Characterization of Citrus Orchard Soil Improved by Green Manure Using the Discrete Element Method

Accurate determination of soil and contact parameters is crucial for tillage machinery design; however, the interactions among soil, tools, and roots in citrus orchards covered with green manure remain insufficiently defined. This study, therefore, combined physical experiments with DEM simulations to characterize these interactions. Using significance analysis and response surface methodology (RSM), the effects of major factors on angle of repose (AoR) and initial slip angle (ISA) at varying soil depths were evaluated, enabling precise calibration of both external (soil–machinery) and internal (particle–particle) parameters. Subsequently, a GA-BP optimization model was constructed to enhance calibration accuracy, yielding optimal values for the soil-to-soil rolling friction coefficient (γ = 0.125–0.136), soil-to-65Mn static friction coefficient (μ′ = 0.431 − 0.540), and soil surface energy (JKR = 0.952 − 1.091 J·m⁻²). Shear tests using the bonding V2 model were conducted to calibrate the Bonding parameters of green manure stems and roots, while pull-out tests and simulations were used to validate the root–soil parameters. Direct shear tests confirmed the model’s reliability, with errors in internal friction angle and cohesion below 10%. These findings may contribute to improving DEM simulation accuracy for soil improvement under green manure coverage and support the optimization of soil tillage in citrus orchards.