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Article

Effect of Phosphate Phase Incorporation on 3D-Printed Hydrogel Scaffolds: Towards Customizable Bone Graft Materials

by
Andreea Trifan
1,2,
Eduard Liciu
1,*,
Andrei-Silviu Nedelcu
3,
Mihai Dragomir
1,
Doru-Daniel Cristea
1,4,
Ciprian-Ștefan Mateescu
1,4,
David-Andrei Nițulescu
1,
Cătălina-Ana-Maria Cîrstea
1,
Adela Banciu
3,
Gabriela Toader
5,
Aurel Diacon
5 and
Cristina Busuioc
2,*
1
3D Printing Laboratory, Center of Innovation and e-Health, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania
2
Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
3
Faculty of Medical Engineering, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
4
REOROM Laboratory, Hydraulics Department, Power Engineering Faculty, National University of Science and Technology Politehnica Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
5
Military Technical Academy, FERDINAND I, 050141 Bucharest, Romania
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Gels 2025, 11(8), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080665
Submission received: 30 July 2025 / Revised: 13 August 2025 / Accepted: 15 August 2025 / Published: 20 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Gels for 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering)

Abstract

Bone defects remain a significant clinical challenge, creating a severe need for advanced biomaterials for tissue regeneration. This study addresses this issue by developing 3D-printed composite hydrogels containing alginate, gelatine, and resorbable calcium phosphates (monetite and brushite) for bone tissue engineering. The scaffolds were fabricated using extrusion-based 3D printing and evaluated for their morphology, porosity, mechanical strength, swelling, degradation, and in vitro mineralization, while their cytocompatibility was assessed using LIVE/DEAD cell viability assays. The key findings demonstrate that calcium phosphate incorporation enhanced the mechanical stability by 15–25% compared to the controls, and mineral deposition increased significantly in the composite scaffolds. The developed hydrogels are bioactive and represent promising, customizable scaffolds for bone regeneration. These results support their further investigation as viable alternatives to traditional bone grafts for clinical bone tissue engineering applications.
Keywords: scaffolds; 3D printing; calcium phosphates; monetite; brushite; tissue engineering; hydrogels; biopolymers; composite materials scaffolds; 3D printing; calcium phosphates; monetite; brushite; tissue engineering; hydrogels; biopolymers; composite materials
Graphical Abstract

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MDPI and ACS Style

Trifan, A.; Liciu, E.; Nedelcu, A.-S.; Dragomir, M.; Cristea, D.-D.; Mateescu, C.-Ș.; Nițulescu, D.-A.; Cîrstea, C.-A.-M.; Banciu, A.; Toader, G.; et al. Effect of Phosphate Phase Incorporation on 3D-Printed Hydrogel Scaffolds: Towards Customizable Bone Graft Materials. Gels 2025, 11, 665. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080665

AMA Style

Trifan A, Liciu E, Nedelcu A-S, Dragomir M, Cristea D-D, Mateescu C-Ș, Nițulescu D-A, Cîrstea C-A-M, Banciu A, Toader G, et al. Effect of Phosphate Phase Incorporation on 3D-Printed Hydrogel Scaffolds: Towards Customizable Bone Graft Materials. Gels. 2025; 11(8):665. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080665

Chicago/Turabian Style

Trifan, Andreea, Eduard Liciu, Andrei-Silviu Nedelcu, Mihai Dragomir, Doru-Daniel Cristea, Ciprian-Ștefan Mateescu, David-Andrei Nițulescu, Cătălina-Ana-Maria Cîrstea, Adela Banciu, Gabriela Toader, and et al. 2025. "Effect of Phosphate Phase Incorporation on 3D-Printed Hydrogel Scaffolds: Towards Customizable Bone Graft Materials" Gels 11, no. 8: 665. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080665

APA Style

Trifan, A., Liciu, E., Nedelcu, A.-S., Dragomir, M., Cristea, D.-D., Mateescu, C.-Ș., Nițulescu, D.-A., Cîrstea, C.-A.-M., Banciu, A., Toader, G., Diacon, A., & Busuioc, C. (2025). Effect of Phosphate Phase Incorporation on 3D-Printed Hydrogel Scaffolds: Towards Customizable Bone Graft Materials. Gels, 11(8), 665. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080665

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