Economies

20 pages, 2847 KB

Open AccessArticle

Explaining Mexico’s Energy–Economy Linkages Under Limited Information: VAR-Based IRF and FEVD Evidence

by Juan A. Moreno-Hernández, Margarita De la Portilla-Reynoso, Roberto Carlos Moreno-Hernández, Claudia del C. Gutiérrez-Torres, Juan G. Barbosa-Saldaña, Didier Samayoa and José A. Jiménez-Bernal

Economies 2025, 13(12), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120370 - 18 Dec 2025

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Abstract

This study examines the short- and medium-run linkages within Mexico’s energy–economy system under conditions of limited information. The analysis is motivated by the structural relevance of hydrocarbons for fiscal stability and by the growing need to understand how energy shocks propagate through economic [...] Read more.

This study examines the short- and medium-run linkages within Mexico’s energy–economy system under conditions of limited information. The analysis is motivated by the structural relevance of hydrocarbons for fiscal stability and by the growing need to understand how energy shocks propagate through economic and environmental subsystems. Using a vector autoregression (VAR) framework, nine interdependent macroeconomic and energy variables are jointly evaluated after harmonizing mixed-frequency data, standardizing series, and ensuring stationarity through ADF and KPSS tests. Dynamic responses are assessed through impulse response functions (IRFs), generalized IRFs (GIRFs), and forecast error variance decomposition (FEVD), complemented by Granger causality tests. Results show that oil rents exert a persistent and positive influence on GDP and public expenditure, while shocks to coal-fired generation and oil prices consistently reduce economic activity and increase emissions. Renewable capacity expands pro-cyclically but displays limited autonomous effects. Overall, the evidence reveals a fiscally and environmentally constrained system dominated by hydrocarbons, underscoring the importance of improving PEMEX’s operational efficiency, accelerating fiscal diversification, and strengthening institutional conditions for renewable investment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Macroeconomics, Monetary Economics, and Financial Markets)

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16 pages, 287 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Deep Roots of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (Ekc): Evidence from a Global Sample

by Sinawo Mbangezeli and Andrew Phiri

Economies 2025, 13(12), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120369 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 317

Abstract

Our paper adopts a deep-roots approach to examining the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) by tracing its origins beyond industrialization and into the dawn of human civilization. We hypothesize that the roots of environmental degradation lie not only in modern-day markets or technology, but [...] Read more.

Our paper adopts a deep-roots approach to examining the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) by tracing its origins beyond industrialization and into the dawn of human civilization. We hypothesize that the roots of environmental degradation lie not only in modern-day markets or technology, but in the evolutionary arc of societies themselves. Using a two-stage empirical framework applied to a sample of 130 countries, we show that early transitions into agriculture, technology adoption, and human settlement patterns shaped modern growth trajectories, which in turn influence environmental degradation in line with EKC dynamics. Our findings imply that climate change is not merely a policy failure but also a civilizational inheritance, and sustainable futures cannot be engineered solely through contemporary interventions. Therefore, climate policy must evolve from reactive governance to deep-time reengineering to realign humanity’s path with the planet’s limits, not just for today, but for millennia ahead. Full article

35 pages, 2133 KB

Open AccessArticle

Government Subsidies and Corporate Outcomes: An Empirical Study of a Northern Italian Initiative

by Alessandro Marrale, Lorenzo Abbate, Alberto Lombardo and Fabrizio Micari

Economies 2025, 13(12), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120368 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 399

Abstract

This study investigated the statistical association between public incentives and industrial innovation as reflected in firms’ financial performances. In particular, the analysis was carried out considering a Regional Operational Program, namely, the 2007–2013 ERDF Regional Program in Lombardy, and investigating a dataset of [...] Read more.

This study investigated the statistical association between public incentives and industrial innovation as reflected in firms’ financial performances. In particular, the analysis was carried out considering a Regional Operational Program, namely, the 2007–2013 ERDF Regional Program in Lombardy, and investigating a dataset of Lombardy-based companies that received support through the mentioned initiative. For each of them, balance sheet variables before and after the acquisition of the incentive and the development of the related innovation project were detected and analyzed by means of both standard and normalized linear regression. Notably, normalized regressions showed that higher subsidy intensity was positively associated with subsequent changes in revenues and intangible assets, especially among manufacturing firms, thereby supporting policies that target sectors with a high innovation capacity. Furthermore, this research underscores the importance of tailoring policy instruments to local and sectoral contexts, recognizing the limitations of one-size-fits-all approaches. In keeping with this exploratory stance, this study does not build a counterfactual control group and makes no causal claims; it simply documents balance sheet associations that may inform future, impact-oriented research. Given the absence of a control group, the design is observational; all findings describe associations and do not allow causal inference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Economic Development)

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23 pages, 742 KB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating the Relationship Between Economic Growth and Health Expenditures in the BRICS Countries Using a Panel Cointegration Approach

by Melina Dritsaki, Chaido Dritsaki, Vasileios Argyriou and Panagiotis Sarigiannidis

Economies 2025, 13(12), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120367 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 442

Abstract

This study examines the impact of health expenditure on economic growth in the BRICS countries during the period 2000–2021. Economic growth is measured by GDP per capita, while per capita health expenditure serves as the principal explanatory variable. Consistent with the framework of [...] Read more.

This study examines the impact of health expenditure on economic growth in the BRICS countries during the period 2000–2021. Economic growth is measured by GDP per capita, while per capita health expenditure serves as the principal explanatory variable. Consistent with the framework of endogenous growth theory—which conceptualizes health as a form of human capital that enhances productivity—we additionally incorporate natural capital, education, and population share as control variables. Methodologically, the analysis employs panel unit root tests under cross-sectional dependence and estimates a dynamic panel ARDL model to assess both short- and long-term effects. To further validate the robustness of the model, additional explanatory variables relevant to endogenous growth theory are also evaluated. The results indicate that, in the long run, all explanatory variables exert a statistically significant influence on the economic growth of the BRICS countries. In the short run, however, only per capita health expenditure demonstrates a positive and statistically significant effect on GDP per capita, whereas the other variables do not yield significant short-term effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Emergencies and Economic Development)

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24 pages, 587 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Interplay Between Governance and R&D Investment in Driving Asia’s Economic Growth: An Empirical Inquest

by Vaishali Singh, Promila Das, Ekta Singh and Ramesh Chandra Das

Economies 2025, 13(12), 366; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120366 - 13 Dec 2025

Viewed by 648

Abstract

While a number of studies have analyzed the determinants of economic growth in Asia, the research on the synergistic interplay of the quality of governance and the investments in research and development have not received nuanced attention in the scholarly research. This study [...] Read more.

While a number of studies have analyzed the determinants of economic growth in Asia, the research on the synergistic interplay of the quality of governance and the investments in research and development have not received nuanced attention in the scholarly research. This study fills the research gap by looking at the joint effect of governance and R&D investment on economic growth in Asian nations with varying levels of development. Using the fixed-effects model and the generalized method of moments (GMM) model, this study investigated the individual and combined effect of governance and R&D investment in driving economic growth in the static as well as dynamic panel of 34 Asian nations for the period 2000–2024. The study further undertakes a comparative assessment of the lower-middle-income, upper-middle-income, and high-income economies on the continent. The findings reveal that the interaction between R&D and governance is negative and significant in lower-middle-income countries such as India, Indonesia, Philippines, and Tajikistan, showing that weak institutions hinder R&D effectiveness. It turns strongly positive in upper-middle-income economies such as China, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, and Thailand, as governance strengthens, but becomes insignificant, in high-income nations such as Israel, Korea, Singapore, and Qatar, suggesting diminishing returns. The results under dynamic panel estimation show positive and significant effects of the interaction between R&D and governance upon per capita GDP in all countries’ panels. The findings suggest that the diverse and nonlinear progression from technological adoption to creation in Asian nations requires sustained investments in R&D and deliberate policy alignment with national innovation systems. Full article

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27 pages, 365 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring ICT as an Engine for Sustainable Economic Growth in Central Asia

by Sobirov Yuldoshboy, Artikov Beruniy, Saburov Javokhir, Elbek Khodjaniyazov, Mamurbek Karimov, Olimjon Saidmamatov and Peter Marty

Economies 2025, 13(12), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120365 - 11 Dec 2025

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Abstract

This study investigates whether information and communication technology (ICT) constitutes a sustained driver of economic growth in four Central Asian economies—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan—over the period 2000–2022. Using an extended endogenous growth framework, this study employs the following long-run growth model: economic [...] Read more.

This study investigates whether information and communication technology (ICT) constitutes a sustained driver of economic growth in four Central Asian economies—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan—over the period 2000–2022. Using an extended endogenous growth framework, this study employs the following long-run growth model: economic growth is specified as a function of ICT development, gross capital formation, trade openness, human capital, government effectiveness, and inflation. A composite ICT index is constructed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Long-run relationships are examined using a panel cointegration approach, and long-run elasticities are estimated using FMOLS, DOLS, and CCR techniques. The results reveal that ICT development exerts a negative and statistically significant effect on economic growth in the long run, indicating limited technological absorptive capacity and insufficient institutional readiness in the region. In contrast, capital formation, trade openness, human capital, and government effectiveness positively and significantly promote growth, while inflation hampers economic performance. The findings suggest that ICT investment alone is insufficient for sustainable growth without complementary institutional strengthening, human capital development, digital skills enhancement, improved broadband quality, and governance reforms to increase the productive use of ICT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Asian Economy: Constraints and Opportunities (2nd Edition))

19 pages, 537 KB

Open AccessArticle

Who Pays, Who Graduates? Funding Mechanisms and Other Drivers of Graduation in the European Union

by Gintarė Židonė-Bylė and Rytis Krušinskas

Economies 2025, 13(12), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120364 - 10 Dec 2025

Viewed by 282

Abstract

Higher education (HE) funding mechanisms in the European Union (EU) are undergoing substantial reform, with universities facing increasing pressure to improve performance outcomes under constrained public budgets. This study analyses how the design of HE funding mechanisms—specifically, the logic of resource allocation and [...] Read more.

Higher education (HE) funding mechanisms in the European Union (EU) are undergoing substantial reform, with universities facing increasing pressure to improve performance outcomes under constrained public budgets. This study analyses how the design of HE funding mechanisms—specifically, the logic of resource allocation and the principles of performance evaluation, together with the volume of public investment, macroeconomic conditions, and demographic factors—affect graduation rates in the EU. The study uses panel data from 27 EU Member States for the period 2013–2023 and applies multiple regression models with one- to four-year lags to assess the delayed effects of funding and economic factors. The results showed that a larger share of young people in the population and public expenditure per student are positively and statistically significantly associated with higher graduation rates (p < 0.01). Meanwhile, the overall level of funding (HE expenditure as a share of GDP) and performance-based funding (PBF) mechanisms are associated with lower graduation rates (p < 0.01). GDP per capita has a negative effect (p < 0.01), indicating that stronger labour market opportunities may reduce the motivation to complete studies. Youth unemployment and inflation proved to be statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). The most substantial effect was found after two years, confirming the delayed but weakening impact of funding and macroeconomic factors on study graduation rates. The study extends previous work by integrating an analysis of funding design and time dimensions at the EU level. The results emphasise that it is not so much the amount of funding that is important for higher education outcomes, but instead how it is funded—therefore, targeted, student-oriented investments and long-term policy consistency are necessary to achieve higher graduation rates. Full article

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12 pages, 913 KB

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The Environmental Kuznets Curve and CO₂ Emissions Under Policy Uncertainty in G7 Countries

by Bishwa Koirala, Gyan Pradhan and Edwin Clifford Mensah

Economies 2025, 13(12), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120363 - 9 Dec 2025

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Abstract

This study examines the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) relationship between per capita CO₂ emissions and GDP per capita in G7 countries in the presence of uncertainty using 1960–2022 panel data. Our results confirm the existence of an EKC relationship for CO₂ [...] Read more.

This study examines the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) relationship between per capita CO₂ emissions and GDP per capita in G7 countries in the presence of uncertainty using 1960–2022 panel data. Our results confirm the existence of an EKC relationship for CO₂ emissions in G7 countries. Furthermore, we find evidence that uncertainty may contribute to lower carbon emissions, as higher uncertainty is associated with lower levels of investment and capital accumulation, with negative implications for long-term growth, although favorable effects on emissions may result. This tradeoff suggests that while investment is critical for economic growth, it is also imperative that growth is environmentally sustainable and inclusive. Finally, this study estimates an income turning point of $47,843.73 in 2023 prices to decouple the CO₂ emissions from GDP per capita; this level of income is an attainable level of GDP per capita for all but two G7 countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Growth, and Natural Resources (Environment + Agriculture))

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26 pages, 2704 KB

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Statistical Quantification of the COVID-19 Pandemic’s Continuing Lingering Effect on Economic Losses in the Tourism Sector

by Amos Mohau Mphanya, Sandile Charles Shongwe, Thabiso Ernest Masena and Frans Frederick Koning

Economies 2025, 13(12), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120362 - 9 Dec 2025

Viewed by 279

Abstract

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the number of international tourist arrivals in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) is studied in this paper using the seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) model comprising a pulse function covariate vector evaluated via trial [...] Read more.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the number of international tourist arrivals in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) is studied in this paper using the seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) model comprising a pulse function covariate vector evaluated via trial and error as an exogenous variable (SARIMAX). This paper provides a methodological innovation that combines outlier detection with intervention quantification so that tourism academics and practitioners can correctly capture estimated economic losses caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and the response to it. In the pre-intervention modelling, four additive outliers and innovative outliers were detected and incorporated into the SARIMAX

(1, 1, 1) ({0, 1, 2)}_{12}

model, which significantly lowered the model’s evaluation metrics, making it the best fitting pre-intervention model. Next, from March 2020 to June 2025 (end of dataset), it is shown that the estimated total losses amount to 7,328,919 tourists compared to if there been no pandemic. This means that the number of tourist arrivals in the RSA has not yet returned to the pre-COVID-19 forecasted path as of June 2025, indicating that the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have long-term negative effects on the RSA’s number of tourist arrivals. Therefore, more efforts must be focused on developing innovative and advanced statistical models to assist the RSA government and private entities in creating incentives for investment, planning more effectively, providing societies reliant on tourism with more resources, and creating suitable regulations that boost the economy through the tourism sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Economic Development)

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26 pages, 1517 KB

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One Model Fits All? Evaluating Bankruptcy Prediction Across Different Economic Periods

by Veronika Labosova, Lucia Duricova and Pavol Durana

Economies 2025, 13(12), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120361 - 6 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Financial distress prediction models are widely used to support risk management. However, economic turbulence, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, can disrupt the relationships between financial indicators and distress, thus threatening the stability and accuracy of the models’ predictions. In this study, the stability [...] Read more.

Financial distress prediction models are widely used to support risk management. However, economic turbulence, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, can disrupt the relationships between financial indicators and distress, thus threatening the stability and accuracy of the models’ predictions. In this study, the stability of bankruptcy prediction models is examined on a large sample of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Slovakia. Three periods are distinguished: the pre-pandemic years 2018–2019, the COVID-19 pandemic years 2020–2021, and the post-pandemic recovery years 2022–2023. Two approaches to model construction are compared: separate models are estimated for each period, and a single comprehensive model covering all three periods is constructed with a period-specific indicator among the predictors. Publicly available financial data and machine learning methods are employed, and model performance is evaluated using common classification metrics. Differences in performance are revealed, indicating whether period-specific models provide superior predictive accuracy or whether a universal model can adapt to changing economic conditions. The robustness, stability, predictive power, and practical applicability of both approaches are assessed, and the influence of economic fluctuations on accuracy is demonstrated. The findings provide guidance on selecting modelling strategies across different economic environments and offer recommendations for further developing and implementing predictive models in volatile financial conditions. Full article

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19 pages, 302 KB

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Remittances and Multidimensional Poverty in Mexico: A Comparative Analysis of Income Sources

by Moises Librado-Gonzalez, German Osorio-Novela and Natanael Ramirez-Angulo

Economies 2025, 13(12), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120360 - 6 Dec 2025

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Abstract

This study aims to analyze the effect of remittances on multidimensional poverty in Mexico by comparing them with other sources of household income, such as labor income and social spending from transfers, subsidies, and allocations. Furthermore, economic growth dynamism is incorporated as a [...] Read more.

This study aims to analyze the effect of remittances on multidimensional poverty in Mexico by comparing them with other sources of household income, such as labor income and social spending from transfers, subsidies, and allocations. Furthermore, economic growth dynamism is incorporated as a control variable. A micro-panel with cross-sectional and temporal fixed effects covering the 32 federative entities from 2010 to 2024 is used for this purpose. The results reveal that, although remittances have a moderate alleviating effect on poverty, it is greater than the impact of social spending by state governments. In contrast, labor income is identified as the main factor in reducing multidimensional poverty. These findings underscore the importance of promoting the utilization of remittance flows through financial inclusion strategies to strengthen their contribution to sustained household well-being and consolidate them as a structural instrument against the persistent challenges of multidimensional poverty in Mexico. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unveiling the Power of Remittances: Drivers, Effects, and Trends)

29 pages, 449 KB

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Tax Optimization in the European Union: A Laffer Curve Perspective

by Thais Sentinelo, Mário Queirós, José Manuel Oliveira and Patrícia Ramos

Economies 2025, 13(12), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120359 - 5 Dec 2025

Viewed by 556

Abstract

This study explores the applicability of the Laffer Curve in the context of the European Union (EU) by analyzing the relationship between taxation and fiscal revenue across personal income tax (PIT), corporate income tax (CIT), and value-added tax (VAT). Utilizing a comprehensive panel [...] Read more.

This study explores the applicability of the Laffer Curve in the context of the European Union (EU) by analyzing the relationship between taxation and fiscal revenue across personal income tax (PIT), corporate income tax (CIT), and value-added tax (VAT). Utilizing a comprehensive panel data set spanning 1995 to 2022 across all 27 EU member states, the research also integrates the Bird Index to assess fiscal effort and employs advanced econometric techniques, including the Hausman Test and log-quadratic regression models, to capture the non-linear dynamics of the Laffer Curve. The findings reveal that excessively high tax rates, particularly in some larger member states, may lead to revenue losses due to reduced economic activity and tax evasion, highlighting the existence of optimal tax rates that maximize revenue while sustaining economic growth. By estimating threshold tax rates and incorporating the Bird Index, the study provides a nuanced perspective on tax efficiency and fiscal sustainability, offering evidence-based policy recommendations for optimizing tax systems in the European Union to balance revenue generation with economic competitiveness. Full article

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21 pages, 806 KB

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The Relationship Between Local Tax Price and Demand of the Public Goods

by Sungil Yoon, Sangsoo Lim and Hyungjo Hur

Economies 2025, 13(12), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120358 - 5 Dec 2025

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Abstract

In this study, we use a structural demand framework rather than simple correlations between taxes and expenditure to investigate whether local taxes in Korea function as a price mechanism for local public goods. We construct a panel dataset for 226 basic local governments [...] Read more.

In this study, we use a structural demand framework rather than simple correlations between taxes and expenditure to investigate whether local taxes in Korea function as a price mechanism for local public goods. We construct a panel dataset for 226 basic local governments (cities, counties, and autonomous districts) over the period 2000–2017 and estimate local public expenditure equations separately for each group. To capture both long-run relationships and short-run dynamics while addressing nonstationarity and endogeneity, we combine fully modified ordinary least squares, panel error-correction models, and system generalized method of moments. Across these specifications, local tax burdens—especially when measured as the ratio of per capita local tax to total general expenditure—are generally negatively associated with local expenditure. However, we show that this negative association is distinct from the price elasticity of demand implied by the structural model: the relevant elasticities, derived from the estimated coefficients rather than observed directly, remain positive for cities, counties, and districts. The results indicate that, under Korea’s current intergovernmental fiscal arrangements, local taxes do not operate as a conventional price signal that induces residents to demand less of local public goods when tax price increases. These findings suggest that transfer dependence, limited fiscal autonomy, and rigid expenditure responsibilities weaken the price mechanism of local taxes and have important implications for the design of local tax policy and intergovernmental fiscal equalization. Full article

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38 pages, 1484 KB

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Assessing the Question of Whether Bitcoin Is a Currency or an Asset in Terms of Its Monetary Role

by Antonio Martínez Raya, Alejandro Segura-de-la-Cal and Javier Espina Hellín

Economies 2025, 13(12), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120357 - 4 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1840

Abstract

Since its launch in 2009, Bitcoin has become a market disruptor due to its primary function as a virtual currency supported by blockchain technology and the high volume of economic transactions it facilitates. This article examines the key theoretical principles that have contributed [...] Read more.

Since its launch in 2009, Bitcoin has become a market disruptor due to its primary function as a virtual currency supported by blockchain technology and the high volume of economic transactions it facilitates. This article examines the key theoretical principles that have contributed to Bitcoin’s recognition as a cryptocurrency. It assesses whether Bitcoin meets the criteria for being considered a form of money and evaluates its importance as a financial asset. This analysis of Bitcoin from 2014 to 2025 reveals that it does not sufficiently fulfill all the typical functions of money, such as serving as an internationally accepted means of payment, a unit of account, a securities depository, and a standard for deferred payments. Despite its usual close correlation with stock indices in financial markets, a decentralized digital currency like this still does not meet the requirements of fundamental analysis. In practice, this leads to its exclusion as a currency, since it does not fulfill the functions of money nor fully qualify as a crypto asset, as its value is primarily based on investors’ expectations of high returns. Apart from a lack of foundation in tangible goods or services that justifies their value and dependence on new investors, the findings do not indicate conditions typical of a developed pyramidal model. Nevertheless, this does not prevent future technological innovations from responding positively to the functions of money or from offering real money services, especially those related to service innovation and the digital economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Macroeconomics, Monetary Economics, and Financial Markets)

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19 pages, 2232 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Coherence of Chilean Local Labour Markets

by Ángel Manzanares

Economies 2025, 13(12), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120356 - 3 Dec 2025

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Abstract

This study assesses the comparative adequacy the suitability of two types of territorial units—administrative provinces and Local Labor Markets (LLMs)—for socioeconomic analysis and public policy formulation in Chile. Using two labor market indicators (employment and unemployment) and two educational indicators, statistical tests and [...] Read more.

This study assesses the comparative adequacy the suitability of two types of territorial units—administrative provinces and Local Labor Markets (LLMs)—for socioeconomic analysis and public policy formulation in Chile. Using two labor market indicators (employment and unemployment) and two educational indicators, statistical tests and connectivity matrices are applied to examine the internal and external coherence of these units and determine their spatial autocorrelation. The results show considerable spatial autocorrelation in both types of units, with patterns slightly more pronounced in the LLMs. Furthermore, there is evidence of independence between provinces and LLMs, supporting external coherence and better targeting of policies to specific local characteristics. In conclusion, socioeconomic characteristics show uniform clustering trends throughout the Chilean territory, regardless of the regional scale employed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Labour and Education)

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20 pages, 1058 KB

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A Sustainable Development Approach to Women’s Empowerment for Increased Household Economic Independence: Pro-Poor Tourism Concept in an Archipelago Area

by Ani Wijayanti, Bet El Silisna Lagarense and Atun Yulianto

Economies 2025, 13(12), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120355 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 513

Abstract

Community-Based Tourism (CBT) in East Sumba highlights its unique natural features through its archipelagic potential, which is synergistically integrated with rich traditional cultural experiences. Island-based CBT faces strategic management challenges, especially in empowering human resources—notably women—amid the inherently vulnerable and fragile nature of [...] Read more.

Community-Based Tourism (CBT) in East Sumba highlights its unique natural features through its archipelagic potential, which is synergistically integrated with rich traditional cultural experiences. Island-based CBT faces strategic management challenges, especially in empowering human resources—notably women—amid the inherently vulnerable and fragile nature of island tourism assets. Women’s empowerment, a key element of pro-poor tourism, significantly influences poverty reduction and helps address the high rates of stunting in East Sumba. This research aims to examine women’s empowerment within archipelago-based CBT management frameworks that impact household economic independence. The study adopts a sustainable tourism approach that involves two systems—the human system and the ecosystem—broken down into four dimensions and 32 indicators to assess the sustainability potential of each. Data analysis uses scoring methods to produce BTS and ATSI diagrams. Findings indicate that CBT in East Sumba falls within the potentially sustainable quadrant on the BTS diagram, with coordinates (6.88, 6.49). The average scores are 7.0 for the human system and 6.44 for the ecosystem, supported by the AMOEBA diagram, which shows broad tendencies. The most critical and vulnerable sustainability indicators include ecosystem integrity—particularly access to clean water—and effective mitigation strategies. Conversely, the indicators with the highest robustness include active women’s participation in Family Empowerment and Welfare Organizations and tourism diversification, which is enhanced by East Sumba’s strategic location within Indonesia’s eastern tourism corridor. Stakeholders can leverage these findings by promoting women’s empowerment through integrated tourism package innovations, thereby creating more entrepreneurial opportunities and improving household economic conditions. This research contributes to understanding women’s empowerment through sustainable tourism methods, emphasizing its role as a foundation for pro-poor tourism within island-based CBT frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Labour and Education)

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19 pages, 1055 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Tax Compliance Levels for Regional Taxes in the Provinces of Indonesia

by Nella Ervina, Junaidi Junaidi, Zulgani Zulgani and Erni Achmad

Economies 2025, 13(12), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120354 - 2 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1958

Abstract

This study examines how socialization costs, inspection costs, collection costs, motor vehicle tax rates (Pajak Kendaraan Bermotor, PKB), vehicle ownership transfer tax rates (Bea Balik Nama Kendaraan Bermotor, BBNKB), the Corruption Perception Index (CPI), and the Indonesian Digital Society Index (Indeks Masyarakat Digital [...] Read more.

This study examines how socialization costs, inspection costs, collection costs, motor vehicle tax rates (Pajak Kendaraan Bermotor, PKB), vehicle ownership transfer tax rates (Bea Balik Nama Kendaraan Bermotor, BBNKB), the Corruption Perception Index (CPI), and the Indonesian Digital Society Index (Indeks Masyarakat Digital Indonesia, IMDI) influence regional tax compliance across 34 provinces in Indonesia, using secondary data from 2020 to 2024. Guided by Fiscal Federalism, Tax Optimization Theory, and the Fischer Tax Compliance Model, the analysis integrates spatial regression and SWOT to capture both structural and spatial dynamics in provincial tax administration. The spatial error model reveals that socialization costs, PKB, and BBNKB significantly shape provincial tax compliance. At the same time, the other variables show no measurable effect. Spatial clustering indicates High–High compliance in Central Java, Low–Low compliance in South Sumatra and Lampung, and Low–High compliance in North Sumatra. The SWOT assessment places Indonesia’s provincial tax compliance strategy in Quadrant I, suggesting strong institutional capacity and substantial external opportunities to support aggressive improvement strategies. This study contributes by providing province-wide empirical evidence on the fiscal and administrative determinants of compliance and by incorporating collection costs and spatial relationships into the analysis. Policy implications include strengthening targeted socialization, improving rate-setting mechanisms, and expanding digital reporting systems to enhance taxpayer understanding and administrative transparency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Economic Development)

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23 pages, 382 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tangible and Intangible Determinants of FDI and FPI Inflows: Evidence from BRICS Countries

by Sally Huni, Athenia Bongani Sibindi and Patricia Lindelwa Makoni

Economies 2025, 13(12), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120353 - 2 Dec 2025

Viewed by 580

Abstract

While extensive research has explored the determinants of foreign direct investment (FDI) and foreign portfolio investment (FPI) in BRICS nations, there remains a notable gap in understanding the influence of intangible factors, particularly soft power and nation branding. Historically, academic discourse has underemphasized [...] Read more.

While extensive research has explored the determinants of foreign direct investment (FDI) and foreign portfolio investment (FPI) in BRICS nations, there remains a notable gap in understanding the influence of intangible factors, particularly soft power and nation branding. Historically, academic discourse has underemphasized the role of nation branding as a crucial emotional and perceptual component in investment decision-making processes. Consequently, governments in BRICS countries must enhance their national branding efforts to attract both capital and portfolio investment flows. The principal aim of this study was to jointly analyse the tangible and intangible determinants influencing FDI and FPI in BRICS from 1994 to 2024. Employing advanced econometric techniques, specifically the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach for cointegration and Vector Error Correction Models (VECM) for estimation. This study makes a unique contribution to existing literature by examining the nexus between nation branding, FDI and FPI, thereby introducing a novel perspective on the factors driving investment in the BRICS context with an emphasis on non-tangible determinants. The findings indicate that nation branding, along with exchange rate stability, property rights, and financial market development, are significant positive determinants of FPI in these countries. Conversely, capital openness demonstrated a negative relationship with FPI. Moreover, the positive impact of nation branding on FDI within BRICS nations was reaffirmed. This study substantiates the critical role of nation branding as a pivotal driver for both FDI and FPI, emphasising its strategic importance in the economic landscape of BRICS countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Nexus of Financial Development and Economic Growth: New Evidence in a Changing Global Economy)

27 pages, 812 KB

Open AccessArticle

Public Debt and Economic Growth in Africa: The FDI Effect

by Emmanuel Oluwafemi and Libo Xu

Economies 2025, 13(12), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120352 - 2 Dec 2025

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Abstract

This study examines the desirable public debt threshold for African economies and the effect of foreign direct investment (FDI) on economic growth, using secondary data from 1995 to 2019. The analysis employed panel-data threshold regression, and the results indicate that the debt threshold [...] Read more.

This study examines the desirable public debt threshold for African economies and the effect of foreign direct investment (FDI) on economic growth, using secondary data from 1995 to 2019. The analysis employed panel-data threshold regression, and the results indicate that the debt threshold desirable for economic growth ranges from 22% to 85% of GDP, depending on the kind of model employed. Also, the results conclusively show that FDI always has a negative effect on economic growth when the economy operates below the bottom-debt threshold, with the negative FDI coefficient remaining significant across most of the analysis. It is thus crucial for policymakers to continue pursuing policies that encourage debt financing for major infrastructure projects that drive increased industrialization. This will also help to increase the local economies’ attractiveness to foreign investment and ensure that the FDI will only further boost economic growth and development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regional Economic Development: Policies, Strategies and Prospects)

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21 pages, 951 KB

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From Challenges to Opportunities: Strengthening Local Agri-Food Markets for Sustainable Rural Development

by Aleksandr V. Semenov, Aleksandra Figurek and Elena I. Semenova

Economies 2025, 13(12), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120351 - 1 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Local agri-food markets are a key link in the sustainability and resilience of rural communities, as they merge producers and consumers, create jobs and ensure food security. This paper analyzes the state and perspectives of the development of local markets in rural regions [...] Read more.

Local agri-food markets are a key link in the sustainability and resilience of rural communities, as they merge producers and consumers, create jobs and ensure food security. This paper analyzes the state and perspectives of the development of local markets in rural regions of Russia, relying on demographic, economic, structural and innovation indicators. The results show marked regional differences: in urbanized areas the share of the rural population is low and markets are weak, while in Siberia and the Far East, local markets remain vital, albeit under pressure from depopulation. Structural shifts in favor of plant production, along with worsening price parity, indicate reduced profitability of small producers, but also open opportunities for diversification through processing and branding. Analysis of production concentration shows that sectors with more dispersed production (vegetables, milk) enable greater flexibility and resilience of local markets. Highly concentrated sectors remain vulnerable to market shocks. The findings confirm that local markets can be not only guardians of tradition, but also drivers of modernization and growth. The work thereby makes an empirical contribution to the understanding of the sustainability of rural markets and shows that, with targeted policies that link demographic stability, economic incentives, digital tools and ecological practices, local markets can become a pillar of sustainable development and a significant instrument for strengthening the resilience of the agri-food sector in Russia and beyond. Methodologically, the article applies a mixed approach: (i) quantitative analysis of several sets of statistical data (Rosstat, supplementary FAO/OECD/Eurostat) through descriptive indicators and indices (incl. input/output price parity), as well as cluster typology of regions; and (ii) qualitative mapping of findings to contemporary policies and practices. This framework allows structural trends to be directly linked to implications for local food markets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Agri-Food Sector and the Development of Local Markets)

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29 pages, 390 KB

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National Contexts and R&D Transference: A Cross-Country Analysis of Entrepreneurial Perceptions and Policy Impact

by Roxana Wright

Economies 2025, 13(12), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120350 - 1 Dec 2025

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Abstract

This study aims to assess whether country-level conditions traditionally associated with fostering entrepreneurship (such as digitization, economic climate, and government policies) explain the extent to which R&D leads to new commercial opportunities for small and medium-sized enterprises. Using data from the Global Entrepreneurship [...] Read more.

This study aims to assess whether country-level conditions traditionally associated with fostering entrepreneurship (such as digitization, economic climate, and government policies) explain the extent to which R&D leads to new commercial opportunities for small and medium-sized enterprises. Using data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor’s National Expert Survey, this study applies factorial analysis of variance models to evaluate the single and interaction effects of multiple categorical variables on R&D transference. Three models are constructed to test the significance of country: entrepreneurship-supportive factors, entrepreneurs’ recommendations, and pandemic-related government actions. The results reveal that country location consistently and significantly explains variance in R&D transference. In contrast, traditional entrepreneurship-fostering factors are not found to be statistically significant. Pandemic-related government actions also fail to demonstrate measurable explanatory power on R&D transference. These findings suggest that broader national contexts, rather than specific entrepreneurship-supportive conditions, are more critical in shaping R&D outcomes. Policymakers should reconsider the assumption that general entrepreneurship support mechanisms automatically enhance R&D transference. Instead, targeted interventions may be more effective. Entrepreneurs and investors should evaluate national contexts beyond perceived support factors when pursuing R&D-based innovation. The study underscores the need for context-sensitive strategies in fostering innovation and challenges one-size-fits-all approaches to entrepreneurship policy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Finance and Macroeconomics: Methods, Models and Analysis)

3 pages, 129 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Demographic Trends and Regional Development

by Kostas Rontos

Economies 2025, 13(12), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120349 - 1 Dec 2025

Viewed by 318

Abstract

The contemporary evolution of scientific thought and research is increasingly characterized by efforts to investigate and address problems whose origins extend over long historical periods, often spanning several decades [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Demographics and Regional Economic Development)

45 pages, 1702 KB

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Forks in the Road: Globalization, Deindustrialization, and Economic Growth Pathways

by Azat Aituar, Omar Bolatbay, Nurlan Abdukadyrov and Shynggys Abdukhamet

Economies 2025, 13(12), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120348 - 29 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Utilizing a panel of 125 economies spanning from 1970 to 2019, we examine the role of manufacturing as a fundamental pillar of development in the era of global value chains (GVCs). We employ a layered clustering approach that categorizes countries based on income [...] Read more.

Utilizing a panel of 125 economies spanning from 1970 to 2019, we examine the role of manufacturing as a fundamental pillar of development in the era of global value chains (GVCs). We employ a layered clustering approach that categorizes countries based on income per capita and structural characteristics, such as the share of manufacturing, export complexity, resource dependence, productivity, and wages while maintaining consistency over time. Prior to 1990, most trajectories exhibited a progression from early industrialization to diversification, enhanced industrialization, increased export complexity, rising income levels, and subsequently to deindustrialization. However, post-1990, deindustrialization began to permeate middle- and low-income economies, with export complexity frequently increasing in the absence of deeper domestic industrial development. Two distinct manufacturing pathways are evident: one characterized by functional specialization amid moderate manufacturing levels and another exemplified by the East Asian model, which demonstrates sustained high manufacturing intensity. Resource-driven growth has led to income increases without significant structural transformation, and such growth has not enabled economies to achieve high-income status without initial industrialization. Manufacturing remains essential as a domestic foundation; therefore, policy efforts should focus on securing this base, enhancing capabilities within higher-value GVCs, and strategically investing resource revenues to bolster industrial capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Economic Development)

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30 pages, 1657 KB

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Predicting the Business Cycle in South Africa: Insights from a Real-Financial Activity Gap

by Khwazi Declek Magubane, Phindile Mdluli-Maziya and Boingotlo Wesi

Economies 2025, 13(12), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120347 - 29 Nov 2025

Viewed by 623

Abstract

Traditional approaches to predicting business cycles are limited by their omission of financial variables, which, in turn, leads to failures to signal financial-sector crises and to misestimate the duration and intensity of economic events. This study addresses this challenge by constructing a real-financial [...] Read more.

Traditional approaches to predicting business cycles are limited by their omission of financial variables, which, in turn, leads to failures to signal financial-sector crises and to misestimate the duration and intensity of economic events. This study addresses this challenge by constructing a real-financial activity gap for South Africa and utilising it to predict the occurrence of economic recoveries. The study examines the period from 1970Q1 to 2023Q4, using real GDP, domestic credit, house prices, and share prices. The dynamic factor model and the Hodrick–Prescott filter are employed to construct the real-financial activity gap. The recursive ADF unit root test is used to assess the presence, frequency, and duration of economic recoveries. To validate the results, a Markov switching dynamic regression model is applied. The results reveal that the new gap tends to produce economic recovery predictions that are less frequent but longer in duration. In contrast, predictions based on real GDP lead to more frequent but shorter recoveries. The new gap suggests that financial variables contribute to stabilising growth over extended periods, whereas real GDP reflects quicker but more volatile economic adjustments. The latest gap offers a more stable basis for forecasting recoveries, aiding policymakers in better anticipating and mitigating economic downturns. Accordingly, the output gap and the real-financial activity gap should be used as complements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamic Macroeconomics: Methods, Models and Analysis)

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24 pages, 504 KB

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Circular Economy and Resource Efficiency in the Serbian Agri-Food Sector: Evidence from Dynamic Panel Analysis

by Dragana Novaković, Tihomir Novaković, Dragan Milić, Mirela Tomaš Simin, Srboljub Nikolić, Milena Knežević, Maja Radišić, Mladen Radišić and Dušan Pevac

Economies 2025, 13(12), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120346 - 27 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 407

Abstract

The transition toward sustainable, resource-efficient production has become a key challenge for agri-food systems, particularly in emerging economies, where profitability and environmental goals must be balanced. This study aimed to examine the relationship between financial structure, macroeconomic conditions, and circular economy (CE) indicators [...] Read more.

The transition toward sustainable, resource-efficient production has become a key challenge for agri-food systems, particularly in emerging economies, where profitability and environmental goals must be balanced. This study aimed to examine the relationship between financial structure, macroeconomic conditions, and circular economy (CE) indicators in determining the profitability of Serbian agri-food enterprises. Using panel data for 625 firms from 2014 to 2021, a two-step system GMM model was applied to control for endogeneity and firm-specific effects. The results indicate that in agriculture, moderate leverage enhances profitability, while excessive debt reduces it. Recycling and efficiency-oriented circular practices have a positive and significant effect on financial performance, suggesting that resource-efficient management supports long-term profitability. In the food industry, profitability shows strong persistence but remains mainly driven by internal and economic factors, with CE indicators exerting weaker short-term effects. Robustness tests confirm the validity and stability of the estimates. Overall, the findings highlight that integrating circular economy principles into business strategies can contribute to both financial sustainability and more efficient resource use in the agri-food sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Economic Impact of Natural Resources)

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23 pages, 929 KB

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Mapping Regional Employment Divergences in North–South Europe Through Spatial Models

by Maria Berta Belu, Smaranda Cimpoeru, Madalina Ecaterina Popescu and Amalia Cristescu

Economies 2025, 13(12), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120345 - 27 Nov 2025

Viewed by 435

Abstract

Being a crucial barometer of labour market stability, employment successfully predicts changes in business cycles, becoming a relevant indicator to policymakers and economists worldwide. The scope of this paper is to investigate the impact of socioeconomic and demographic factors on the employment rate [...] Read more.

Being a crucial barometer of labour market stability, employment successfully predicts changes in business cycles, becoming a relevant indicator to policymakers and economists worldwide. The scope of this paper is to investigate the impact of socioeconomic and demographic factors on the employment rate in the European Union through a spatial approach, as well as to compare pre- and post-pandemic characteristics of European labour markets. A persistent North–South divide in employment was observed among the main findings, with Southern regions having lower employment rates and being more vulnerable to the pandemic shocks than Northern regions. Furthermore, the comparison between the spatial econometric models estimated for 2019 and 2022 showed a significant change in the influences of regional employment performance. These discoveries could be of interest to both governments and corporate decision-makers in order to elaborate knowledgeable policies and strategies regarding the labour force. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Labour Market Dynamics in European Countries)

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21 pages, 2606 KB

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The Role of Institutional Quality in Chinese Outward Foreign Direct Investment and Domestic Investment’s Impact on Economic Stability

by Waqar Ameer, Aulia Luqman Aziz, Muhammad Ali, Mochammad Fahlevi and Arfendo Propheto

Economies 2025, 13(12), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120344 - 26 Nov 2025

Viewed by 759

Abstract

Capital flow, integral to the global economy, is significantly influenced by business potential and institutional environments. As one of the world’s largest economies, China’s outflow plays a crucial role in the rapid development of its economy. This study examines domestic investment into public [...] Read more.

Capital flow, integral to the global economy, is significantly influenced by business potential and institutional environments. As one of the world’s largest economies, China’s outflow plays a crucial role in the rapid development of its economy. This study examines domestic investment into public and private components to avoid aggregation bias, whether China’s outward foreign direct investment (OFDI) serves as a substitute or complement to local investments, and how local institutional quality mediates this relationship. We employed Dynamic Autoregressive Distributed Lag model ARDL simulation methods for the period of 1996–2021 in order to control endogeneity, auto-correlation, cross-sectional bias, as well as heteroscedasticity issues, which normally arise in time-series datasets. Our findings reveal that OFDI has a dual impact on local economies. Firstly, OFDI has a generally positive effect on private and public investment, but this relationship is nonlinear. Furthermore, institutional quality significantly influences private investment more than public investment. Additionally, higher interest rates are shown to adversely affect both private and public investments by increasing borrowing costs. These results offer valuable insights for policymakers aiming to optimize investment flows and economic stability. Specifically, fostering institutional quality can amplify the positive spillovers of OFDI on private investment, while mitigating its crowding-out effects on public investment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Studies on Factors Affecting Economic Growth)

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20 pages, 1023 KB

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Integrating Indigenous Financial Frameworks in Zimbabwean Banks: A Decolonial Economics’ Approach to Sustainable Finance

by Gilbert Tepetepe and Lawrence Ogechukwu Obokoh

Economies 2025, 13(12), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120343 - 25 Nov 2025

Viewed by 577

Abstract

This study explores, from decolonial economics perspective, how nineteen Zimbabwean banks engage with both Euro-American and indigenous knowledge systems in their sustainable finance practices. Despite growing global interest in sustainability, limited research has examined the relevance of these models within Zimbabwe’s socio-economic context. [...] Read more.

This study explores, from decolonial economics perspective, how nineteen Zimbabwean banks engage with both Euro-American and indigenous knowledge systems in their sustainable finance practices. Despite growing global interest in sustainability, limited research has examined the relevance of these models within Zimbabwe’s socio-economic context. Addressing this gap, the study employs transformative sequential mixed methods, incorporating 289 structured questionnaires, 30 focus group discussions, and 45 archival documents. Data were subjected to descriptive statistics, narrative analysis, Marxist immanent critique, and decolonial theory. Findings reveal that Zimbabwean banks predominantly adopt Euro-American sustainability frameworks such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals, Paris Accords and accounting standards. However, these frameworks often misalign with local realities, obscuring sustainability colonialism, promoting exclusion of indigenous knowledge, reinforcing Global North dominance, and perpetuating weak sustainability theory. This results in superficial compliance that conceals extractive investments and carbon-intensive practices. Moreover, these models deepen subordinated financialization, commodification, elite capture, resource expropriation, and socio-environmental inequalities. The study calls for a paradigm shift, either rejecting Euro-American models in favor of indigenous approaches or adopting a hybrid model that integrates indigenous knowledge. Such a shift would promote strong sustainability, pluralism, and decolonized institutional frameworks to foster financial inclusion, community resilience, and ecological regeneration in Zimbabwe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Economic Development)

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27 pages, 2557 KB

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Regional Economic Growth and Philanthropy in Italy: An Econometric Approach

by Guido Migliaccio and Simona Pacillo

Economies 2025, 13(12), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120342 - 25 Nov 2025

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Abstract

This study investigates the relationship between philanthropy and regional economic growth, with a focus on the role of social capital as a mediator between these two factors. Employing an econometric model based on Italian regional panel data collected between 2015 and 2019, this [...] Read more.

This study investigates the relationship between philanthropy and regional economic growth, with a focus on the role of social capital as a mediator between these two factors. Employing an econometric model based on Italian regional panel data collected between 2015 and 2019, this study investigates the impact of nonprofit organisations and volunteering on regional GDP growth. The results confirm the contribution of philanthropy to the growth of social capital. The analysis also highlights the disparities between the northern and southern regions: in the former, which are richer, there is a greater willingness to philanthropy. The study shows empirical evidence in the Italian context, underlining the importance of encouraging volunteering by strengthening public–private partnerships. The study recommends policies that promote philanthropy to support regional economic and social development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Economic Development)

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13 pages, 196 KB

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Towards Global Change and Food Security Through Transformative Accounting Information Systems: Insights from the Jordanian Food Sector

by Sulaiman Weshah, Asma Znaimat, Ala Matarneh and Abeer Kamal Maqatef

Economies 2025, 13(12), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/economies13120341 - 23 Nov 2025

Viewed by 356

Abstract

This study examines how accounting information systems might strengthen food supply chains after recent worldwide disasters. The study uses literature studies and interviews with Jordanian agricultural professionals to demonstrate how sustainability-based accounting systems create better judgments. These technologies make real-time sustainability indicator monitoring [...] Read more.

This study examines how accounting information systems might strengthen food supply chains after recent worldwide disasters. The study uses literature studies and interviews with Jordanian agricultural professionals to demonstrate how sustainability-based accounting systems create better judgments. These technologies make real-time sustainability indicator monitoring and risk reduction easier, improving the supply chain. The findings suggest new accounting methods that emphasize how government support for sustainability might assist agricultural enterprises in improving their knowledge, skills, and collaboration. Standardized sustainability reporting can strengthen the food system over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Green Technology Innovation and Economic Growth)

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Economies, Volume 13, Issue 12 (December 2025) – 34 articles

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