Galaxies

11 pages, 936 KB

Open AccessArticle

ASKAP Detection of the Ultra-Long Spin Period Pulsar PSR J0901-4046

by Emil Lenc, Philip G. Edwards, Susmita Sett and Manisha Caleb

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060131 - 1 Dec 2025

Viewed by 158

A radio source with a period of 75.88 s, suspected of being an ultra-long period pulsar, was discovered in 2020 with the MeerKAT radio telescope. Here, we report the detection of radio pulses from this object in multi-epoch ASKAP image data at frequencies [...] Read more.

A radio source with a period of 75.88 s, suspected of being an ultra-long period pulsar, was discovered in 2020 with the MeerKAT radio telescope. Here, we report the detection of radio pulses from this object in multi-epoch ASKAP image data at frequencies between 744 MHz and 1800 MHz and a search for pulses made in Murchison Widefield Array data at 154 MHz. The ASKAP detections pre-date and extend other published observations and so support the belief the pulsar emission has been persistent. The non-detection of the pulsar in MWA data is consistent with a recent report that the spectrum turns over at low frequencies. An ASKAP image of the field centred at 943 MHz confirms the MeerKAT detection of diffuse emission surrounding the pulsar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Radio Astronomy)

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17 pages, 605 KB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Galactic OH Masers from Dense Clump Properties with Neural Networks and Generalized Linear Models

by Dmitry A. Ladeyschikov, Elena A. Filonova and Anton I. Vasyunin

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060130 - 26 Nov 2025

Viewed by 336

Abstract

We develop predictive models for OH maser occurrence in Galactic star-forming regions by integrating dense-clump physical properties from the APEX Telescope Large Area Survey of the Galaxy (ATLASGAL) and Herschel Infrared Galactic Plane Survey (Hi-GAL) 360° catalogs with maser detections and non-detections compiled [...] Read more.

We develop predictive models for OH maser occurrence in Galactic star-forming regions by integrating dense-clump physical properties from the APEX Telescope Large Area Survey of the Galaxy (ATLASGAL) and Herschel Infrared Galactic Plane Survey (Hi-GAL) 360° catalogs with maser detections and non-detections compiled in the MaserDB.net database. We compare two predictive modeling approaches for Galactic OH maser incidence: a Generalized Linear Model (GLM; logistic regression) and a compact Keras-based binary neural network (BNN). For the 1665/1667 MHz lines, both models achieve recall of 90% with a precision of approximately 50%, while for the excited-state 6031/6035 MHz lines, precision reaches roughly 20% at the same recall. We found no statistically significant difference between the BNN and GLM in out-of-sample performance. This implies that maser occurrence may be expressed as a monotonic trend without requiring nonlinear interactions. Across different catalogs and transition lines, luminosity, luminosity-to-mass ratio (

L / M

), dust temperature, and

H_{2}

column, surface, and volume densities are the most influential features for maser prediction. These variables support a physical picture in which radiative pumping favors warm, luminous, and compact clump environments. We provide an accessible online tool that allows users to predict the likelihood of OH maser emission toward ATLASGAL or Hi-GAL sources based on coordinate lists. Full article

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9 pages, 342 KB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Host Galaxy Extinction for SNe Ia

by Oleg Malkov, Alexey Sytov, Gang Zhao and Zehao Zhong

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060129 - 25 Nov 2025

Viewed by 330

Abstract

Type Ia supernovae are used as fundamental probes of the cosmological parameters, based on a tight empirical relation between their peak luminosity and the width of their light curve. However, it has been recognized that SNe Ia are not “standard” candles, since important [...] Read more.

Type Ia supernovae are used as fundamental probes of the cosmological parameters, based on a tight empirical relation between their peak luminosity and the width of their light curve. However, it has been recognized that SNe Ia are not “standard” candles, since important variations in their peak luminosities are observed, as a function of the metallicity, age, environment, and morphological type of the supernova hosts. The largest correction in the standardization scheme is related to extinction. While extinction in the Milky Way (MW) Galaxy is usually known and extinction between galaxies can be assumed to be zero, the value of extinction in the SN Ia host galaxy (

A_{h o s t}

) is determined with much more uncertainty. In this paper, we provide an estimate of the

A_{h o s t}

value based on statistical modeling. To do this, we generate, based on MaNGA data, a set of galaxies in the vicinity of the MW, and distribute the parameters of the galaxies and the positions of SNe Ia in them. As a result, using a simplified model for the distribution of interstellar matter, which is the same for all the sampled galaxies, we can estimate the probability that

A_{h o s t}

exceeds a certain value. Our estimates show, in particular, that in almost all cases,

A_{h o s t}

> 0.10 mag V, and in 25% of cases,

A_{h o s t}

> 0.25 mag V. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stellar Spectroscopy, Molecular Astronomy and Atomic Astronomy)

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21 pages, 69632 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Morphological Identification and Study of Radio Galaxies from LoTSS DR2 II. Strange and Odd Morphology Extragalactic Radio Sources ‘STROMERSs’

by Tapan K. Sasmal, Soumen Kumar Bera, Xuelei Chen, Yougang Wang, Soumen Mondal and Taotao Fang

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060128 - 14 Nov 2025

Viewed by 517

Abstract

STRange and Odd Morphology Extragalactic Radio Sources (STROMERSs) is a new category of radio galaxies that shows extremely peculiar anatomy. A purely manual visual search is carried out for the identification of such interesting sources. We reported a total of 108 STROMERS sources [...] Read more.

STRange and Odd Morphology Extragalactic Radio Sources (STROMERSs) is a new category of radio galaxies that shows extremely peculiar anatomy. A purely manual visual search is carried out for the identification of such interesting sources. We reported a total of 108 STROMERS sources from the LOFAR Two-meter Sky Survey second data release (LoTSS DR2) at 144 MHz. The host galaxies are found ∼94% of the sources. We studied the radio and optical properties of the sources. Redshifts were found in 76% of sources with known host galaxies. The redshifts of STROMERS range from 0.0015 to 1.6599 and peak at 0.15. Among the reported STROMERS sources, there are 17 giant radio galaxies (GRG) with a linear size of greater than 700 kpc. Among them, only five GRGs are new, which is a small fraction of the population of GRGs from LoTSS DR2 data. The source ILTJ164117.44 +380208.4 has the highest linear size, approximately 1.8 Mpc. To study the reasons behind these interesting morphologies, we studied the galaxy cluster environment of each candidate within a 1 Mpc search radius. We found that 53% of STROMERS candidates are associated with cluster environments with known redshifts. The source ILTJ150956.65+332642.9 is associated with a high mass galaxy cluster Abell 2034 with mass a 7.57

\times 10^{14} M_{⊙}

. We also propose that the merger scenario is one of the reasons for the formation of STROMERS in the paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Radio Astronomy)

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37 pages, 40033 KB

Open AccessArticle

Late-Time Radio Diagnostics of Magnetar Magnetic Burial and Reemergence in GRB Afterglows

by Nissim Fraija, C. G. Bernal, A. Galván, B. Betancourt Kamenetskaia and M. G. Dainotti

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060127 - 4 Nov 2025

Viewed by 519

Abstract

Recent centimeter-to-millimeter monitoring of nearby gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) has revealed late-time (

≳ 10^{2}

–

10^{4}

days) radio rebrightenings and spectral turnovers not explained by standard forward-shock scenarios with steady microphysics. We attribute these features to a buried millisecond magnetar whose [...] Read more.

Recent centimeter-to-millimeter monitoring of nearby gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) has revealed late-time (

≳ 10^{2}

–

10^{4}

days) radio rebrightenings and spectral turnovers not explained by standard forward-shock scenarios with steady microphysics. We attribute these features to a buried millisecond magnetar whose surface dipole, initially submerged by early fallback (hours after birth), re-emerges via Hall–Ohmic diffusion on year–to–decade timescales, partially re-energizing the external shock. We combine a minimally parametric analytic framework with axisymmetric magnetohydrodynamic simulations of the hypercritical fallback phase to characterize burial depths and the initial conditions for reemergence. The growth of the external dipole is modeled as

\dot{E} (t) \propto {\dot{E}}_{0} f_{G} {(t)}^{σ}

and calibrated against physically plausible diffusion timescales

τ_{m} \sim years

–

decades

. Spin-down power couples to the afterglow through the surrounding ejecta via a single effective coupling factor and a causal delay kernel, encapsulating mediation by supernova ejecta/pulsar-wind nebulae in collapsars and by merger ejecta/winds in compact-object mergers. Applied to a representative set of events with late-time radio detections and upper limits, our scheme reproduces the observed rebrightenings and turnovers with modest coupling efficiencies. Within this picture, late-time centimeter–millimeter afterglows provide a practical diagnostic of magnetic-burial depth and crustal conductivity in newborn magnetars powering GRB afterglows, and motivate systematic radio follow-up hundreds to thousands of days after the trigger. Full article

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22 pages, 10394 KB

Open AccessArticle

Applications of the Irbene Single-Baseline Radio Interferometer

by Ivar Shmeld, Vladislavs Bezrukovs, Jānis Šteinbergs, Karina Šķirmante, Artis Aberfelds, Sergey A. Belov, Ross A. Burns, Dmitrii Y. Kolotkov, Valery M. Nakariakov, Dmitrijs Bezrukovs, Matīss Purviņš, Aija Kalniņa, Arturs Orbidans, Marcis Bleiders and Marina Konuhova

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060126 - 3 Nov 2025

Viewed by 650

Abstract

The Irbene single-baseline radio interferometer (ISBI), operated by the Ventspils International Radio Astronomy Centre (VIRAC), offers a rare and versatile configuration in modern radio astronomy. Combining the 32-m and 16-m fully steerable parabolic radio telescopes separated by an 800-m baseline, this system possesses [...] Read more.

The Irbene single-baseline radio interferometer (ISBI), operated by the Ventspils International Radio Astronomy Centre (VIRAC), offers a rare and versatile configuration in modern radio astronomy. Combining the 32-m and 16-m fully steerable parabolic radio telescopes separated by an 800-m baseline, this system possesses a unique capability for high-sensitivity, time-domain interferometric observations. Unlike large interferometric arrays optimized for sub-arcsecond resolution imaging, the Irbene system is tailored for studies that require high temporal resolution and a strong signal-to-noise ratio. This paper reviews key scientific applications of the Irbene interferometer, including simultaneous methanol maser and radio continuum variability studies, high-cadence monitoring of quasi-periodic pulsations (QPPs) in stellar flares, ionospheric diagnostics using GNSS signals, orbit determination of navigation satellites and forward scatter radar techniques for space object detection. These diverse applications demonstrate the scientific potential of compact interferometric systems in an era dominated by large-scale observatories. Full article

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8 pages, 369 KB

Open AccessArticle

Using Light Curve Derivatives to Estimate the Fill-Out Factor of Overcontact Binaries

by Shinjirou Kouzuma

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060125 - 31 Oct 2025

Viewed by 563

Abstract

We propose a simple method for estimating the fill-out factor of overcontact binary systems using the derivatives of light curves. We synthesized 74,431 sample light curves, covering the typical parameter space of overcontact binaries. On the basis of a recent study that proposed [...] Read more.

We propose a simple method for estimating the fill-out factor of overcontact binary systems using the derivatives of light curves. We synthesized 74,431 sample light curves, covering the typical parameter space of overcontact binaries. On the basis of a recent study that proposed a new classification scheme using light curve derivatives up to the fourth order, the sample light curves were classified. Among the classified types, for systems exhibiting high mass ratios and high inclinations (i.e., SPf type), we found that the fill-out factor has a strong correlation with the time interval between two local extrema in the third derivatives of their light curves. An empirical formula to estimate the fill-out factor was derived using regression analysis for the identified correlation. Application to real overcontact binary data demonstrated that the proposed method is practical for obtaining reliable estimates of the fill-out factor and its associated uncertainties. Full article

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20 pages, 7428 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reinforcement Learning-Driven Framework for High-Precision Target Tracking in Radio Astronomy

by Tanawit Sahavisit, Popphon Laon, Supavee Pourbunthidkul, Pattharin Wichittrakarn, Pattarapong Phasukkit and Nongluck Houngkamhang

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060124 - 31 Oct 2025

Viewed by 679

Abstract

Radio astronomy requires precise target localization and tracking to ensure accurate observations. Conventional regulation methodologies, encompassing PID controllers, frequently encounter difficulties due to orientation inaccuracies precipitated by mechanical limitations, environmental fluctuations, and electromagnetic interferences. To tackle these obstacles, this investigation presents a reinforcement [...] Read more.

Radio astronomy requires precise target localization and tracking to ensure accurate observations. Conventional regulation methodologies, encompassing PID controllers, frequently encounter difficulties due to orientation inaccuracies precipitated by mechanical limitations, environmental fluctuations, and electromagnetic interferences. To tackle these obstacles, this investigation presents a reinforcement learning (RL)-oriented framework for high-accuracy monitoring in radio telescopes. The suggested system amalgamates a localization control module, a receiver, and an RL tracking agent that functions in scanning and tracking stages. The agent optimizes its policy by maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), a critical factor in astronomical measurements. The framework employs a reconditioned 12-m radio telescope at King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (KMITL), originally constructed as a satellite earth station antenna for telecommunications and was subsequently refurbished and adapted for radio astronomy research. It incorporates dual-axis servo regulation and high-definition encoders. Real-time SNR data and streaming are supported by a HamGeek ZedBoard with an AD9361 software-defined radio (SDR). The RL agent leverages the Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) algorithm with a self-attention actor–critic model, while hyperparameters are tuned via Optuna. Experimental results indicate strong performance, successfully maintaining stable tracking of randomly moving, non-patterned targets for over 4 continuous hours without any external tracking assistance, while achieving an SNR improvement of up to 23.5% compared with programmed TLE-based tracking during live satellite experiments with Thaicom-4. The simplicity of the framework, combined with its adaptability and ability to learn directly from environmental feedback, highlights its suitability for next-generation astronomical techniques in radio telescope surveys, radio line observations, and time-domain astronomy. These findings underscore RL’s potential to enhance telescope tracking accuracy and scalability while reducing control system complexity for dynamic astronomical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Radio Astronomy)

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Graphical abstract

18 pages, 16328 KB

Open AccessReview

Radio Astronomy with NASA’s Deep Space Network

by T. Joseph W. Lazio and Stephen M. Lichten

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060123 - 31 Oct 2025

Viewed by 981

Abstract

The Deep Space Network (DSN) is the spacecraft tracking and communication infrastructure for NASA’s deep space missions. At three sites, approximately equally separated in (terrestrial) longitude, there are multiple radio antennas outfitted with cryogenic microwave receiving systems both for receiving transmissions from deep [...] Read more.

The Deep Space Network (DSN) is the spacecraft tracking and communication infrastructure for NASA’s deep space missions. At three sites, approximately equally separated in (terrestrial) longitude, there are multiple radio antennas outfitted with cryogenic microwave receiving systems both for receiving transmissions from deep space spacecraft and for conducting radio astronomical observations, particularly in the L band (1350 MHz–1800 MHz), X band (8200 MHz–8600 MHz), and K band (18 GHz–27 GHz). In particular, the 70 m antennas at the Canberra and Madrid DSN Complexes are well-equipped to participate in international very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) observations. Over the past five years, there has been an effort to refurbish and modernize equipment such as receiving and signal transport systems for radio astronomical observations. We summarize current capabilities, on-going refurbishment activities, and possible future opportunities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Radio Astronomy)

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13 pages, 1202 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Century of Studies of the Object with the B[e] Phenomenon HD 50138

by Holly Buroughs, Anatoly S. Miroshnichenko, Steve Danford, Alicia N. Aarnio, Sergei V. Zharikov, Hans Van Winckel, Nadine Manset, Ashish Raj, Stephen Drew Chojnowski, Gregor Rauw and Azamat A. Khokhlov

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060122 - 30 Oct 2025

Viewed by 652

Abstract

HD 50138 is a 6.6 mag emission-line B–type star, whose nature is still controversial. It has been thought to be a pre-main-sequence Herbig Be star and an evolved object with the B[e] phenomenon, possibly a mass-transferring binary system. However, it has mostly been [...] Read more.

HD 50138 is a 6.6 mag emission-line B–type star, whose nature is still controversial. It has been thought to be a pre-main-sequence Herbig Be star and an evolved object with the B[e] phenomenon, possibly a mass-transferring binary system. However, it has mostly been studied on short timescales. We collected ∼1000 medium- and high-resolution spectra and available optical photometric data, which cover a time frame from 1981 to 2025, and extended the study from emission lines to a range of absorption lines. A few episodes of dramatic emission-line strength variations were uncovered as well as fast variations of the absorption line widths on timescales of several days. We also found a few previously unreported fadings of the star’s optical brightness seemingly associated with the Hα line profile changes. At the same time, it is still unclear whether the object is a single star or a binary system, as no regular variations of its observed parameters have been detected. Full article

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11 pages, 340 KB

Open AccessArticle

EZ Lyn: A Confirmed Period-Bouncer Cataclysmic Variable Below the Period Minimum

by Nadezhda L. Vaidman, Almansur T. Agishev, Serik A. Khokhlov and Aldiyar T. Agishev

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060121 - 30 Oct 2025

Viewed by 590

Abstract

We model the short-period cataclysmic variable EZ Lyn with MESA binary evolution and infer its present-day parameters through a staged statistical search. First, we compute a coarse grid of tracks in

(M_{1, 0}, P_{0})

at fixed [...] Read more.

We model the short-period cataclysmic variable EZ Lyn with MESA binary evolution and infer its present-day parameters through a staged statistical search. First, we compute a coarse grid of tracks in

(M_{1, 0}, P_{0})

at fixed

M_{2, 0}

and rank snapshots by a profile likelihood. We then resample the neighbourhood of the minimum to build a refined

Δ χ^{2}

surface. Finally, we sample this surface with an affine-invariant MCMC to obtain posteriors, using a likelihood that treats the one-sided constraint on the donor temperature and the ambiguity of component roles in the binary output. The best-fit snapshot reproduces the observables and identifies EZ Lyn as a period bouncer with a substellar donor. We infer

M_{WD} = 0.850 \pm 0.019 M_{⊙}

,

M_{2} = 0.0483 \pm 0.0137 M_{⊙}

,

R_{WD} = 0.0092 \pm 0.0001 R_{⊙}

,

R_{2} = 0.099 \pm 0.005 R_{⊙}

,

T_{WD} = 11, 500 \pm 20 K

, and

T_{2} = 1600 \pm 50 K

. The instantaneous mass-transfer rate at the best-fit snapshot is

\dot{M} = 3.66 \times 10^{- 11} M_{⊙} {yr}^{- 1}

, consistent with the secular range implied by the white-dwarf temperature. Independent checks from the Roche mean-density relation, surface gravities, and the semi-empirical donor sequence support the solution. In population context, EZ Lyn lies in the period-minimum spike and on the low-mass tail of the donor mass–period plane. The classification is robust to modest displacements along the shallow

Δ χ^{2}

valley. We release inlists, tracks, and analysis scripts for reproducibility. Full article

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21 pages, 4883 KB

Open AccessArticle

VERA’s 20 yr Evolution in Science and Technology

by Mareki Honma, Tomoya Hirota, Tomoaki Oyama and Akiharu Nakagawa

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060120 - 27 Oct 2025

Viewed by 654

Abstract

We review the past 20 yr evolution of VERA (VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry) in both science and techinology. VERA is a VLBI array in Japan which consists of four 20 m-diameter telescopes, originally dedicated to phase-referencing VLBI astrometry. Its main observing bands [...] Read more.

We review the past 20 yr evolution of VERA (VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry) in both science and techinology. VERA is a VLBI array in Japan which consists of four 20 m-diameter telescopes, originally dedicated to phase-referencing VLBI astrometry. Its main observing bands are K (22 GHz) and Q (43 GHz) for conducting astrometry observations of H₂O and SiO maser sources. In its 20 yr history, VERA has conducted astrometry observations of ∼100 maser sources, revealing the three-dimensional structure of the Milky Way Galaxy. Its long-term observations of Sgr A* resulted in the first parallax detection of the super-massive black hole at the Galaxy center. Observations of maser sources also revealed physical properties of star-forming regions and provided calibration of AGB stars’ distances and their Period–Luminosity relation. In parallel, several upgrades have been carried out in receivers as well as digital back-ends and correlator to extend the frequency bands and the data rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Radio Astronomy)

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32 pages, 578 KB

Open AccessArticle

Natural Constants Determined to High Precision from Boltzmann’s Constant and Avogadro’s Number—A Challengeto Experiments and Astrophysical Observations to Match the Precision of the Results

by Dimitris M. Christodoulou, Demosthenes Kazanas and Silas G. T. Laycock

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060119 - 27 Oct 2025

Viewed by 792

Abstract

In this investigation, we explore previously unknown relations between natural constants by taking the following steps: (1) We discard Dirac’s constant ℏ from the universal man-made constants of physics, which we redefine in terms of Planck’s constant h. (2) Working in the [...] Read more.

In this investigation, we explore previously unknown relations between natural constants by taking the following steps: (1) We discard Dirac’s constant ℏ from the universal man-made constants of physics, which we redefine in terms of Planck’s constant h. (2) Working in the SI system of units, we determine Newton’s gravitational constant G from Boltzmann’s constant

k_{B}

and the elementary charge e, recognizing the entropy of matter as their common underlying characteristic. (3) By comparing the mass of 1 mole of electrons to the h-defined Planck mass

M_{P}

, we deduce nature’s own molar constant (

≃

0.1 mol) that contains a ‘reduced Avogadro number’

ℵ_{A} = N_{A} / f_{A}

of particles, where

N_{A}

is Avogadro’s number and

f_{A} ≃ 10

is the associated Avogadro factor. (4) From the new effective gravitational constant

G_{★} \equiv 4 π ε_{0} G

, where

ε_{0}

is the vacuum permittivity, we obtain MOND’s universal constant

A_{0}

and its critical acceleration

a_{0}

, recognizing the Newtonian source of gravity as the common underlying characteristic and repudiating the need for a principle of equivalence of masses. (5) We derive the gravitational coupling constant

α_{g}

solely from

ℵ_{A}

. (6) We adopt the measured value of the h-defined fine-structure constant (FSC)

α

and the value of

α_{g}

(or, equivalently, nature’s

ℵ_{A}

), and we determine the relative ratio

β_{g} = α_{g} / α

precise to 10 significant digits. (7) We derive the relative strong ratio

β_{s} = α_{s} / α

directly from the Avogadro factor

f_{A}

. (8) We determine the coupling constants of weak and strong interactions (

α_{w}

and

α_{s}

, respectively) in terms of the FSC

α

. (9) The relation

α_{w} = \sqrt{α}

leads to a determination of the mass of the W boson

m_{W}

from the measured values of

α

and the reduced Fermi constant

G_{F}^{0}

. (10) Using the Planck mass as a principal constant (

M_{P} = ℵ_{A} m_{e}

, where

m_{e}

is the electron mass), we obtain new classical definitions of

h, α

, and the Compton radius

r_{c}

; and we reformulate in a transparent, geometrically clear way several important QED equations, as well as the extended Planck system of units itself. We discuss the implications of these results, and we pave a way forward in exploring the unification of the fundamental forces of nature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection A Trip across the Universe: Our Present Knowledge and Future Perspectives)

32 pages, 5647 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Physical and Mathematical Meaning of Temperature and Its Implications for Astronomy

by Robert E. Criss and Anne M. Hofmeister

Galaxies 2025, 13(6), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies13060118 - 24 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1068

Abstract

Temperatures reported for astronomical objects are commonly extreme, and all are ascertained indirectly, using spectroscopy. However, narrow spectral peaks record microscopic behavior (transitions), whereas temperature is a macroscopic (bulk) feature of an object. Using macroscopic theories of heat, light, and their transport, we [...] Read more.

Temperatures reported for astronomical objects are commonly extreme, and all are ascertained indirectly, using spectroscopy. However, narrow spectral peaks record microscopic behavior (transitions), whereas temperature is a macroscopic (bulk) feature of an object. Using macroscopic theories of heat, light, and their transport, we show that temperature is best defined in terms of the radiant flux of an object (Stefan–Boltzmann law)—including that from large gas bodies—because this flux defines which objects are hotter or colder, and because relevance to mathematical order is the essential attribute of any measurable quantity. Laboratory examples further show that spectroscopic determinations of temperature require the following: (1) use of a large spectral range relevant to that temperature; (2) observation of the unique peak shape characteristic of thermal emissions; (3) accounting for reflections at surfaces; and, most importantly, (4) that conditions are optically thick, a condition fostered by large object size and high temperatures. Temperature of monatomic gas is accurately described by classical kinetic theory because molecular translations are unaffected by electron dynamics. Inelastic molecular collisions provide continuous thermal emissions under optically thick conditions attained in immense astronomical environments. We show how thermal and non-thermal spectroscopic features can be distinguished. Our findings are applied to star-forming regions, intergalactic media, lightning, the Sun’s surface and the corona. Our results resolve long-standing problems regarding heat sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Interpretations of Observed Galactic Behaviors)

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