Forensic Sci., Volume 6, Issue 2 (June 2026) – 23 articles

Background/Objectives: Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a serious public health and forensic issue, associated with significant psychological, psychiatric, and social consequences. However, data from forensic psychiatric evaluations regarding victims of this type of abuse are limited, especially in Romania. This study primarily aimed to profile the demographic, clinical, and psychosocial characteristics of minors who were victims of sexual offenses and underwent forensic psychiatric evaluation. Secondary objectives included examining relationships between demographic and clinical variables, describing patterns of victimization, and analyzing the co-occurrence of vulnerability factors. Methods: This study was retrospective, descriptive, and analytical, including 51 minors (under 18 years of age) examined at the Mina Minovici National Institute of Legal Medicine (INML), between 2013 and 2025. Data extracted from forensic psychiatric reports included demographic variables, the type of offense, psychiatric diagnosis, psychological issues, intellectual functioning, family environment, and relationship with the aggressor. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, Pearson χ² and Fisher’s exact tests, binary logistic regression, and nonparametric tests for cumulative vulnerability. Results: The sample was predominantly female (94.1%), with a mean age of 13.75 years. Rape was the most frequent offense (45.1%). Most victims originated from disorganized family environments or were institutionalized (70.6%), and 60% had below-normal intellectual functioning. A psychiatric diagnosis was present in 56.9% of cases, while 70.6% exhibited psychological issues. Within an exploratory logistic regression model that did not reach overall statistical significance (omnibus likelihood ratio test χ² = 9.31; p = 0.097), the presence of a psychiatric diagnosis showed the strongest individual association with psychological issues (OR = 5.17; 95% CI, 1.22–21.85; p = 0.026). Cases in which the aggressor was not related to the family environment were the most frequent (60.8%), followed by cases involving family members (23.5%). Most subjects displayed multiple co-occurring vulnerability factors. When the cumulative vulnerability score was recalculated to exclude psychological issues (to avoid construction-induced circularity), higher vulnerability remained significantly associated with extrafamilial victimization (Kruskal–Wallis H = 6.93; p = 0.031), but was no longer associated with psychological issues themselves (Mann–Whitney U = 298.0; p = 0.56), indicating that the originally observed association was an artefact of the score’s construction. Conclusions: Minors who are victims of sexual abuse often face multiple overlapping vulnerabilities, including unstable family environments, cognitive impairments, and psychiatric conditions. These factors frequently coexist in victims evaluated in forensic psychiatric settings and are associated with psychological issues and complex victimization profiles. The findings emphasize the importance of comprehensive, multidisciplinary, and victim-centered methods in forensic psychiatric evaluations. Full article

Background and Clinical Significance: Animal hoarding is a recognized form of animal cruelty characterized by the accumulation of animals under conditions of inadequate care, leading to compromised welfare and an increased risk of disease transmission. Veterinarians are often the first to identify such cases through clinical presentation. This case report describes a forensic investigation of a dog associated with animal hoarding and environmental neglect in Bangkok, Thailand. Case Presentation: A 7-year-old male mixed-breed dog was presented with seizures, emaciation, dehydration, and ectoparasite infestation. Hematological findings revealed leukopenia and anemia, and diagnostic testing confirmed infection with canine distemper virus (CDV) and Dirofilaria immitis. Despite supportive treatment, the dog died within 48 h. A subsequent site inspection, conducted using the TRACE model and based on crime scene investigation principles, identified 13 dogs housed in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. Environmental assessment revealed poor sanitation, waste accumulation, and fluorescent stains of unknown origin detected under ultraviolet light (365 nm) in the cage areas. Among the animals, infections with CDV (23.08%), Dirofilaria immitis (53.85%), and Ehrlichia canis (61.54%) were identified, indicating a high burden of infectious and vector-borne diseases. Conclusions: This case demonstrates the value of integrating clinical veterinary findings with forensic investigation in the assessment of animal neglect. The combined use of clinical, laboratory, and environmental evidence strengthens documentation and supports potential legal action. Enhanced veterinary forensic training and standardized protocols are recommended to improve early detection and intervention in animal cruelty cases. Full article

Background: Postmortem redistribution (PMR) is a major challenge in forensic toxicology, particularly when drug concentrations are measured in central blood rather than peripheral blood. Although peripheral blood remains the preferred specimen for postmortem interpretation, it is not always available in routine forensic practice. Methods: This retrospective descriptive study evaluated postmortem central blood drug findings from judicial autopsies analyzed at the Forensic Toxicology Laboratory of the University of Catania between 2017 and 2024. Approximately, 700 forensic toxicological investigations were reviewed. Overall, 52 therapeutic drugs were identified, resulting in a final dataset of 313 individual drug findings. For each finding, central blood concentrations were compared with published reference ranges and cautiously classified as normal/therapeutic, high but non-toxic, toxic, or potentially lethal. Results: Most findings were classified as normal/therapeutic (84.3%), while 28 (8.9%) were high but non-toxic, 15 (4.8%) toxic, and 6 (1.9%) potentially lethal. The distribution remained broadly consistent in sensitivity analyses restricted to drugs represented by more than 3, 5, or 8 findings. In cases with toxic or potentially lethal findings and available paired peripheral blood data, observed C/P ratios were moderate, ranging from 1.07 to 2.15. Conclusions: These findings do not indicate that central blood can replace peripheral blood or that PMR can be disregarded. However, they suggest that central blood drug concentrations are not intrinsically uninterpretable and may retain practical forensic value when interpreted cautiously within the broader medico-legal context. Central blood results should not be used in isolation to diagnose poisoning, estimate the ingested dose, or reconstruct exact ante mortem concentrations. Full article

Caffeine is the world’s most widely consumed psychoactive compound, yet it presents a growing challenge in forensic toxicology due to the proliferation of highly concentrated energy drinks, dietary supplements, and pure anhydrous powders. This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of the diverse sources of caffeine, complex pharmacokinetics, and critical medico-legal implications. While moderate consumption is socially accepted, fatal intoxications are increasingly reported. The toxic effects of caffeine primarily manifest through a number of mechanisms which range from mild effects to sudden cardiac death. Forensic interpretation is inherently complex due to significant inter-individual variability. Analytical determination relies on advanced techniques, with LC-MS/MS serving as the preferred platform for its high sensitivity and ability to quantify primary metabolites like paraxanthine. A critical challenge in postmortem cases is postmortem redistribution, where central blood levels may be artifactually elevated compared to peripheral sites, necessitating more complex matrix analysis. To standardize the evaluation of the role of caffeine in causing death, a proposed Toxicological Significance Score (TSS) framework is discussed to enhance the transparency and defensibility of expert testimony. Ultimately, accurately determining the manner of death requires a nuanced, case-by-case assessment that integrates toxicological findings with circumstantial evidence and individual medical histories. Full article

Background/Objectives: Accurate age estimation is a critical task in forensic and legal contexts, where reliable and objective assessment is essential for age-dependent decision-making. This study aims to explore the application of convolutional neural network-based regression models for age estimation from panoramic radiographs, incorporating conformal prediction to generate prediction intervals representing uncertainty. The estimated ages were also evaluated for their application in legal age classification at thresholds of 10, 15, 18, and 20 years. Methods: A total of 1734 panoramic radiographs of individuals aged 8 to 23 years were used in this study. We employed six models, including ResNet-50, EfficientNet-B0, DenseNet-121, MobileNetV3-Small, VGG-16, and ResNeXt-50, to perform regression and provide point estimates of chronological age. Conformal prediction using a split conformal framework with absolute residual scores was implemented to construct statistically valid prediction intervals with finite-sample coverage guarantees. Results: The results revealed that ResNeXt-50 achieved the lowest mean absolute error for point estimates (0.92 years) and produced among the narrowest conformal margins, ranging from 1.71 to 3.72 years across non-coverage probabilities from 0.20 to 0.01. In legal age classification, the ResNeXt-50 model achieved its highest classification accuracy using point estimates, whereas the application of the conformal lower bound improved specificity and positive predictive value. This shift facilitates conservative decision-making, aligning with the forensic minimum-age principle. Conclusions: The proposed framework offers a practical solution for automated age estimation by quantifying uncertainty through prediction intervals, allowing for more informed assessments aligned with forensic protocols for legal age determination. Full article

Background: Accurate sex estimation from skeletal remains is essential in forensic identification, yet population-specific reference data for cervical vertebrae, particularly the first cervical vertebra (C1), are limited. This lack of data compromises the accuracy of sex estimation in forensic contexts where primary skeletal elements such as skull and pelvis are unavailable. Geometric morphometric (GM) analysis offers a robust alternative by quantifying shape variation independent of size, enabling precise assessment of morphological differences that conventional linear measurements may overlook. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the utility of C1 vertebra morphology for sex estimation among Omani adults using two-dimensional geometric morphometrics. Methods: A total of 320 lateral cervical radiographs (160 males, 160 females) were retrospectively collected from Sultan Qaboos University Hospital. Six anatomical landmarks on the atlas were digitized using TPSDig2, and shape analyses were performed using MorphoJ software. Statistical methods included Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Procrustes ANOVA, Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA), and Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA). Intra- and inter-observer reliability was also assessed. Results: While centroid size did not significantly differ between sexes (p = 0.2432), shape analysis revealed statistically significant sexual dimorphism (p = 0.0457). DFA correctly classified 77.19% of individuals by sex, with a cross-validated accuracy of 73.44%. Shape variation was most pronounced in the posterior tubercle and superior facets of the atlas. Conclusions: Two-dimensional geometric morphometric analysis of the first cervical vertebra (C1) reliably captures sexual dimorphism in the Omani population, providing a population-specific reference that enhances the accuracy and objectivity of forensic sex estimation. Full article

Background/Objectives: Mass suicide events represent complex socio-cultural phenomena requiring multidisciplinary investigation. The 1978 Jonestown event (>900 deaths) remains the most extensively documented modern case. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature review adhering to PRISMA guidelines, searching PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases for peer-reviewed articles published between 1978 and 2026 using the query: ((mass) AND (suicide)) OR (suicide) AND (jonestown). Following screening, 10 papers were selected for inclusion. We integrated these findings with forensic autopsy reports (n = 7), toxicological analyses, discourse analysis of the 45 min audio recording preceding the mass deaths, field investigation data, scholarly monographs, reputable popular science publications, and archival materials from contemporary sources to examine the forensic and criminological aspects of the event. Results: Toxicological analysis detected cyanide in 2/7 autopsied bodies; multiple sedatives (promethazine, chlorpromazine, diphenhydramine, pentobarbital) in gastric tissue indicated recent ingestion. Two gunshot fatalities presented additional complexity. Manner of death was classified as undetermined due to ambiguous circumstances regarding volition versus coercion. Discourse analysis revealed the community’s response was actively debated and constructed through persuasive communication: Reverend Jones strategically framing the situation as hopeless while preserving the appearance of individual agency. Psychosocial analysis identified characteristic patterns: charismatic authoritarian leadership, progressive isolation, apocalyptic ideology, and deindividualization processes. Conclusions: The Jonestown event exemplifies the intersection of forensic pathology challenges in mass casualty investigations and complex group dynamics culminating in collective death. Analysis demonstrates group members actively participated in leadership–followership dynamics, constructing narrative fit between identity and action through discourse. Findings emphasize the importance of immediate toxicological sampling, preservation of forensic evidence, recognition of warning signs in high-control groups, and understanding how narratives of hopelessness and foreclosure of options can be exploited for extremist mobilization. Full article

Background: Stalking is a well-established and studied crime in the forensic field. Nevertheless, research on the psychological aspects of stalking behaviors remains limited due to the lack of specific assessment tools. This two-phase research project aims to propose and validate a new instrument—the Stalking Assessment Questionnaire (SAQ)—to identify the possible latent psychological dimensions characterizing early stalking tendencies. Methods: During the first phase of questionnaire development, a thematic focus group comprising five psychologists generated 55 items. These items underwent preliminary screening with a sample of 85 students to assess clarity and redundancy; this process addressed semantic issues and resulted in a revised 48-item version. In the second validation phase (Study 1), the 48-item SAQ was administered to a sample of 349 male students whose demographic profiles matched those typically associated with potential stalkers; following this, 15 items were retained. In Study 2, the 15-item SAQ was cross-validated on an independent sample of 380 male students. To assess its validity, correlations were analyzed with a battery of personality inventories, including the LSRP, ECR-R, AQ, PESES, SRSS, RelRQ, ASI-S, and BIDR-6. Results: Following item and factor analyses, a model comprising two latent factors—Insistence (SAQ-INS) and Exaggerated Jealousy (SAQ-EXJ)—and 15 indicators emerged. Internal consistency was robust, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.87. In Study 2, as hypothesized, SAQ-EXJ correlated positively with anger and hostility (AQ) and with antisocial and impulsive traits (LSRP-F2), although these associations were modest (r = 0.30). Among the significant Pearson’s correlations, three were found to be substantial (r > 0.50): specifically, those between the SAQ and anxious attachment style (ECR-Ranx), relational rumination (RelRQ), and sexism (ASI-S). Conclusions: In conclusion, the final SAQ structure revealed two primary factors—Insistence and Exaggerated Jealousy—that account for stalking as a continuous construct. These factors demonstrated significant associations with several critical personality traits. The final questionnaire comprises 24 items, including nine fillers; consequently, it is efficient to administer and suitable for both research and psycho-educational interventions among adolescents and other potentially vulnerable populations. Full article

Background and Forensic Significance: Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a major public health concern that can result in intimate partner homicide (IPH). While most reported cases involve female victims, fatal violence against men, particularly older adults, remains under-recognized. We report an atypical case of IPH involving an elderly male victim who was killed by his female partner. This case highlights the importance of comprehensive medico-legal investigation to accurately reconstruct the mechanism of injury and exclude alternative causes of death. Case Presentation: A 76-year-old man was found dead in his home after his 72-year-old wife reported that she found him unresponsive. He had a history of asthma and chronic alcohol use, was reportedly intoxicated, and had been involved in a longstanding conflict with his spouse. Autopsy revealed multiple patterned abrasions and contusions with extensive intramuscular hemorrhage involving the extremities. Internal examination demonstrated generalized visceral pallor. Fatal acute asthma and alcohol intoxication were excluded. Overall, the cause of death was determined to be hemorrhagic shock resulting from repeated blunt force trauma, and the manner of death was classified as homicide. Conclusions: This case demonstrates that a sustained blunt force assault can lead to fatal intramuscular blood pooling. Furthermore, it illustrates the rare demographic and mechanism patterns of IPH, underscoring the importance of comprehensive medico-legal evaluation and awareness of such occurrences. Full article

Background/Objectives: The frontal sinus exhibits individual morphological variability that may support human identification. Its development progresses through childhood and adolescence and stabilizes in early adulthood, with age-related changes potentially affecting radiological comparisons. This study presents a forensic case report and discusses it in light of the literature on frontal sinus development and forensic identification. Methods: A comparative radiological analysis was conducted using images obtained at two distinct stages of biological maturation (14 and 21 years of age). Manual delineation combined with semi-automated computational analysis was applied to assess morphological features of the frontal sinus, including contour configuration, lobulation, and dimensional parameters. Results: The intra vitam record was obtained at 14 years of age, during an active developmental phase, and the post mortem examination was obtained at 21 years, corresponding to early adulthood. Comparative analysis revealed significant morphological differences, including increased lobulation, contour complexity, and sinus expansion. These changes limited the reliability of frontal sinus morphology for identification in this case. Friction ridge examination independently established positive identification. Conclusions: This study highlights the limitations of frontal sinus analysis when applied across periods of active development and underscores the risk of misinterpretation if age-related changes are not adequately considered. Full article

Background: Accurate estimation of the pre-colonization interval (pre-CI), defined as the period between body deposition and initial insect oviposition, remains a challenge in postmortem interval estimation in forensic entomology. This study quantified the effects of environmental and contextual variables on blowfly oviposition timing using human cadavers. Methods: Daily photographic records from 203 donated cadavers placed at the University of Tennessee Anthropology Research Facility (March 2011–July 2014) were used to document the first observed oviposition of blowflies. Multivariable general linear models evaluated the effects of monthly temperature, black plastic coverage, and pre-placement soft tissue damage on calendar days to oviposition (IO_day) and accumulated degree days (IO_ADD). Results: Temperature was the dominant predictor, explaining substantial variation in pre-CI. Black plastic coverage significantly delayed oviposition and exhibited a temperature-dependent effect. Although soft tissue damage was associated with earlier oviposition in univariable analyses, it did not remain significant in multivariable models. Cold conditions were associated with prolonged and highly variable pre-CI. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that temperature was the strongest predictor in this observational dataset, while contextual factors such as physical barriers modify colonization patterns. Together, they highlight the need to incorporate environmental and contextual variables into PMI estimation models and support more defensible interpretations of entomological evidence, particularly in cases involving delayed colonization or restricted insect access. Full article

Introduction: During an excavation in 2022 of a mass grave within a cemetery in Castilla-La Mancha containing the remains of executed victims of the Spanish Civil War and Francoist dictatorship, the scientific team discovered a medallion with a name and a date inscribed on it. The medallion was associated with an individual recovered from a grave containing 12 other individuals in 5 separate stratigraphic layers. This paper aims to outline the identification process of the deceased from the skeletal remains and associated medallion. Methods: This process included archival research, gathering witness testimonies, archaeological evidence, osteological examination and DNA analysis. Results: After restoration, the medallion revealed the words “VIVA LA FIJL. VIVA LA FAI.” on one face and “MUERO POR LA LIBERTAD.” on the other. The human skeletal remains associated with the medallion showed male morphological characteristics and were estimated to be between 21 and 30 years old at the time of death, with a height between 1.64 and 1.67 m. There was skeletal evidence of ballistic trauma on the right mandible and the right scapula. Genetic analysis confirmed an mtDNA match with his maternal niece. Discussion/Conclusions: This study demonstrates the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to the identification of human remains from the Spanish Civil War and the Dictatorship which followed, and how the objects found within a mass grave can be useful in aiding a positive identification. Full article

Post-traumatic auditory and vestibular complaints are frequent after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and temporal bone trauma. They create particular difficulty in medico-legal practice because the evaluator must distinguish diagnosis, functional impact, plausibility of traumatic causation, and the credibility of reported deficits and/or symptoms. This manuscript is a narrative expert review, not a systematic review or a validated forensic prediction rule. It aims to synthesize clinically relevant evidence and propose a practical cross-check framework for structured audio-vestibular assessment in post-traumatic and medico-legal contexts. Pure-tone audiometry remains the functional entry point, but it should be interpreted in conjunction with speech audiometry, tympanometry, acoustic reflexes, transient-evoked and distortion-product otoacoustic emissions, auditory brainstem responses, and auditory steady-state responses. Vestibular evaluation should combine videonystagmography, video head impulse testing, cervical and ocular vestibular evoked myogenic potentials, and computerized dynamic posturography, recognizing that each method interrogates different physiological domains and frequencies. Particular emphasis is placed on the separation between clinical diagnosis, physiological localization, functional impairment, and medico-legal attribution. The article also discusses safeguards against false-positive attribution of malingering, the time course after TBI, inter-rater variability, and the role of specialist expertise in medico-legal reporting. The proposed framework does not eliminate uncertainty; rather, it is intended to make expert reasoning transparent, cautious, internally consistent, and defensible. Full article

Background/Objective: Forensic document examination (FDE) traditionally relies on subjective expert opinion. This preliminary study was designed to develop and validate a hybrid deep learning model (ResNet-50 + bidirectional long short-term memory [BiLSTM]) for quantitative handwriting and signature feature analysis, and to compare its performance, under standardized experimental conditions, with that of three certified forensic document examiners. Methods: Handwriting and signature samples were collected from 225 individuals in a standardized setting. Fifteen quantitative handwriting features were extracted, the dataset was split into training (70%, n = 158) and testing (30%, n = 67) subsets using stratified random sampling, and ground truth for analytic categories was defined by majority consensus among the three examiners (with adjudicated review for disagreements). A hybrid architecture combining a ResNet-50 backbone and a bidirectional LSTM encoder was used. Results: The model demonstrated 93.4% accuracy, an F1-score of 0.926, and an AUC-ROC of 0.968 on the held-out test set. Under our task-specific experimental conditions, the model performed better than examiners on slant analysis (96.8% vs. 93.2%, p = 0.002), pressure profiling (94.1% vs. 91.7%, p = 0.019), and age estimation (87.4% vs. 82.1%, p = 0.011); examiners performed better on forgery detection (95.8% vs. 91.2%, p = 0.008) and signature verification (96.1% vs. 92.3%, p < 0.012). Mean processing time was reduced by 99.6% (0.8 s vs. 197 s per case). Conclusions: Within the limits of this preliminary single-centre study, the system showed performance comparable to certified examiners on several quantitative tasks and complementary strengths overall, supporting its feasibility as an adjunctive tool in a hybrid human–AI workflow. Broader, multi-centre validation and explainability work are required before any forensic deployment can be considered. Full article

Background/Objectives: Dog tethering remains a common containment practice in several regions despite increasing concerns about its implications for animal welfare. This study aimed to assess veterinary professionals’ perceptions in Portugal about the impact of dog tethering on canine health, behavior, and welfare, as well as their views on its regulation. Methods: An anonymous, structured questionnaire was distributed online to veterinary professionals to collect data on clinical exposure to chained dogs, observed health and behavioral outcomes, and attitudes toward criminalizing the practice. Results: A total of 331 veterinarians participated, of whom 71.9% reported encountering chained dogs during their professional activities, particularly in rural areas. Most respondents perceived the tethering conditions as inadequate, particularly regarding freedom of movement and the fulfillment of behavioral needs. Frequently reported consequences included alopecia at the restraint site, poor muscle condition, physical injuries, fear-related behaviors, reduced socialization, and increased aggression. Preventing escape was identified as the primary perceived motivation for tethering. The majority of veterinarians supported some degree of criminalization, particularly when welfare impairment was evident. Conclusions: These findings reflect veterinary professionals’ perceptions of the welfare risks associated with prolonged tethering and underscore the need for integrated strategies combining regulation, education, and accessible, humane containment alternatives. Full article

Background/Objectives: Left ventricular free wall rupture is a rare but catastrophic complication of acute myocardial infarction with extremely high mortality. Deaths occurring in water environments present unique forensic challenges requiring systematic evaluation of drowning, intoxication, trauma, and natural disease. This case report describes a fatal left ventricular free wall rupture occurring shortly after successful percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), emphasizing the medicolegal differential diagnosis and the importance of comprehensive postmortem evaluation. Results: A 58-year-old man with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction underwent successful PCI with three drug-eluting stents and was discharged home. Six hours later, he developed severe back pain and was found unresponsive in a bathtub. Autopsy demonstrated a 2.6 cm transmural rupture of the anterolateral left ventricular free wall with 150 mL of hemopericardium. Postmortem computed tomography (PMCT), performed as part of routine forensic evaluation, had identified hemopericardium prior to autopsy. Histology showed coagulative necrosis with neutrophilic infiltration. The rupture site was remote from stented vessels with no procedural injury. Toxicology revealed therapeutic medication levels. Pulmonary and scene findings did not support drowning as a cause of death. Conclusions: Ventricular free wall rupture remains a relevant cause of sudden death following myocardial infarction despite successful revascularization. Comprehensive forensic evaluation integrating scene investigation, macroscopic autopsy findings, histopathology, and toxicology is essential to distinguish natural disease progression from accidental or iatrogenic causes in deaths occurring in water environments. This case highlights that ventricular free wall rupture can occur shortly after apparently successful PCI and underscores the importance of comprehensive forensic evaluation in water-associated deaths. Full article

Background/Objectives: Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is widely used in crime scene investigation (CSI), yet its practical application, evidential limits, and interpretive role are often discussed in fragmented or technique-focused terms. This systematic literature review examines how BPA is used in CSI, with emphasis on its operational functions, interpretive scope, and scientific robustness. Methods: The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines. A comprehensive search was conducted in Scopus using predefined Boolean strings. After screening, eligibility assessment, and manual review, 18 peer-reviewed research articles published between 1996 and 2026 were included. Data were extracted systematically and analysed using thematic synthesis. Results: The findings show that BPA is applied in CSI as an integrated evidential pathway rather than as a single analytical procedure. Its uses include bloodstain detection and documentation, geometric reconstruction through trajectory and area-of-origin analysis, differentiation of mechanisms and sources to prevent misclassification, activity-level inference based on transfer and contact phenomena, and temporal reasoning related to trace formation. The review also highlights the role of validation infrastructures, including blood substitutes, animal analogues, and computational methods, which support training, experimentation, and reproducibility under ethical and practical constraints. Across the literature, reconstruction accuracy is shown to be sensitive to documentation quality, measurement assumptions, environmental conditions, and contextual limitations. Conclusions: Overall, BPA contributes to CSI by enabling structured, context-aware interpretation of blood evidence while remaining subject to measurement assumptions, contextual influences, and cognitive factors that may affect reconstruction outcomes. Its evidential value lies not only in reconstructing events, but also in supporting transparent, testable, and defensible forensic reasoning. Full article

Background/Objectives: Forensic DNA analysis is a key investigative resource in sexual-violence casework, but its recorded use depends on how cases move through clinical, custody, judicial, and laboratory pathways. In Italy, this transition is organizationally heterogeneous and poorly documented through linkable procedural data. This study aimed to describe archive-based trends in archived cases, documented judicial seizures, and recorded forensic DNA analyses within a Milan-based clinical-forensic custody pathway from 2016 to 2024. Methods: A retrospective, archive-based observational study was conducted using records from the institutional UNIMI forensic custody observatory linked to the SVSeD pathway. The primary dataset included annual counts of archived sexual-violence-related cases, cases with documented judicial seizure of biological evidence, and cases with recorded forensic DNA analysis. For contextual interpretation, aggregate centre-level indicators, namely total sexual-violence cases and ex officio reports, were also reviewed as non-linkable background data. Only descriptive analyses were performed, and no causal inference was attempted. Results: Over the study period, the archive recorded 2311 cases, 102 cases with documented judicial seizure of biological evidence, and 142 cases with recorded forensic DNA analysis. The temporal series showed marked variability, including a decline in 2020, followed by recovery in subsequent years. Most recorded forensic DNA analyses were documented as being performed by the Polizia Scientifica and Carabinieri (RIS/RaCIS), whereas smaller proportions involved the university laboratory and other external laboratories. Contextual indicators showed a progressive increase in total sexual-violence cases over time, while ex officio reports did not rise proportionally. Conclusions: The findings document pathway-level attrition between archived cases, documented seizure, and recorded forensic DNA analysis, but they do not identify the exact procedural stage at which attrition occurs. The absence of standardized case-level procedural variables precludes causal attribution for non-seizure or non-analysis of biological evidence. Future evaluation of forensic DNA utilization in sexual-violence casework will require standardized tracking across clinical, custody, judicial, and laboratory stages. Full article

Background/Objectives: The goal of this study was to characterize changes in autofluorescence of epithelial cells obtained from saliva stains that occur with time and investigate the potential for these changes to serve as time-since-deposition (TSD) signatures for this sample type. Methods: Saliva from 50 individuals was used to create 208 deposits that were aged between one day and nine months. Autofluorescence profiles of individual cells were obtained from each sample using imaging flow cytometry (IFC) and analyzed across nine different emission channels ranging between 435 nm and 800 nm. Results: Results showed strong evidence for linear increases in autofluorescence intensity when epithelial cells from a single donor deposit were measured over time (12 of 14 donors r ≥ 0.9). When autofluorescence profiles from all 50 donors were combined into a single time series, variation in autofluorescence intensity was observed between individual deposits with the same TSD. This inter-contributor variation decreased the overall strength of the linear relationship (r = 0.83) and yielded residual errors of ~8 days for samples that were actually 1 day old and ~82 days for samples that were over 180 days old using a linear regression model. Although this approach may not currently be amenable to estimating TSD to the day with high accuracy, clear, non-overlapping differences in autofluorescence intensity were still observed between certain time intervals, e.g., saliva deposits that were aged for 1 day compared to saliva deposits that were aged for more than 120 days. Conclusions: This suggests that cellular autofluorescence signatures have the potential to be probative when hypotheses for sample deposition involve disparate time intervals or as a screening tool for identifying which samples are most likely relevant to the crime in question based on their deposition time. Full article

Background/Objectives: Sex estimation from craniofacial morphology is a fundamental component of biological profile construction in forensic anthropology. Population-specific reference data for Thai individuals derived from computed tomography (CT) remain limited, and direct comparisons between discriminant function analysis (DFA) and machine learning classifiers are frequently complicated by inconsistent validation protocols. This study aimed to characterize sexual dimorphism in CT-derived craniofacial measurements, compare the classification performance of DFA, support vector machine (SVM), and random forest (RF) under a unified validation protocol, and demonstrate their practical application in a forensic context. Methods: CT images from 300 Thai adults (150 males, 150 females; age range 20–90 years) were obtained from Srinagarind Hospital, Khon Kaen University. Eight linear craniofacial measurements spanning the cranial vault, facial skeleton, nasal aperture, and orbital region were obtained from each case. DFA, SVM, and RF were developed and compared under a unified leave-one-out cross-validation protocol. Classification performance was assessed using accuracy, AUC, and Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC). Results: Seven of eight measurements exhibited statistically significant sexual dimorphism, with facial breadth and nasal height demonstrating the greatest dimorphism. DFA achieved the highest classification accuracy of 85.7%, AUC of 0.924, and MCC of 0.713, incorporating five measurements into the canonical function. SVM and RF achieved comparable accuracy of 84.7% and 84.0%, respectively. All three classifiers correctly classified both forensic application cases with high confidence. Conclusions: CT-derived craniofacial measurements provide a reliable basis for sex estimation in Thai adults. The convergence of performance across all three classifiers under a unified internal validation protocol strengthens confidence in the internally validated performance estimates. The derived discriminant function equation and saved machine learning models constitute a complementary and immediately applicable toolkit for CT-based forensic sex estimation in the Thai population. Full article

Background: Latent fingerprints are crucial forensic evidence, but their stability can be affected by environmental factors such as direct sunlight. The findings indicate that prolonged sunlight exposure may be associated with reduced fingerprint quality and forensic usability. Methods: A total of 322 groomed latent fingerprints from one volunteer were deposited on non-porous glass and exposed to direct sunlight for 1–7 weeks. A control sample was preserved without exposure. Fingerprints were developed using magnetic powder and assessed by minutiae counts. Usability was classified according to Slovak forensic standards. Statistical analysis was conducted using the Friedman test and Durbin–Conover test. Results: Significant differences in minutiae counts were observed between the control and selected exposure intervals (weeks 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7; p < 0.05). The degradation pattern was not linear, with initial decreases followed by stabilization in later weeks. Despite statistical differences, 99.38% of fingerprints remained usable for identification, and none were classified as non-usable. Conclusions: Prolonged direct sunlight exposure did not substantially reduce the identificatory value of groomed latent fingerprints on glass. Even after several weeks, most fingerprints retained sufficient ridge detail for personal identification, supporting their evidential relevance in outdoor forensic contexts. Full article

Background: Reliable identification remains a cornerstone of forensic investigations, particularly when encountering degraded remains or suboptimal biological evidence. This study evaluates the potential of dentine metabolomics, utilizing proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) spectroscopy, to detect cancer-associated metabolic signatures in dental tissues for forensic applications. Methods: Forty-four non-carious second molars were analyzed, comprising 22 samples from deceased individuals with a documented history of cancer and 22 age- and sex-matched controls. Metabolomic profiling was conducted using ¹H-NMR spectroscopy to identify and quantify dentine metabolites. Statistical evaluation included unsupervised principal component analysis (PCA), partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, and exploratory binary logistic regression. Results: Among the 209 identified metabolites, inosinic acid and 2-ketobutyric acid were identified as the most robust discriminative biomarkers across both multivariate and univariate frameworks. The exploration within-sample predictive model achieved a Nagelkerke R² of 0.822 and an overall classification accuracy of 90.9%, with a specificity of 95.5% and a sensitivity of 86.4%. These key metabolites are fundamentally associated with purine metabolism and oxidative stress pathways frequently dysregulated in oncogenesis. Conclusions: This pilot study suggests that dentine may retain metabolomic information associated with cancer comorbidity under heterogeneous postmortem conditions. However, the findings remain exploratory and require validation in larger cohorts with standardized postmortem variables before practical forensic implementation. Full article

Background/Objectives: The presence of postmortem pink teeth is a phenomenon occasionally observed during forensic autopsies. This phenomenon has been typically associated with deaths involving drowning, asphyxiation, trauma, or electrocution. However, the recent literature suggests that it is nonspecific. Despite being recognized in forensic literature for decades, its pathophysiology, prevalence, and forensic relevance remain controversial. The existing evidence is scattered and primarily based on case reports, narrative reviews, or isolated observations. This scoping review aims to systematically map the available scientific evidence on the phenomenon of postmortem pink teeth and its potential role in determining the cause of death within the context of forensic medicine. Methods: This review was conducted following the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology for scoping reviews and reported according to the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines. Results: A comprehensive search was carried out across multiple databases to identify studies addressing the occurrence, mechanisms, and forensic interpretation of pink teeth in postmortem examinations. After application of the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the search allowed for the selection of 12 publications (case reports and observational studies). Conclusions: Collected data from the selected studies allowed us to conclude that PTP is a nonspecific taphonomic artifact, lacking diagnostic value in determining the cause of death. Mapping the current evidence on pink teeth contributed to a better understanding of this phenomenon and its lack of forensic significance, promoting more informed decision-making in postmortem assessments. Full article