohol content of this treatment group increased while TSS decreased during storage, as effects of continuing fermentation. Pasteurization at 63 or 71 °C effectively prolonged cider shelf life to 3 and 6 months, respectively. Nonetheless, the processing significantly decreased contents of ascorbic acid and antioxidants and affected sensory profile of the cider. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated storage time as the dominant factor determining cider quality. Trained panelists in the sensory study perceived more intense sweetness, less sourness, and less flavor in the pasteurized samples compared to the control group. The pasteurization conditions 71 °C for 6 s achieved microbiological safety and resulted in desirable sensory quality for up to 6 months of shelf life. Full article

The objective of this study was to investigate the aroma profile and major flavor compounds in Xiaoqu liquor by a combination of sensory profiling, GC-O/GC-MS analysis, and SBSE-GC-MS. A total of 57 important volatile compounds (FD ≥ 2) were screened based on the retention indices, aromatic characteristics, standard comparison, and aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA). By calculating the odor activity values (OAVs), 32 aroma active compounds were identified in Xiaoqu liquor. In the aroma recombination experiments, these active compounds were dissolved in 46% ethanol water at their natural concentrations, resulting in successful simulations of the typical aromas of Xiaoqu liquor, including fruity aroma, sweet aroma, and grain aroma. Omission experiments showed that the critical compounds that contribute to the characteristic flavor of Xiaoqu liquor include ethyl octanoate, acetaldehyde, 1,1-diethoxyethane, isoamyl acetate, ethyl acetate, valeric acid, 1-octen-3-ol, and ethyl isovalerate. The results provide some guidance for upgrading the fermentation and microbial strain in the production of Xiaoqu liquor. Full article

The literature about musty and moldy taint—the so-called cork taint—in wines is varied because there are many different molecules involved in this wine defect. Chloroanisoles are the most relevant compound responsible for cork taint and of these, 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA) is the most common, but 2,3,4,6-tetrachloroanisole (TeCA) and 2,4,6-tribromoanisole (TBA) can also be responsible of this defect. For other compounds involved in cork taint, geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (2-MIB) are responsible for earthy off-flavor; pyrazines cause vegetable odors, and guaiacol results in smoked, phenolic and medicinal defects. Off-odors of mushroom in wines are caused by 1-octen-3-ol and 1-octen-3-one coming from grapes contaminated by bunch rot (Botrytis cinerea). The sensory aspects of these molecules are illustrated in this review. Generally, the most important cause of this wine contamination is the natural cork of bottle stoppers, but this is not always true. Different origins of contamination include air pollution of the cellars, wood materials, barrels and chips. A review of the possible prevention or remedial treatments to cork taint is also presented. The best solution for this off-flavor is to prevent the wine contaminations. Full article

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) play a crucial role in cider quality. Many variables involved in the fermentation process contribute to cider fragrance, but their relative impact on the finished odor remains ambiguous, because there is little consensus on the most efficient method for cider volatile analysis. Herein, we have optimized and applied a headspace solid phase microextraction gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME GC-MS) method for the chemical analysis of cider VOCs. We determined that the 30 min exposure of a divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS) solid phase microextraction (SPME) fiber at 40 °C yielded detection of the widest variety of VOCs at an extraction efficiency >49% higher than comparable fibers. As a proof-of-concept experiment, we utilized this method to profile cider aroma development throughout the fermentation process for the first time. The results yielded a very practical outcome for cider makers: a pre-screening method for determining cider quality through the detection of off-flavors early in the fermentation process. The aroma profile was found to be well established 72 h after fermentation commenced, with major esters varying by 18.6% ± 4.1% thereafter and higher alcohols varying by just 12.3% ± 2.6%. Lastly, we analyzed four mature ciders that were identically prepared, save for the yeast strain. Twenty-seven key VOCs were identified, off-flavors (4-ethylphenol and 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol) were detected, and odorants were quantified at desirable concentrations when compared to perception thresholds. VOCs varied considerably following fermentation with four novel strains of S. cerevisiae, evidencing the central importance of yeast strain to the finished cider aroma. Full article

Berry cell death (BCD) is linked to the development of flavors and aromas in berries and wine. The BCD pattern and rate within a growing season start at around 90–100 days after anthesis (DAA), and the rate until harvest depends on environmental factors. This study assessed the BCD effects on berry and wine composition from a boutique commercial vineyard in Victoria, Australia, using fluorescent imaging. Results showed differences in wine sensory profiles from the two blocks studied, mainly related to variations in BCD, due to differences in altitude between blocks. Furthermore, two machine learning (ML) models were constructed using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) measurements from full berries as inputs and living tissue (LT) and dead tissue (DT) from berries as targets (Model 1). Model 2 was developed using Brix, LT, DT from the east and west sides of canopies as inputs and using 19 sensory descriptors from wines as targets. High correlation and performances were achieved for both models without signs of overfitting (R = 0.94 and R = 0.80, respectively). These models could be used for decision-making purposes as an objective and comprehensive berry maturity assessment obtained in a non-destructive, accurate, and in a real-time fashion close to harvest, to secure specific wine styles. Full article

Food safety and diversification of agri-food products are increasingly important. A new spirit drink produced from the arbutus fruit (strawberry tree fruit) and honey was designed, taking advantage of the best features of these two ingredients and limiting the methanol content. This work reports the first approach to its development, considering in particular its chemical composition, especially the volatile components, and sensory properties. Methanol, acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, and fusel alcohols were quantified and identified by GC–FID/GC–MS. Sensory analyses were performed by a trained panel. Promising results were obtained, showing that the new spirit has features close to those of honey spirit. Significantly lower contents of methanol, acetaldehyde, and ethyl acetate were observed in the new spirit compared to arbutus spirit (359.0 vs. 994.4 g/hL of pure alcohol (P.A.), 20.5 vs. 25.6 g/hL P.A., and 35.5 vs. 53.9 g/hL P.A., respectively), which is advantageous from the food safety and quality perspectives. The total content of fusel alcohols in the new spirit was significantly lower than in honey spirit (261.4 vs. 388.85 g/hL P.A.). Distinct aroma and flavor profiles were examined, but only four attributes were significantly different between the these spirit drinks: dried fruits, unctuous, varnish (although at very low perception), and sweet. Full article

The packaging of a beverage is an essential element for customer convenience and the preservation of beverage quality. On the other hand, chemical compounds present in the packaging materials, either intentionally added or non-intentionally, may be transferred to the food. With a huge variety of materials used in the production, beverage packaging requires safety assessments with respect to the migration of packaging compounds into the filled beverages. The present article deals with potential migrants from different materials for beverage packaging, including PET bottles, glass bottles, metal cans and cardboard multilayers. The list of migrants comprises monomers and additives, oligomers or degradation products. The article presents a review on scientific literature and summarizes European food regulatory requirements. The review shows no evidence of critical substances migrating from packaging into beverages. Testing the migration in real beverages during and at the end of the shelf life shows compliance with the specific migration limits. Accelerated testing using food simulants, however, shows higher migration in some cases, especially at high temperatures in ethanolic simulants. For some migrants, more realistic testing conditions should be applied in order to show compliance with their specific migration limits. Full article

Lachancea thermotolerans is a non-Saccharomyces yeast appreciated for its potential of acidification due to the production of lactic acid; however, this species also synthetizes other metabolites that modulate organoleptic wine properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the strain L. thermotolerans Lt93 to ferment ‘Treixadura’ and ‘Mencía’ musts and its impact on yeast population dynamics and wine characteristics. Fermentations using monocultures of L. thermotolerans Lt93 and S. cerevisiae strains, sequential inoculation and spontaneous process were performed. The dynamic of yeast population and wine composition were analyzed following standard methodology. L. thermotolerans Lt93 was unable to overgrow wild yeast population in ‘Treixadura’ white must; however, with ‘Mencía’ red must, Lt93 was the predominant yeast at the beginning of fermentation and remained at high frequency until the end. Lt93 Treixadura wines had slightly higher acidity and higher content of esters and acids than ScXG3 wines. Lt93 Mencía wines presented higher acidity (10.1 g/L) and 0.8% (v/v) lower ethanol content than Sc71B wines. The content of esters and fatty acids was 3.3 and 4.0 times lower, respectively, in Lt93 than in Sc71B Mencía wines. It was possible to increase wine acidity and modulate the chemical wine profile by using Lt93. Full article

Our emotions influence our perception. In order to determine whether emotion influences the perception of beer, 32 participants watched either a scene from the movie Wall-E to induce joviality, or a short clip from the Shawshank Redemption to induce sadness. The participants were then required to sample up to 250 mL of Yenda Pale Ale beer and rate it on a variety of taste and flavor characteristics (e.g., bitterness), before completing the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-X (PANAS-X). The data were analyzed using Bayesian t-tests and Null Hypothesis Significance Tests (NHSTs). After applying conservative corrections for multiple comparisons, NHSTs failed to reach statistical significance. However, the effect sizes suggested that inducing joviality, relative to inducing sadness, resulted in the beer being rated as (a) tasting more pleasant, (b) tasting sweeter, and (c) being of higher quality. Following the induction of joviality, participants were also willing to pay more for the beer. The Bayesian analyses indicated that induced emotion can influence flavor perception for complex taste stimuli. The effect sizes and Bayesian analyses are interpreted in terms of Feelings-as-Information theory. These preliminary findings can tentatively be applied to real-world environments such as venues that serve and/or market alcohol. Full article

In this experiment, the effect of pulsed electric field (PEF) technology on the extractability of anthocyanins and polyphenols in early-harvested Sangiovese red grapes (16.9°Bx sugar, 3.26 pH, and 10.4 g/L titratable acidity) from Emilia Romagna (Italy) was investigated. Electric field strengths were in the range of 0.9–3 kV/cm, generated by the application of short, high-voltage pulses, and the grapes were subjected to specific energies from 10.4 to 32.5 kJ/kg immediately after crushing and destemming to produce a pre-fermentative pulsed electric field treatment on a pilot scale. Grape musts and wines were analyzed for color components and polyphenols content from pressing of juices up to 3 months from the end of the fermentation of wines. Furthermore, the freshly-fermented wines were subjected to accelerated aging conditions (i.e., warming under 40 °C for 32 days) to simulate the evolution of color parameters with time. The color intensity was generally higher in treated musts and wines compared to the control, further increased by raising the intensity of the electric field. Results suggested the potentialities of pulsed electric fields (PEFs) as a mild pre-fermentative process to assist maceration and to increase the polyphenolic content of musts obtained by early-harvested Sangiovese grapes. Full article

Yeast inoculation is a widespread practice in winemaking in order to control the must fermentation. However, the use of indigenous wine yeasts can enrich wine quality and differentiate wine styles. Yeast cream preparation (CRY), recently accepted by the International Organization of Vine and Wine, could allow an easier usage of autochthonous yeasts. This work aimed at investigating the actual Italian wine industry’s attitude towards the available formulations of commercial wine yeasts with attention to CRY. Moreover, this study evaluated the perception of wineries toward indigenous yeasts in both winemaking and marketing viewpoints. Data show different levels of knowledge and use about the available yeast formulations. In general, there is not a predominantly positive or negative participants’ opinion regarding the use of indigenous yeasts. Wineries using CRY (4% of the sample) mainly adopt them as a part of the production in order to compare the wines with the ones traditionally obtained with commercial yeasts. CRY is perceived by some interviewees as a potential tool to increase communication and product differentiation. This survey could have anticipated future trends in the use of yeast formulations, determined by the market demands for diversified, unique, and environmentally sustainable products, that can allow an accessible application of precision enology. Full article

Chemical contaminants should not be present in beverages for human consumption, but could eventually be ingested by consumers as they may appear naturally from the environment or be produced by anthropogenic sources. These contaminants could belong to many different chemical sources, including heavy metals, amines, bisphenols, phthalates, pesticides, perfluorinated compounds, inks, ethyl carbamate, and others. It is well known that these hazardous chemicals in beverages can represent a severe threat by the potential risk of generating diseases to humans if no strict quality control is applied during beverages processing. This review compiles the most updated knowledge of the presence of potential contaminants in various types of beverages (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic), as well as in their containers, to prevent undesired migration. Special attention is given to the extraction and pre-concentration techniques applied to these samples, as well as to the analytical techniques necessary for the determination of chemicals with a potential contaminant effect. Finally, an overview of the current legislation is carried out, as well as future trends of research in this field. Full article

Lambic beer is produced using spontaneous fermentation. Gueuze is a style of lambic beer that blends “young” (1 year old) and “aged” (2+ years old) beers. Little is known about the development of volatile aroma compounds in lambic beer during aging. Solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry were used to analyze volatile compounds from 3, 6, 9, 12, and 28-month-old commercial samples of lambic beer. Compounds were identified using standardized retention time and mass spectra of standards. Gas chromatography–olfactometry was used to characterize the aroma profiles of the samples. A total of 41 compounds were identified using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Ethyl lactate, ethyl acetate, 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol were identified in the 9, 12, and 28-month old samples. These four compounds have been linked to the microorganism Brettanomyces. Twenty-one aroma active compounds were identified using Gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC–O). As the age of the gueuze samples increased, a larger number of aroma compounds were identified by the panelists; the compounds identified increased from seven for the 3-month-old samples to nine for the 6-month-old samples, and eleven for both the nine and twelve-month-old samples, and seventeen for the twenty-eight-month-old samples. Full article

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) has gained popularity in the wine sector due to its simplicity and ability to provide a wine’s fingerprint. For this reason, it is often used for authentication and traceability purposes with more than satisfactory results. In this review, an outline of the reasons why authenticity and traceability are important to the wine sector is given, along with a brief overview of the analytical methods used for their attainment; statistical issues and compounds, on which authentication usually is based, are discussed. Moreover, insight on the mode of action of FT-IR is given, along with successful examples from its use in different areas of interest for classification. Finally, prospects and challenges for suggested future research are given. For more accurate and effective analyses, the construction of a large database consisting of wines from different regions, varieties and winemaking protocols is suggested. Full article