Minerals

24 pages, 40890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contrasts in Two-Stage Superimposed Magmatism of the Shizhuzi Magmatic Complex-Mo-Cu-Au System, Liaodong Peninsula, North China Craton

by Jinjian Wu, Jinzhong Yang, Jinhui Yang and Qingdong Zeng

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060631 - 10 Jun 2025

Abstract

The North China Craton (NCC) experienced extensive destruction and modification of its subcontinental lithospheric mantle during the Mesozoic, a period marked by intensive tectonism, magmatism, and mineralization. Among the key manifestations of this event are the Shizhuzi magmatic complex (SMC) and related Mo-Cu-Au [...] Read more.

The North China Craton (NCC) experienced extensive destruction and modification of its subcontinental lithospheric mantle during the Mesozoic, a period marked by intensive tectonism, magmatism, and mineralization. Among the key manifestations of this event are the Shizhuzi magmatic complex (SMC) and related Mo-Cu-Au deposits in the Liaodong Peninsula. This study presents new zircon U-Pb ages and Hf isotope data, along with whole-rock major and trace element geochemical data. Meanwhile, by incorporating published datasets, the magmatism and mineralization of the SMC are discussed. Two-stage magmatic activity is identified in the SMC as follows: (1) Stage I (130–126 Ma) associated with mineralization, and (2) Stage II (121–117 Ma), both corresponding to the peak destruction of the NCC. The mineralized granitoids exhibit I-type affinities and formed in an extension setting. Quartz diorites within this suite were derived from the partial melting of an enriched mantle source, and the high-temperature thermal underplating associated with this process subsequently triggered partial melting of the basaltic lower crust, leading to the generation of granodiorites and monzonitic granites. These rocks experienced limited fractional crystallization (dominated by plagioclase + biotite) and are linked to Mo-Cu-Au mineralization. In contrast, the non-mineralized granitoids are high-K calc-alkaline, peraluminous A-type granites, which developed in an extremely extensional tectonic setting. They were derived from partial melting of ancient lower crust and display characteristics of highly fractionated granites, having undergone extensive crystallization differentiation involving plagioclase + K-feldspar during magmatic evolution. The mineralized and non-mineralized granitoids exhibit distinct differences in lithology, major/trace element characteristics, Hf isotopes, and degree of fractional crystallization. Our proposed two-stage magmatic model—coupled with a mineralization phase—provides significant insights into both magmatic processes and metallogenesis in the Liaodong Peninsula. It further offers key perspectives into the Early Cretaceous decratonization of the NCC in terms of its tectonic–magmatic–mineralization evolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Porphyry Systems: Genesis, Exploration, and Applications)

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19 pages, 6101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modern Capabilities of Semi-Airborne UAV-TEM Technology on the Example of Studying the Geological Structure of the Uranium Paleovalley

by Ayur Bashkeev, Alexander Parshin, Ilya Trofimov, Sergey Bukhalov, Danila Prokhorov and Nikolay Grebenkin

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060630 - 10 Jun 2025

Abstract

Unmanned systems provide significant prospects for improving the efficiency of electromagnetic geophysical exploration in mineral prospecting and geological mapping, as they can significantly increase the productivity of field surveys by accelerating the movement of the measuring system along the site, as well as [...] Read more.

Unmanned systems provide significant prospects for improving the efficiency of electromagnetic geophysical exploration in mineral prospecting and geological mapping, as they can significantly increase the productivity of field surveys by accelerating the movement of the measuring system along the site, as well as minimizing problems in cases where the pedestrian walkability of the site is a challenge. Lightweight and cheap UAV systems with a take-off weight in the low tens of kilograms are unable to carry a powerful current source; therefore, semi-airborne systems with a ground transmitter (an ungrounded loop or grounded at the ends of the line) and a measuring system towed on a UAV are becoming more and more widespread. This paper presents the results for a new generation of semi-airborne technology SibGIS UAV-TEMs belonging to the “line-loop” type and capable of realizing the transient/time-domain (TEM) electromagnetics method used for studying a uranium object of the paleovalley type. Objects of this type are characterized by a low resistivity of the ore zone located in relatively high-resistivity host rocks and, from the position of the geoelectric structure, can be considered a good benchmark for assessing the capabilities of different electrical exploration technologies in general. The aeromobile part of the geophysical system created is implemented on the basis of a hexacopter carrying a measuring system with an inductive sensor, an analog of a 50 × 50 m loop, an 18-bit ADC with satellite synchronization, and a transmitter. The ground part consists of a galvanically grounded supply line and a current source with a transmitter creating multipolar pulses of quasi-DC current in the line. The survey is carried out with a terrain drape based on a satellite digital terrain model. The article presents the results obtained from the electromagnetic soundings in comparison with the reference (drilled) profile, convincingly proving the high efficiency of UAV-TEM. This approach to pre-processing UAV–electrospecting data is described with the aim of improving data quality by taking into account the movement and swaying of the measuring system’s sensor. On the basis of the real data obtained, the sensitivity of the created semi-airborne system was modeled by solving a direct problem in the class of 3D models, which allowed us to evaluate the effectiveness of the method in relation to other geological cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoelectricity and Electrical Methods in Mineral Exploration)

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17 pages, 3986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geo-Identity of the Most Exploited Underground Obsidian Deposit in Mesoamerica: Cartography, Petrography, and Geochemistry of the Sierra de las Navajas, Hidalgo, Mexico

by Gerardo Alonso López-Velarde, Jesús Roberto Vidal-Solano and Alejandro Pastrana

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060629 - 10 Jun 2025

Abstract

The Sierra de las Navajas is a Late Pliocene volcanic complex with a rhyolitic composition and peralkaline affinity. It is located on the northeastern edge of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the state of Hidalgo. Within this rocky massif lies Cerro de las [...] Read more.

The Sierra de las Navajas is a Late Pliocene volcanic complex with a rhyolitic composition and peralkaline affinity. It is located on the northeastern edge of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the state of Hidalgo. Within this rocky massif lies Cerro de las Navajas, the site of the most intensively exploited archaeological obsidian deposit in Mesoamerica. Obsidian extraction in this area has been carried out through open-pit mining and unique underground mining. The geological identity of the deposit encompasses the origin, distribution, and petrological characteristics of the obsidian from Cerro de las Navajas, determined through detailed geological mapping, petrographic study, and geochemical analysis. The results reveal the obsidian deposit’s style as well as its temporal and spatial position within the eruptive evolution of the region. The deposit originated from a local explosive eruptive mechanism associated with the partial collapse of a lava dome, forming a Block and Ash Flow Deposit (BAFD). The obsidian blocks, exploited by different cultures, correspond to the pyroclastic blocks within this deposit, which can reach up to 1 m in diameter and are embedded in a weakly consolidated ash matrix. The BAFD was later buried by (a) subsequent volcanic events, (b) structural adjustments of the volcanic edifice, and (c) soils derived from the erosion of other volcanic units. This obsidian deposit was mined underground from the Early Formative period to the Colonial era by the cultures of the Central Highlands and colonized societies. Interest in the vitreous quality and exotic nature of obsidian lithics from the BAFD led to the development of a complex exploitation system, which was generationally refined by the Teotihuacan, Toltec, and Aztec states. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization and Provenance Analysis of Ancient Stone Materials: Insights from Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry)

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24 pages, 3021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Cavitation Characteristics of Micro–Nanobubbles and Their Effects on the Flotation Recovery of Fine-Grained Ilmenite

by Weiping Yan, Boyuan Zhang, Yaohui Yang, Jian Deng and Weisi Li

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 628; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060628 - 10 Jun 2025

Abstract

The co-occurring relationships between ilmenite and gangue minerals in ilmenite deposits, as well as fine mineral embedding particle sizes, are complex. During the beneficiation process, grinding ilmenite finely is necessary to achieve sufficient individual mineral dissociation and the efficient recovery of ilmenite. During [...] Read more.

The co-occurring relationships between ilmenite and gangue minerals in ilmenite deposits, as well as fine mineral embedding particle sizes, are complex. During the beneficiation process, grinding ilmenite finely is necessary to achieve sufficient individual mineral dissociation and the efficient recovery of ilmenite. During this process, a large number of fine-grained minerals can easily be generated, which adversely affects flotation separation. Micro–nanobubbles have been proven to effectively enhance the flotation separation efficiency of fine-grained minerals, as their cavitation characteristics are closely related to the flotation performance of the minerals. In order to fully understand the cavitation characteristics of micro–nanobubbles and their impact on the flotation recovery of fine-grained ilmenite, a series of experiments were conducted using methods such as the bubble cavitation property test, micro-flotation experiments, zeta potential analysis, the contact angle test, adsorption capacity detection, and PBM monitoring. The results indicate that during the process of slurry cavitation, appropriate concentrations of 2-octanol, cycle treatment times, and external inflation volume are conducive to the formation of micro–nanobubbles. Compared with deionized water without cavitation, cavitated micro–nanobubble water is more beneficial for the flotation separation of fine particulate ilmenite, titanaugite, and olivine. The presence of micro–nanobubbles can effectively promote the adsorption of combined collectors on mineral surfaces, significantly enhancing the hydrophobicity of the minerals, with an even stronger promoting effect observed under the treatment of 2-octanol. Micro–nanobubbles can adsorb a portion of the collectors originally attached to the mineral surfaces, thereby decreasing the absolute value of the surface potential of the minerals, which is beneficial for mineral aggregation. The introduction of micro–nanobubbles promotes the aggregation of fine ilmenite iron ore particles into flocculent bodies. 2-Octanol can reduce the size of the micro–nanobubbles generated during the cavitation process of the mineral slurry and, to a certain extent, weaken the phenomenon of bubble coalescence, so they demonstrate a greater advantage in facilitating the aggregation phenomenon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on Fine Particles and Bubbles Flotation, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Analysis of Aggregates in Clayey Tailings Treated with Coagulant and Flocculant

by Steven Nieto, Eder Piceros, Elter Reyes, Jahir Ramos, Pedro Robles and Ricardo Jeldres

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060627 - 10 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study evaluated the combined effect of a cationic coagulant (Magnafloc 1727^®) and a high molecular weight anionic flocculant (SNF 604^®) on the settling properties, aggregate structure, and rheological behavior of synthetic tailings suspensions composed of kaolinite and quartz [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the combined effect of a cationic coagulant (Magnafloc 1727^®) and a high molecular weight anionic flocculant (SNF 604^®) on the settling properties, aggregate structure, and rheological behavior of synthetic tailings suspensions composed of kaolinite and quartz in industrial water at pH 11. Settling tests, focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM), zeta potential measurement, and rheological characterization were used to analyze the system’s performance under different coagulant dosages (0–150 g/t), while keeping the flocculant dosage constant (20 g/t). The results indicated that the coagulant favored surface charge neutralization, shifting the zeta potential from −13.2 mV to +4.0 mV. This resulted in larger, more efficient flocs capturing fines, with a 46% turbidity reduction. FBRM analysis revealed a significant increase in aggregate size and a slight decrease in fractal dimension (from 2.35 to 2.20), consistent with larger volume structures and lower bulk density. Rheologically, a substantial increase in yield stress was observed, especially in 50 wt% suspensions, suggesting the development of a continuous flocculated network with greater mechanical strength. These findings highlight the importance of sequential chemical conditioning in clayey tailings and its impact on clarification efficiency and water recovery under alkaline conditions representative of industrial mining processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)

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29 pages, 20113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimized Hydrothermal Alteration Mapping in Porphyry Copper Systems Using a Hybrid DWT-2D/MAD Algorithm on ASTER Satellite Remote Sensing Imagery

by Samane Esmaelzade Kalkhoran, Seyyed Saeed Ghannadpour and Amin Beiranvand Pour

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060626 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

Copper is typically acknowledged as a critical mineral and one of the vital components of various of today’s fast-growing green technologies. Porphyry copper systems, which are an important source of copper and molybdenum, typically consist of large volumes of hydrothermally altered rocks, mainly [...] Read more.

Copper is typically acknowledged as a critical mineral and one of the vital components of various of today’s fast-growing green technologies. Porphyry copper systems, which are an important source of copper and molybdenum, typically consist of large volumes of hydrothermally altered rocks, mainly around porphyry copper intrusions. Mapping hydrothermal alteration zones associated with porphyry copper systems is one of the most important indicators for copper exploration, especially using advanced satellite remote sensing technology. This paper presents a sophisticated remote sensing-based method that uses ASTER satellite imagery (SWIR bands 4 to 9) to identify hydrothermal alteration zones by combining the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and the median absolute deviation (MAD) algorithms. All six SWIR bands (bands 4–9) were analyzed independently, and band 9, which showed the most consistent spatial patterns and highest validation accuracy, was selected for final visualization and interpretation. The MAD algorithm is effective in identifying spectral anomalies, and the DWT enables the extraction of features at different scales. The Urmia–Dokhtar magmatic arc in central Iran, which hosts the Zafarghand porphyry copper deposit, was selected as a case study. It is a hydrothermal porphyry copper system with complex alteration patterns that make it a challenging target for copper exploration. After applying atmospheric corrections and normalizing the data, a hybrid algorithm was implemented to classify the alteration zones. The developed classification framework achieved an accuracy of 94.96% for phyllic alteration and 89.65% for propylitic alteration. The combination of MAD and DWT reduced the number of false positives while maintaining high sensitivity. This study demonstrates the high potential of the proposed method as an accurate and generalizable tool for copper exploration, especially in complex and inaccessible geological areas. The proposed framework is also transferable to other porphyry systems worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Mineral Resource Exploration Using Multi-Sensor Satellite Data and Machine Learning Algorithms)

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24 pages, 9668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Reservoir Characteristics, the Tightening Process and Reservoir Quality in Source-to-Sink Systems in the Xu-2 Member of the Xujiahe Formation in the Western Sichuan Basin, Western China

by Dong Wu, Yu Yu, Liangbiao Lin, Sibing Liu, Binjiang Li and Xiaolong Ye

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 625; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060625 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

The Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the western Sichuan Basin is rich in natural gas resources and is one of the main tight sandstone gas-producing layers in the Sichuan Basin. Taking the tight sandstone of the second member of the Xujiahe Formation (Xu-2 [...] Read more.

The Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the western Sichuan Basin is rich in natural gas resources and is one of the main tight sandstone gas-producing layers in the Sichuan Basin. Taking the tight sandstone of the second member of the Xujiahe Formation (Xu-2 Member) in the western Sichuan Basin as the study target, based on the analysis of the rock sample, a thin section, scanning electron microscopy, inclusion, the carbon and oxygen isotope, the petrological characteristics, the reservoir properties, the diagenetic sequences, and the pore evolution processes were revealed. The tight sandstones are composed of litharenite, sublitharenite, and feldspathic litharenite with an average porosity of 3.81% and a permeability mainly ranging from 0.01 to 0.5 mD. The early to late diagenetic stages were revealed, and the diagenetic evolution sequence with five stages was constructed. The Xu-2 sandstones were subdivided into three different types, and each type has its own tightening factors and processes. In the quartz-rich sandstone, the compaction and pressure solution were the primary causes of reservoir tightening, while late fracturing and dissolution along fractures were the main factors improving reservoir properties. In the feldspar-rich sandstone, early dissolution was a primary factor in improving porosity, while carbonate and quartz cements generated by dissolution contributed to a decrease in porosity. In the rock-fragment-rich sandstone, chlorites formed in the early stage and dissolution were the main factors of reservoir quality improvement, while the authigenic quartz formed in the middle diagenetic stage was the primary cause of reservoir tightening. Four major source-to-sink systems were identified in the western Sichuan Basin and they have different reservoir characteristics and reservoir quality controlling factors. This study will contribute to a deeper understanding of the characteristics, diagenetic evolution, and tightening process of tight sandstone reservoirs, effectively promoting scientific research and the industrial development of tight sandstone gas in the Xu-2 Member of the Sichuan Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural and Induced Diagenesis in Clastic Rock)

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25 pages, 8945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chronological and Geochemical Characteristics of a Newly Discovered Biotite Granite Porphyry in the Zhuxi W-Cu Polymetallic Deposit, Jiangxi Province, South China: Implications for Cu Mineralization

by Yongpeng Ouyang, Qi Chen, Runling Zeng and Tongfei Li

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060624 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

Multiple occurrences of adakitic rocks, with crystallization ages clustering around ~160 Ma, have been documented in the Zhuxi district, northeast Jiangxi Province, South China. This research identifies a new adakitic biotite granite porphyry within the Zhuxi W-Cu polymetallic deposit. Zircon U-Pb geochronology of [...] Read more.

Multiple occurrences of adakitic rocks, with crystallization ages clustering around ~160 Ma, have been documented in the Zhuxi district, northeast Jiangxi Province, South China. This research identifies a new adakitic biotite granite porphyry within the Zhuxi W-Cu polymetallic deposit. Zircon U-Pb geochronology of this porphyry yields a crystallization age of 161.6 ± 2.1 Ma. Integrated with previously published data, the adakitic rocks in the study area—comprising diorite porphyrite, biotite quartz monzonite porphyry, and the newly identified biotite granite porphyry—are predominantly calc-alkaline and peraluminous. They exhibit enrichment in light rare-earth elements (LREEs) and depletion in heavy rare-earth elements (HREEs), with slight negative Eu anomalies. The trace element patterns are characterized by enrichment in Ba, U, K, Pb, and Sr, alongside negative Nb, Ta, P, and Ti anomalies, indicative of arc-like magmatic signatures. Comparative analysis of geological and geochemical characteristics suggests that these three rock types are not comagmatic. Petrogenesis of the Zhuxi adakitic suite is linked to a dynamic tectonic regime involving Mesozoic crustal thickening, subsequent delamination, and lithospheric extension. Asthenospheric upwelling likely triggered partial melting of the overlying metasomatized lithospheric mantle, generating primary mantle-derived magmas. Underplating and advection of heat by these magmas induced partial melting of the thickened lower crust, forming the biotite granite porphyry. Partial melting of delaminated lower crustal material, interacting with the asthenosphere or asthenosphere-derived melts, likely generated the diorite porphyrite. The biotite quartz monzonite porphyry is interpreted to have formed from mantle-derived magmas that underwent assimilation of, or mixing with, silicic crustal melts during ascent. The ~160 Ma crystallization ages of these adakitic rocks are broadly contemporaneous with W-Mo mineralization in the Taqian mining area of the Zhuxi district. Furthermore, their geochemical signatures imply a prospective metallogenic setting for Cu-Mo mineralization around this period in the Taqian area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using Mineral Chemistry to Characterize Ore-Forming Processes)

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17 pages, 3769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Aware Joint Inversion of Multidisciplinary Geophysical Data in Mineral Exploration Using Hyperparameter Self-Adjustment: A Preliminary Study

by Paolo Dell’Aversana

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060623 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

This paper introduces a novel methodology for subsurface characterization in mineral exploration, through the simultaneous joint inversion of seismic and geoelectrical data. By combining complementary information provided by multidisciplinary geophysical data, the joint inversion yields a more accurate and consistent representation of subsurface [...] Read more.

This paper introduces a novel methodology for subsurface characterization in mineral exploration, through the simultaneous joint inversion of seismic and geoelectrical data. By combining complementary information provided by multidisciplinary geophysical data, the joint inversion yields a more accurate and consistent representation of subsurface properties. Furthermore, the joint inversion algorithm is empowered by dynamic hyperparameter self-adjustment. Hyperparameters are settings or configuration values that control the behavior of the inversion algorithm but are not directly learned from the data. Examples include regularization weights, coupling parameters, learning rates (if using gradient-based methods), and number of iterations. In traditional approaches, these values must be manually selected or tuned, often through trial and error, which is time-consuming and may lead to suboptimal results. Instead, in the approach here introduced, a self-adaptive mechanism monitors the evolution of the cost function and optimization performance, automatically tuning hyperparameters to enhance convergence toward an optimal (global) solution. For the purposes of this preliminary study, the method is tested on synthetic 2D geophysical scenarios featuring resistivity and seismic velocity anomalies representative of potential mineral targets. Results show the effectiveness of the approach in accurately identifying these subsurface anomalies. Finally, we show that this joint inversion technique holds significant promise for mineral exploration, particularly in detecting geological features such as ore bodies and mineralized zones, which can manifest as contrasts in seismic velocity and resistivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Methods and Applications for Mineral Exploration, Volume III)

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30 pages, 8658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SIMS Dating of Granite-Hosted Uranium Deposits in the Xiazhuang Ore Field and Its Geological Significance

by Mingyi Liu, Bailin Wu, Xin Zheng, Wanying Zhang, Guoquan Sun, Xiaorui Zhang, Mengdi Yang, Yaxin Ma and Yu Hou

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060622 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

Using pitchblende uranium ore GBW04420 as the standard material and through the secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) technical method, the in situ U-Pb isotopic chronology characteristics of the main granite-type uranium deposits in the Xiazhuang ore field in the Nanling area of southern [...] Read more.

Using pitchblende uranium ore GBW04420 as the standard material and through the secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) technical method, the in situ U-Pb isotopic chronology characteristics of the main granite-type uranium deposits in the Xiazhuang ore field in the Nanling area of southern China were studied. Firstly, the suitability of GBW04420 as the in situ U-Pb isotopic dating standard material for uranium minerals was verified. On this basis, the in situ U-Pb isotopic ages of the three main granite-type uranium deposits in the Xiazhuang ore field, namely the Xianshi, Zhaixia, and Xiwang deposits, were obtained by SIMS dating. The results show that the overall mineralization period of the Xiazhuang ore field is mainly in Late Cretaceous and the Eocene-Oligocene. The mineralization ages indicate that the uranium deposits are of post-magmatic, medium-low temperature hydrothermal origin rather than the magmatic uranium deposit type. The hydrothermal fluids originate from the combined effect of the crust-mantle hydrothermal fluid and atmospheric precipitation; the uranium source originates from the extraction of the Indosinian-Early Yanshanian diagenetic granite by atmospheric water and partly from the mantle source of the basic dike. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Deposits)

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17 pages, 1813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Optimized Synthesis of Barium Sulfate: A Scalable and Sustainable Laboratory Approach Using D-Optimal Design

by Abdulkarim Shafiee, Mohammad Sadatipour, Fatemeh Sadat Hoseinian, Bahram Rezai and Mehdi Safari

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060621 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study introduces a controlled laboratory-scale method for synthesizing barium sulfate, with promising potential for industrial scalability to meet increasing demand for quality and sustainable production. Statistical tools—specifically, design of experiments (DOE) and the D-optimal methodology via DX12.0.3.0 software—were employed to determine optimal [...] Read more.

This study introduces a controlled laboratory-scale method for synthesizing barium sulfate, with promising potential for industrial scalability to meet increasing demand for quality and sustainable production. Statistical tools—specifically, design of experiments (DOE) and the D-optimal methodology via DX12.0.3.0 software—were employed to determine optimal reaction parameters. The synthesis process involved the precise control of barium chloride and sulfate concentrations, feed rate, and temperature to ensure the production of barium sulfate. Under optimized conditions (BaCl₂ = 1.5 M, SO₄²⁻ = 0.41 M, flow rate = 2.53 mL/min, temperature = 20.03 °C), a yield of 9.20 g of barium sulfate with a density of 4.25 gr/cm³ was achieved. The analysis confirmed the purity of the product, validating its suitability for demanding industrial applications. This approach not only improves product quality but also minimizes waste and reduces operational costs, offering a sustainable and scalable solution for barium sulfate production. These findings mark a meaningful step forward in mineral processing and purification technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Theory and Technology of Physical Separation)

31 pages, 63914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geological Evolution and Volcanostratigraphy of the Wangfu Fault Depression: Insights from Structural and Volcano-Sedimentary Analysis in the Songliao Basin

by Bilal Ahmed, Huafeng Tang, Weihua Qu, Youfeng Gao, Jia Hu, Zhiwen Tian and Shahzad Bakht

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060620 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

The Wangfu Fault Depression (WFD) is located in the southeastern uplift zone of the Songliao Basin and is an important geological site for studying tectonic evolution and volcanic stratigraphy. This study explores the complexity of the structure of the depression and the volcanic [...] Read more.

The Wangfu Fault Depression (WFD) is located in the southeastern uplift zone of the Songliao Basin and is an important geological site for studying tectonic evolution and volcanic stratigraphy. This study explores the complexity of the structure of the depression and the volcanic stratigraphy. The sedimentary sequence is divided into rift period and post-rift deposition, and the volcanic rocks are mainly concentrated in the Huoshiling Formation. Rhyolite deposits mark the bottom of the Yingcheng Formation. The volcanostratigraphic sequences are described by a detailed analysis of the seismic profiles, cutting samples, core data, geochemical, and well logging data, revealing the interaction between tectonic dynamics and volcanic activity. The volcanic facies are divided into vent breccia, pyroclastic, lava flow, and volcaniclastic sedimentary types, highlighting the diversity of depositional environments. In addition, the study identified key volcanic stratigraphic boundaries, such as eruptive and tectonic unconformities, which illustrate the alternation of intermittent volcanic activity with periods of inactivity and erosion. The study highlights the important role of faults in controlling the distribution and tectonic characteristics of volcanic rocks, and clearly distinguishes the western sag, middle slope, and eastern uplift zones. The chronostratigraphic framework supported by published U-Pb zircon dating elucidates the time course of volcanic and sedimentary processes, with volcanic activity peaking in the Early Cretaceous. Overall, the Wangfu Fault Depression is a dynamic geological entity formed by complex tectonic-volcanic interactions, providing valuable insights into the larger context of basin evolution and stratigraphic complexity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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16 pages, 9568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enrichment Mechanism and Development Technology of Deep Marine Shale Gas near Denudation Area, SW CHINA: Insights from Petrology, Mineralogy and Seismic Interpretation

by Haijie Zhang, Ziyi Shi, Lin Jiang, Weiming Chen, Tongtong Luo and Lin Qi

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060619 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

As an important target for deep marine shale gas exploration, shale reservoirs near denudation areas have enormous resource potential. Based on the impression method, the sedimentary paleogeomorphology near the denudation area is identified as three units: the first terrace, the second terrace, and [...] Read more.

As an important target for deep marine shale gas exploration, shale reservoirs near denudation areas have enormous resource potential. Based on the impression method, the sedimentary paleogeomorphology near the denudation area is identified as three units: the first terrace, the second terrace, and the third terrace. At the second terrace where Well Z212 is located, the thickness of the Longmaxi Formation first section is only 0.8 m, and the continuous thickness of the target interval is only 4.3 m, making it a typical thin shale reservoir. By integrating petrology, mineralogy and the seismic method, the thin shale reservoir is characterized. Compared to shale reservoirs far away from the denudation area, the Well Z212 (near denudation area) production interval (Wufeng Formation first section) has high porosity (6%–10%), moderate TOC (3%–4%), a high carbonate mineral content (10%–35%), and a high gas content (>7 m³/t). The correlation between the total porosity of shale and the density of high-frequency laminations is the strongest, indicating that the silt laminations have a positive effect on pore preservation. There is a significant positive correlation between carbonate content and the volume of mesopores and macropores, as well as the porosity of inorganic pores. It is suggested that carbonate minerals are the main carrier of inorganic pores in Well Z212, and the pores are mainly composed of mesopores and macropores. Under the condition of being far away from the fault zone, even near the denudation area, it has good shale gas preservation characteristics. The key development technologies consist of integrated geo-steering technology, acidification, and volume fracking technology. Based on geological characteristics, the fracturing process optimization of Well Z212 has achieved shale reservoir stimulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Element Enrichment and Gas Accumulation in Black Rock Series)

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17 pages, 7055 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Grinding Parameters on Galena Particle Size Distribution and Flotation Performance

by Mengchi Guo, Yuankun Yang, Shengli Yu, Yanming Wu, Guohua Gu, Yanhong Wang, Qingke Li and Jianyu Chen

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 618; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060618 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

The processing of low-grade, lead-containing practical ores requires fine grinding to liberate galena and enhance flotation recovery. The ball mill is still one of the most common approaches used in industry for fine grinding. This study investigated the effect of the grinding parameters [...] Read more.

The processing of low-grade, lead-containing practical ores requires fine grinding to liberate galena and enhance flotation recovery. The ball mill is still one of the most common approaches used in industry for fine grinding. This study investigated the effect of the grinding parameters in a ball mill on the fine grinding product of galena and on flotation performance. The grinding product had a particle size below 30 μm, which was classified into +25 μm, −25 + 10 μm, and −10 μm fractions. Grinding experiments showed that modifications to the grinding concentration, media proportion, and filling ratio exerted significant effects on the yields of the +25 μm and −10 μm fractions. Flotation experiments showed that the yield of −10 μm particles negatively affected the flotation performance of galena. Discrete element method simulation results revealed that an increase in the motion velocity of the media group enhanced attrition effects during fine grinding, promoting the generation of −10 μm particles. The higher yield of −10 μm particles facilitated a smaller contact angle and smaller agglomerate size, resulting in lower recovery. To optimize the particle size distribution and improve fine-grained galena flotation recovery, it is essential to reduce the attrition of the grinding media on the mineral. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Theory and Technology of Physical Separation)

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2 pages, 761 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Ahmad et al. Spread Spectrum Induced Polarization (SSIP) Survey for the Qiushuwan Copper–Molybdenum Deposits in Southern Henan Province, China. Minerals 2024, 14, 934

by Jawad Ahmad, Rujun Chen, Ijaz Ahmed, Muhammad Yaseen, Shahid Ali Shah, Osama Abdul Rahim, Farid Ullah, Shah Fahad and Li Rui

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060617 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

In the published publication [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Exploration Methods and Applications)

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16 pages, 6672 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lithology and Macroscopic Coal Lithotype Identification of Coal-Bearing Measures Based on Elemental Mud Logging: A Case Study of the Eastern Ordos Basin Coal Seam

by Yuejiao Liu, Wenya Zhang, Fuqiang Lai, Mingyang Zhang, Honghua Sun, Zongsheng Zhou, Jianmeng Sun, Ruyue Wang and Shanshan Zheng

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060616 - 9 Jun 2025

Abstract

China is rich in coalbed methane (CBM) resources, and the key to realizing the scale and efficiency of CBM development is to build “engineering tools” for exploration and development continuously. Accurate calculation of rock components and precise identification of lithology and macroscopic coal [...] Read more.

China is rich in coalbed methane (CBM) resources, and the key to realizing the scale and efficiency of CBM development is to build “engineering tools” for exploration and development continuously. Accurate calculation of rock components and precise identification of lithology and macroscopic coal lithotypes of coal-bearing measures are the basis for the evaluation of CBM geological engineering. This paper proposes a method to identify the lithology and macroscopic coal lithotypes of coal-bearing measures based on elemental mud logging. Firstly, a coal seam demarcation line is constructed based on the elemental mud logging to divide the coal and non-coal seams. Secondly, the content of each component in the coal and non-coal seams is calculated. Finally, based on the results of the calculations, a method for recognizing the lithology of non-coal seams and macroscopic coal lithotypes of coal seams is constructed based on the combination of the S (sulfur) element innovatively. The calculation error of mineral and proximate analysis components is less than 10%, and the average accuracy of lithology and macroscopic coal lithotype identification is as high as 87%. The results can provide important technical guidance for the geological evaluation of coal-bearing measures and the selection of target seams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characteristics of Coal and Coal-Bearing Strata)

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37 pages, 13118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochemical Halos in Wall Rocks and Overlying Soils as Indicators of Concealed Lithium Pegmatites

by Mona-Liza C. Sirbescu, Teagan R. Cox, Luiza M. P. Pierangeli, Joy O. Youngblood, David C. Weindorf and Thomas R. Benson

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060615 - 8 Jun 2025

Abstract

Spodumene-bearing pegmatites are geochemically anomalous among crystalline rocks and important critical mineral resources in the green energy transition. However, prospecting is challenging due to their small size and the fact that they are often covered by soil and vegetation. This study demonstrates that, [...] Read more.

Spodumene-bearing pegmatites are geochemically anomalous among crystalline rocks and important critical mineral resources in the green energy transition. However, prospecting is challenging due to their small size and the fact that they are often covered by soil and vegetation. This study demonstrates that, rather than being a hindrance, soil cover can enhance geochemical exploration, at least at the prospect scale. This study examines the dispersion pathways of lithium (Li) and its pathfinder elements (Rb, B, Ga, and Sn) from pegmatites (<10 m thick) into metamorphic host rocks and further into overlying undisturbed soils in heavily forested, postglaciated terrain of northeastern Wisconsin, USA. Soil-sample traverses over the world-renowned, lepidolite-type Animikie Red Ace pegmatite and two nearby dikes reveal pronounced <20 m anomalies with up to 1400 ppm of Li, 450 ppm of Rb, 3100 ppm of B, 40 ppm of Ga, and 60 ppm of Sn, greatly exceeding the control soil concentrations from nonmineralized granite and pegmatites. Soils mirror both the magmatic fractionation and alteration of pegmatite bedrock and metasomatic halos in parent host rocks. Metasomatized amphibolite revealed the presence of a holmquistite-ferro-holmquistite mineral. This greenfield pilot exploration led to lithium-rich pegmatite discoveries within the district and demonstrates the applicability of proximal sensors for soil exploration in Wisconsin and beyond. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pegmatites as Hosts of Critical Metals: From Petrogenesis to Mineral Exploration)

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21 pages, 5677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiscale Flotation Testing for the Recovery of REE-Bearing Fluorapatite from a Finnish Carbonatite Complex Deposit Using Conventional Collectors and Lignin Nanoparticles

by Panagiotis M. Angelopoulos, Xiao Sheng Yang, Georgios Anastassakis, Nikolaos Koukoulis, Paul Christakopoulos and Maria Taxiarchou

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 614; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060614 - 7 Jun 2025

Abstract

Apatite and rare earth elements (REEs) are vital to the European Union’s economic growth and resource security, given their essential roles in fertilizers, green technologies, and high-tech applications. To meet rising demand and reduce reliance on imports, the exploitation of domestic deposits has [...] Read more.

Apatite and rare earth elements (REEs) are vital to the European Union’s economic growth and resource security, given their essential roles in fertilizers, green technologies, and high-tech applications. To meet rising demand and reduce reliance on imports, the exploitation of domestic deposits has become increasingly important. This study investigates the beneficiation potential of ore from a carbonatite complex (Finland), focusing on the recovery of fluorapatite concentrate through froth flotation. This research addresses two key objectives: evaluating the potential for REE enrichment alongside fluorapatite concentration using conventional anionic and amine-based reagents, and assessing separation efficiency when partially substituting the most effective conventional collectors with bio-based organosolv lignin nanoparticles. Adequate recovery rates for apatite and REEs were achieved using common anionic collectors, such as hydroxamate and sarcosine, yielding P grades of 23.4% and 21.5%, and recoveries of 96.4% and 89.2%, respectively. Importantly, concentrate quality remained stable with up to a 30% reduction in conventional collectors and the addition of organosolv lignin. Bench-scale trials further validated the approach, demonstrating that lanthanum and cerium recoveries exceeded 71%, alongside satisfactory apatite recovery. Lignin nanoparticles were observed to interact with both minerals; however, the interaction was more pronounced in the case of phlogopite, which exhibited a markedly greater increase in surface hydrophilicity following treatment, suggesting a stronger affinity or surface modification effect, which was beneficial to the performance of the separation process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Reagents for Mineral Processing, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 5499 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Frequency Oolitic Tidal Cycles and Their Geochemical Signatures in the Upper Ediacaran Qigebulake Formation, NW Tarim Basin (China)

by Yan Hao and Shaonan Zhang

Minerals 2025, 15(6), 613; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15060613 - 6 Jun 2025

Abstract

The Qigebulake Formation in the northwestern Tarim Basin records high-frequency oolitic tidal flat cycles formed during the Upper Ediacaran, a period marked by tectonic, volcanic, and hydrothermal events. This study presents a detailed petrographic and geochemical characterization of these cycles, focusing on their [...] Read more.

The Qigebulake Formation in the northwestern Tarim Basin records high-frequency oolitic tidal flat cycles formed during the Upper Ediacaran, a period marked by tectonic, volcanic, and hydrothermal events. This study presents a detailed petrographic and geochemical characterization of these cycles, focusing on their lithofacies development and implications for regional geological processes. Seven microfacies were identified, ranging from oolitic dolostone and dolothrombolite to siliciclastic dolomudstone and mudstone. Elemental trends indicate a systematic decline in SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and TiO₂ content with decreasing siliciclastic input, suggesting a shallowing-upward sequence. Volcaniclastic quartz grains, exhibiting embayed textures and bright-blue cathodoluminescence, are reported here for the first time in the Ediacaran of Tarim, supporting synsedimentary volcanic input. Positive δEu anomalies, coupled with low Al/(Al+Fe+Mn) and elevated Fe₂O₃/TiO₂ and MnO/TiO₂ ratios, reveal hydrothermal influence in upper-cycle dolostones. These signatures, combined with regional stratigraphy, suggest that the Qigebulake tidal flat records the interplay between deposition, volcanism, and fluid migration during the late Ediacaran. The findings provide new constraints on the evolution of peritidal environments and inform deep carbonate reservoir assessments in Tarim and similar cratonic basins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)

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