Meteorology

The response of temperature extremes to recent warming at the local scale remains uncertain because changes in mean temperature may be accompanied by changes in the shape of the temperature distribution. While higher mean temperatures generally lead to more frequent heat waves and fewer cold events, variations in higher-order statistical moments can either amplify or moderate these effects. This study examines how the probability distribution of 2 m temperature has evolved during the last 80 years in Greece using the ERA-5 reanalysis dataset. The evolution of the first four statistical moments (mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis) and of the 5th and 95th percentiles of daily mean temperature is calculated by splitting the time series into eight decades, with each decade representing a separate climatology. A clear increase in mean temperature is observed across Greece. However, trends in the higher-order moments are more complex: the standard deviation and skewness exhibit positive and negative trends that depend on the region and the season, while kurtosis trends are weaker with a few regional exceptions. These changes alter the response of temperature extremes to warming, resulting in non-uniform shifts of the 5th and 95th percentiles. In mountainous regions, extreme cold events during winter and autumn have decreased more strongly than expected from mean warming alone, while in marine regions extreme warm events during summer and autumn have increased beyond what would be expected by a shift in the mean. In other areas, changes in the distribution shape lead to weaker extremes than those predicted by mean warming alone. These results highlight the role that changes in temperature variability have in modulating the evolution of temperature extremes under climate warming. Full article

Puerto Rico has experienced increasingly frequent and intense extreme heat conditions in recent years, with the 2023–2024 warm seasons standing out for prolonged periods of dangerously high heat index values and widespread spatial exposure. These conditions are particularly concerning in tropical island environments, where high humidity limits physiological cooling and amplifies heat-related health risks. The main objective of this study is to identify and characterize extreme heat zones and events across Puerto Rico using NOAA-modeled heat index (apparent temperature) data, as well as to examine their spatial and temporal variability during the 2021–2024 period. Hourly modeled apparent temperature data between 2 and 4 pm, representing the warmest time of day, were analyzed for each day from June through October. Mean maximum and maximum heat index surfaces were generated for each month and warm season, and extreme heat zones were identified using the 103 °F (39.4 °C) danger threshold. Results show a persistent concentration of extreme heat in low-elevation coastal regions, particularly across the northern coastal plains from San Juan to Hatillo, with floodplain areas in Arecibo and Manatí exhibiting the highest and most consistent exposure. August was identified as the month with the highest mean maximum heat index across all study years, followed by September. The warm seasons of 2023 and 2024 exhibited the highest magnitudes and spatial extents of extreme heat, with some regions experiencing apparent temperatures exceeding 110 °F and up to 141 extreme heat days during peak afternoon hours. The findings indicate a transition from localized heat hotspots to widespread and sustained extreme heat exposure across Puerto Rico’s coastal regions. This study provides an island-scale assessment of extreme heat patterns with direct implications for public health, infrastructure planning, and heat-risk management in a warming tropical climate. Full article

Coastally Trapped disturbances (CTDs) are shifts in wind direction from the pre-dominant direction to equatorward to poleward for a period of time. These CTDs occur during the warm season off the California coast and impact coastal weather conditions and planned offshore wind plants. This study assesses the characteristics of CTD events as observed by lidar and other offshore buoys, then evaluates the ability of modeling systems to capture the correct characteristics, leveraging model output from the High-Resolution Rapid Refresh (HRRR) operational modeling system and the NOW-23 (National Offshore Wind) model dataset. CTDs were analyzed for October 2020 and May through to October of 2021, identifying 18 unique CTD events, confirmed by a nearby National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) buoy. The HRRR model captured most of these events, but the NOW-23 model output contained only 12 events. Composites of the wind, temperature, and pressure perturbations pre-, during, and post-event demonstrated the diminishment in wind speed, particularly for the alongshore component. Although the NOW-23 model captured the alongshore wind component and pressure perturbations well, the cross-shore wind component and temperature perturbations varied substantially. When the turbulent kinetic energy deviation and wind shear was positive across all levels pre-event, the NOW-23 modeling system was less likely to capture the CTD event. In contrast, the events that were captured by the model tended to have negative wind shear aloft pre-event. Full article

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a key regulator of the global climate system, yet its influence on future precipitation remains uncertain because climate models project widely varying degrees of weakening. Here, we examine the relationship between AMOC decline and global precipitation using historical and RCP8.5 simulations from ten CMIP5 models. Models are grouped by the magnitude of projected AMOC weakening, and an intermodel regression framework is used to quantify the sensitivity of precipitation to changes in overturning strength. The CMIP5 multi-model mean reproduces observed large-scale precipitation patterns. While early-century responses are modest, stronger AMOC weakening by the late century is associated with pronounced drying across the tropical North Atlantic and enhanced rainfall over the Indo-Pacific. Regression analysis indicates that precipitation within the Intertropical Convergence Zone decreases by ~2.3% per 1 Sv reduction in AMOC strength. Sensitivity experiments further show that reduced Atlantic heat transport cools the North Atlantic and shifts tropical rainfall southward. These results identify AMOC variability as an important source of uncertainty in projections of future global hydroclimate. Full article

Climate change (CC) is widely recognized as a major human concern, affecting society across all aspects and activities. Among various economic sectors, aviation is one of the most affected due to its exposure to adverse weather events. Consequently, adaptation and mitigation actions are becoming increasingly important to reduce the negative effects of CC-driven extreme weather events on aviation operations. In this study, we analyzed 30 years of historical aerodrome meteorological routine reports (METARs) from several major Italian airports to assess multi-decadal changes in aviation weather-related hazards, based on observational evidence such as convection, visibility, and snow and freezing precipitation. Furthermore, we examined the ERA5 reanalysis dataset to assess potential anomalies in the synoptic circulation over the Euro-Mediterranean region that may drive fluctuations in local airport climatology. Our results reveal relevant trends for the considered aviation-related weather hazards, while also indicating meaningful links to variations in local and synoptic patterns. The observed increases in 500 hPa geopotential height, 850 hPa temperature, and convective available potential energy (CAPE) lead to changes in the climatology of the airports considered, including a general enhancement of thermoconvective phenomena, a reduction in events associated with synoptic-scale disturbances, an overall decrease in snowfall, and contrasting trends in fog occurrence depending on local factors. Full article

Propagating easterly waves (EW) are analyzed here, within the dynamical environment of the Caribbean Low-Level Jet (CLLJ) using radiosondes from the Organization of Tropical East Pacific Convection (OTREC) field campaign, ERA5 reanalysis, and lightning from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) over $5^{\circ }$–${20}^{\circ }$ N, ${60}^{\circ }$–${100}^{\circ }$ W during 21 August–30 September 2019. Radiosondes resolve the vertical structure of the waves at San Andrés (Colombia), Limón and Santa Cruz–Guanacaste (Costa Rica), while ERA5 provides spatial–temporal continuity and vertically integrated diagnostics—namely, the vertically integrated moisture flux divergence (VIMFD) and the vertically integrated geopotential flux divergence (VIGFD). Lightning from WWLLN and precipitation from ERA5 and the Integrated Multi-satellite Retrievals for the Global Precipitation Measurement mission (GPM IMERG) offer independent convective proxies to track disturbances. Mean profiles from radiosondes and ERA5 show strong agreement at Limón and Guanacaste and some differences at San Andrés, yet all datasets capture coherent, phase-locked anomalies in zonal wind, meridional wind, temperature, humidity, vertical velocity and vorticity used to diagnose EW–CLLJ interactions. VIMFD, VIGFD, lightning and precipitation exhibit westward-propagating cores that align with the above anomalies, indicating that organized convection is coupled to the disturbances, whereas the mean state preconditions the environment to enable wave-induced upward motion. A robust vertical adjustment of the CLLJ is documented: the core shifts from near 925 hPa over the Caribbean Sea to about 700 hPa over the Eastern Tropical Pacific ($\Delta p\sim 150$ hPa). This feature is reproduced by a 30-year ERA5 climatology, consistent with jet-exit forcing and enhanced boundary-layer coupling over land. Conditions favorable for barotropic instability using the Rayleigh–Kuo criterion, were present over most of the period. A qualitative barotropic conversion proxy, computed from the eddy momentum covariance $⟨u^{\prime }{v}^{\prime }⟩$, shows positive values in the lower troposphere at Guanacaste and in the layer 850–700 hPa at San Andrés, suggesting mean-to-eddy momentum transfer, whereas the signal at Limón is weaker. Together, these results provide a physically consistent view of EW–CLLJ interactions across the IAS; therefore, a schematic of those mechanisms is proposed here. The results highlight the need for high-resolution modeling and full energy-budget analyses. Full article

An eighteen-year record of in situ surface meteorology and computed bulk air–sea fluxes of heat, freshwater, and momentum from an ocean site windward of the Hawaiian Islands is presented. Observations were logged every minute. The one-minute, one-hour, and one-day time series statistics are presented. The daily-averaged time series provide an overview of this trade wind site, with mean wind of 6.8 m s⁻¹ toward the west–southwest, mean ocean heat gain of 23.2 W m⁻², and freshwater loss of 1.2 m yr⁻¹. Energetic variability was found at the higher sampling rates, evidenced by spectral peaks in solar insolation and sea-level pressure and by striking transient signals including short-lived insolation values higher than clear-sky values, short periods with air warmer than the sea surface, and by series of downdrafts of dry air. At longer periods, the presence of moist air accompanying low winds and sunny skies enhanced ocean heating. Winter events with dry air and wind, resulting in large latent and net heat loss, led to ocean cooling. Signals of two hurricanes, Darby and Douglas, were recorded. Normalized by their duration, short-lived events have the potential to make significant contributions to the heat, freshwater, and mechanical energy exchanges. Full article

This study investigates the intensification of drought in the continental part of the Istrian peninsula using two standardized drought indices: the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) and the New Drought Index (NDI). Monthly precipitation and temperature data from the main meteorological station in Pazin, covering the period 1961–2024, were analyzed. Statistical methods, including linear regression, Mann–Kendall test, and Rescaled Adjusted Partial Sums (RAPS) analysis, were applied to detect trends and fluctuations in the time series. Results indicate a significant increase in mean annual air temperatures since the late 1990s, with particularly strong warming in summer months. Precipitation trends, although highly variable, did not show a statistically significant long-term decline. Both drought indices reveal an intensification of drought conditions after 1985, with NDI showing stronger sensitivity to temperature rise than SPEI. Seasonal analyses demonstrate that drought occurrence is most pronounced during the warm part of the year, while cumulative series indicate a shift from predominantly wet to predominantly dry conditions after the mid-1980s. The comparison of the two indices shows a high degree of agreement but also highlights the added value of NDI in detecting temperature-driven drought processes. The findings emphasize the growing risk of more frequent and severe droughts in humid regions of Istria, including the potential for flash drought events. These results may support the development of improved drought early-warning systems and adaptation strategies in the Mediterranean context. Full article

Accurate air temperature and precipitation data are fundamental for environmental and socioeconomic applications in Brazil. However, the observational network managed by the National Institute of Meteorology, suffers from spatial gaps, necessitating the use of gridded datasets. This study provides a rigorous comparative assessment of three prominent gridded products—the station-interpolated dataset of Brazilian Daily Weather Gridded Data (BR-DWGD), the satellite-gauge blended product MERGE, and the ERA5-Land Reanalysis dataset—against station data. We evaluate the performance of the institutionally supported MERGE and ERA5-Land products as viable alternatives to the interpolated dataset. Daily data for maximum temperature (Tmax), minimum temperature (Tmin), and total precipitation were selected from 1994 to 2024 and analyzed using statistical metrics. The interpolated product showed the highest fidelity to observations, especially for temperature. For precipitation, the MERGE product demonstrated the best performance, achieving higher correlation and lower error than both the interpolated dataset and the poorly performing ERA5-Land. For temperature, ERA5-Land proved to be an excellent alternative for minimum temperature, but exhibited significant regional biases for maximum temperature and a tendency to underestimate heat extremes. We conclude that MERGE is the most robust alternative for precipitation studies in Brazil. ERA5-Land is a highly reliable source for minimum temperature, but its direct use for maximum temperature requires caution. Full article

Drought remains a phenomenal disaster of critical concerns in West Africa, particularly within the Niger River Basin, due to its insidious, multifaceted, and long-lasting nature. Its continuous severe impacts on communities, combined with the limitations of existing univariate index-based monitoring methods, worsen the challenge. This paper introduces and evaluates a Hybrid Drought Resilience Empirical Model (DREM) that integrates meteorological, agricultural, and hydrological indicators to improve their concurrent monitoring and early warning for effective decision-making in the region. Using reanalysis hydrometeorological data (1980–2016) and community vulnerability records, results show that the DREM-based composite index detects drought earlier than the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), with stronger alignment to soil moisture and streamflow variations. The model identifies drought onset when thresholds range from −0.26 to −1.19 over three consecutive months, depending on location, and signals drought termination when thresholds rise between −0.08 and −0.82. The study concludes that the DREM-based composite index provides a more reliable and integrated framework for early drought detection and decision-making across the Niger River Basin, and hence, has proven to be a suitable drought monitor for stakeholders in the Niger Basin which can be relied upon and trusted with high confidence. Full article

Extratropical cyclones are the main drivers of high-energy wave events along the southern coast of Brazil, frequently producing hazardous coastal conditions. Between 2001 and 2020, we identified 51 high-impact coastal storms based on Marine Weather Warnings and ERA5 reanalysis. Events showed a clear seasonal pattern, with the highest occurrence in winter and autumn. Composite analyses revealed that these extreme events are consistently associated with strong meridional pressure gradients and southerly to southeasterly low-level winds, which establish long wind-fetch zones that favor the generation and shore-normal propagation of energetic waves. Significant wave heights typically exceeded 4 m along the entire coastline, with maxima south of 35° S. EOF analyses showed that the dominant mode of variability is a recurrent low-pressure system centered between 40 and 45° S over the southwestern Atlantic. In contrast, the second mode represents the dipole between continental high pressure and oceanic low pressure that intensifies storm-related wave generation. Case studies from 2008 and 2015 confirmed that these synoptic patterns result in prolonged hazardous sea states and coastal impacts, including bar closures at the Port of Rio Grande, totaling 355 h of inoperability. These findings provide a clear characterization of the meteoceanographic patterns associated with high-impact coastal storms in southern Brazil and offer a climatological basis for improving early warning, navigation safety, and coastal risk management. Full article

Heat extremes or heatwave events have significantly impacted socioeconomic activities and ecological systems, causing serious health issues and increased mortality rates in Pakistan over the past few decades. This study investigates the relationship between heat extremes in the northern Indian Ocean’s sea surface temperature (SST) and atmospheric temperature over Land (ATL) in Pakistan, and their connection to the Niño 3.4 Index, for monthly (March–August) and seasonal (spring and summer) basis from 1979 to 2015. Results show that SST has a higher frequency of heat extreme anomalies over different stretches of days than ATL. On a seasonal scale, heat extremes in ATL showed a significant correlation with SST, while the relationship was insignificant on a monthly basis. Both ATL and SST exhibited strong associations with the Niño 3.4 Index for land and ocean. These findings suggest that large-scale ocean-atmosphere interactions, particularly El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), play a key role in modulating heat extremes in the region. The results of this study support SDGs by improving adaptive capacity and resilience on health, hunger, and climate by guiding policymakers in mitigating heat extremes. Integrating the findings of this study into national and provincial heat extreme plans may facilitate timely resource allocation and adaptation strategies in one of the world’s most climate-vulnerable regions. Full article

This study investigates the impact of high-resolution Sea Surface Temperature (SST) boundary conditions on atmospheric simulations over the southwestern Atlantic Ocean (12–27° S, 32–48° W). Numerical experiments were conducted using the WRF model with two distinct SST configurations: standard resolution GFS SST data (0.5°) and high-resolution RTG-SST-HR satellite-derived data (0.083°). Simulations covered contrasting seasonal periods (January and July 2016) to capture varying upwelling intensities and atmospheric circulation patterns. Model performance was evaluated against observational data from the Brazilian National Buoy Program (PNBOIA) using statistical metrics including RMSE and Pearson correlation coefficients for wind components. The high-resolution SST experiment demonstrated significant improvements in wind field representation, with RMSE reductions of up to 0.5 m/s for zonal wind components and correlation improvements of approximately 0.1 across multiple validation sites. Most notably, the enhanced SST resolution enabled better representation of mesoscale atmospheric systems, including improved organization and intensification of cyclonic systems in areas near the cyclogenesis regions. The RTG-SST data captured sharp thermal gradients and coastal upwelling signatures that were spatially smoothed in the GFS fields, leading to more realistic surface heat flux patterns and atmospheric boundary layer dynamics. These improvements were particularly pronounced during summer months when thermal gradients were strongest, highlighting the critical importance of accurate SST representation for capturing high-intensity atmospheric phenomena in regions of strong air-sea interaction. Full article

Climate variability and extreme events disproportionately affect rural regions with limited adaptive capacity. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, mesoregions with semi-arid characteristics face severe vulnerabilities, underscoring the importance of detailed regional climate trend analyses. This study analyzed historical air temperature (maximum, minimum, and average) and precipitation from 1990 to 2019 in four mesoregions of Minas Gerais. The goal was to support climate planning and the development of local responses. Daily data from the National Institute of Meteorology (INMET) and a gridded meteorological database were analyzed using Mann–Kendall and Sen’s non-parametric tests, with a 95% confidence level (p-value ≤ 0.05) to identify significant trends. Annual results showed significant increases in maximum temperature in 15 of 24 evaluated areas, with rates from −0.03 to +0.15 °C year⁻¹. For minimum and average temperatures, significant increases were observed in 17 locations. Annual precipitation showed a downward trend in 21 areas. Monthly and seasonal analyses confirmed this pattern of warming and reduced rainfall. These findings indicate an intensification of climate stress in over 80% of the studied locations, potentially impacting agriculture, public health, and ecosystems, requiring specific regional adaptive responses. Full article

Polar mesocyclones are often the cause of sudden worsening of weather conditions, including strong winds, snowfall with low visibility, and storms. The short lifetime, rapid development, high movement speeds, and small sizes, combined with a lack of meteorological observations over the Arctic seas, create difficulties in forecasting associated weather phenomena. High-resolution numerical modeling can help address this issue. The emergence and development of polar lows (PLs) significantly depend on the properties of the underlying surface, which largely determine the dynamic properties of the atmosphere in the boundary layer. This article is dedicated to assessing the sensitivity of the configuration ICON-Ru of the model ICON with a 2.0 km grid spacing to changes in the sea ice boundary and sea surface temperature (SST) when forecasting the formation and development of PLs. The results showed that the presence of artificial ice in the model almost completely suppresses the development of PLs in cases where the vortex does not have a strong connection with the jet stream. Heating the SST to 278.15 K while simultaneously shifting the ice boundary northward leads to increased thermal instability, rising sensible and latent heat fluxes, and higher CAPE, which enhances PLs, with the degree of enhancement depending on the nature of the vortex formation itself. Full article

Understanding the intricate dynamics of precipitation patterns is essential for effective water resource management and climate adaptation in Missouri. Existing analyses of Missouri’s climate variability lack the spatial granularity needed to capture nuanced variations across climate divisions. The Missouri historical agricultural weather database, an open-source tool that contains key weather measurements gathered at Mesonet stations across the state, is beginning to fill in the data sparsity gaps. The aim of this study is to identify core patterns associated with ENSO in the global wavelet output. Using a continuous wavelet transform analysis on data from 32 stations (2000–2024), we identified significant precipitation cycles. Where previous studies used just four Automated Surface Observing Systems (ASOSs) located at airports across Missouri to characterize climate variability, this study uses an additional 28 from the Missouri Mesonet. The use of a global wavelet power spectrum analysis reveals that precipitation patterns, with the exception of southeast Missouri, have a distinct annual cycle. Furthermore, separating the stations based on the significance of their ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation) signal results in the identification of three precipitation zones: an annual, ENSO, and residual zone. This spatial data analysis reveals that the Missouri climate division boundaries broadly capture the three precipitation zones found in this study. Additionally, the results suggest a corridor in central Missouri where precipitation is particularly sensitive to an ENSO signal. These findings provide critical insights for improved water resource management and climate adaptation strategies. Full article

Rainfalls are the result of complex cloud microphysical processes. Trying to estimate their intensity and duration is a key task necessary for assessing precipitation magnitude. Across mountains, extreme rainfalls may cause several side effects on the ground, triggering severe geo-hydrological issues (floods and landslides) which impact people, human activities, buildings, and infrastructure. Therefore, having a tool able to reconstruct rainfall processes easily and understandably is advisable for non-expert stakeholders and researchers who deal with rainfall management. In this work, an evolution of the LUME (Linear Upslope Model Experiment), designed to simplify the study of the rainfall process, is presented. The main novelties of the new version, called LUME 2D, regard (1) the 2D domain extension, (2) the inclusion of warm-rain and cold-rain bulk-microphysical schemes (with snow and hail categories), and (3) the simulation of convective precipitations. The model was completely rewritten using Python (version 3.11) and was tested on a heavy rainfall event that occurred in Piedmont in April 2025. Using a 2D spatial and temporal interpolation of the radiosonde data, the model was able to reconstruct a realistic rainfall field of the event, reproducing rather accurately the rainfall intensity pattern. Applying the cold microphysics schemes, the snow and hail amounts were evaluated, while the rainfall intensity amplification due to the moist convection activation was detected within the results. The LUME 2D model has revealed itself to be an easy tool for carrying out further studies on intense rainfall events, improving understanding and highlighting their peculiarity in a straightforward way suitable for non-expert users. Full article

The hydrology of the transboundary region encompassing the western Red River Basin headwaters, such as Devils Lake Basin (DLB) in North America, is complex and highly sensitive to climate variability, impacting water resources, agriculture, and flood risk. Understanding hydrological shifts in this region is critical, particularly given recent hydroclimatic changes. This study aimed to simulate and analyze key hydrological processes and their evolution from 1981 to 2020 using an integrated modeling approach. We employed the NASA Land Information System (LIS) framework configured with the Noah-MP land surface model and the HyMAP routing model, driven by a combination of reanalysis and observational datasets. Simulations revealed a significant increase in precipitation inputs and consequential positive net water storage trends post-1990, indicating increased water retention within the system. Snow dynamics showed high interannual variability and decadal shifts in average Snow Water Equivalent (SWE). Simulated streamflow exhibited corresponding multi-decadal trends, including increasing flows within a major DLB headwater basin (Mauvais Coulee Basin) during the period of Devils Lake expansion (mid-1990s to ~2011). Furthermore, analysis of decadal average seasonal hydrographs indicated significant shifts post-2000, characterized by earlier and often higher spring peaks and increased baseflows compared to previous decades. While the model captured these trends, validation against observed streamflow highlighted significant challenges in accurately simulating peak flow magnitudes (Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency = 0.33 at Mauvais Coulee River near Cando). Overall, the results depict a non-stationary hydrological system responding dynamically to hydroclimatic forcing over the past four decades. While the integrated modeling approach provided valuable insights into these changes and their potential drivers, the findings also underscore the need for targeted model improvements, particularly concerning the representation of peak runoff generation processes, to enhance predictive capabilities for water resource management in this vital region. Full article

Extreme precipitation events have become a central focus of the scientific community due to their increased occurrence in recent years. This study aims to analyze the variability and trends in aspects associated with the rainy seasons in the South American Monsoon System (SAMS) area from 1979 to 2022. The dates for the onset and demise of the rainy season (ONR and DER, respectively) were determined using antisymmetric outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) data relative to the equator (AOLR) for the clustered regions defined in a previous work. Based on these dates, the duration of the rainy seasons and the total precipitation for each rainy season were also calculated. The main advantage of this study is the analysis of trends within homogeneous regions derived from cluster analysis, which enables a more reliable assessment of precipitation patterns across the spatially heterogeneous SAMS domain. The non-parametric Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator were applied to the ONR, DER, rainy season length, and total precipitation time series for each group over the 1979–2022 period. Quartile analysis was performed on the total precipitation time series to identify the most and least intense rainy seasons in the SAMS’s regions. These analyses revealed a trend of shortening of the SAMS rainy season over the 44 years of analysis, with a positive trend in the ONR dates and a negative trend in the DER dates, which is further confirmed by the decreasing trends in rainy season length and accumulated precipitation in most analyzed regions. The most (above the third quartile) and least (below the first quartile) intense rainy seasons were found to be concentrated at the beginning and end of the study period, respectively, for all monsoon regions. After removing the linear trend, the distribution of events appeared more uniform over time, yet the major droughts that occurred after 2010 remained clear. The results of this study contribute to a better understanding of the precipitation characteristics in the SAMS area, and these findings may assist climate forecasting and monitoring centers in improving regional precipitation assessments. Full article