Mining

Optimizing the blast energy distribution is crucial for enhancing rock fragmentation, minimizing overexcavation, and boosting profitability in mining operations. This study introduces a theoretical model to predict the blasting Energy Factor ${(\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{e}})$ in mining tunnels, based on the Cracking Energy ${(\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{g}})$ of the rock mass, derived from the deformation energy of brittle materials (Young’s modulus) and adjusted by the Rock Mass Rating (RMR). The model was validated using 42 blasting datasets from horizontal galleries at El Teniente mine, Chile. Data included geometric parameters (tunnel sections, drilling length, diameter, number of holes, meters drilled), explosive type and consumption, and geomechanical properties, particularly the RMR. Results show that as rock mass quality improves (higher RMR), both ${\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{e}}$ and $\%{\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{g}}$ increase, more competent rock masses require higher input energy to initiate and propagate cracks, and a greater portion of that energy is effectively utilized for crack formation. For instance, rock masses with an RMR of 66 exhibited an average ${\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{e}}$ of 7.62 MJ/m³ and $\%{\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{g}}$ of 4.8%, while those with an RMR of 75 showed higher values (${\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{e}}$ = 8.47 MJ/m³, $\%{\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{g}}$ = 6.4%). This confirms that less fractured rock masses require higher ${\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{e}}$ and $\%{\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{g}}$ for effective fragmentation. Lithology also plays a significant role in energy consumption. Diorite displayed the highest ${\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{e}}$ (8.34 MJ/m³) and higher efficiency ($\%{\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{g}}$ = 7.0%), whereas andesite showed lower ${\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{e}}$ (7.61 MJ/m³) and lower crack propagation efficiency ($\%{\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{g}}$ = 3.7%). Unlike traditional ${\mathrm{F}}_{\mathrm{e}}$ prediction methods, which rely solely on explosive data and excavation volume, this model integrates RMR, enabling more precise energy allocation and fostering sustainable mining practices. This approach enhances decision-making in blast design, offering a more robust framework for optimizing energy use in mining operations. Full article

The classification of mineral resources and reserves provides a structured framework for evaluating the geological, technical, and economic aspects of mineral deposits. To reduce subjectivity and enhance reliability, international reporting standards established the principles of transparency, materiality, and competence. Many operating mines are seeking alignment with these frameworks to strengthen governance and access global capital. Within this context, the Mineral Resources and Reserves Readiness Index (MR³ Index) is introduced as a tool to assess the degree of alignment of mining operations with international reporting requirements. For operating mines, a key variable in the MR³ Index is the demonstrated ability to consistently convert Inferred Mineral Resources into mine production, even without prior reclassification into Indicated or Measured categories. When supported by geological homogeneity and well-defined controls, this track record serves as a strong proxy for geological confidence and operational maturity. The methodology was applied to an underground lithium mine in Brazil, which achieved a readiness level of 95.5%. A sensitivity analysis demonstrated the robustness of the MR³ Index and showed that the final score is considerably more sensitive to the class scores than to the selection of class weights, reinforcing the importance of documentation quality and technical consistency in public reporting. Full article

Reclamation of tailings facilities at oil sands mines in northern Alberta presents a significant challenge for industry, regulators, and researchers. Atterberg limits are an established method for quantifying clay behaviour in geotechnical engineering, which has been adopted for oil sands tailings due to their high clay mineral content. Correlations between remoulded undrained shear strength and liquidity index, originally developed for natural clays, have also been applied to oil sands tailings. This paper proposes a new material-specific correlation between remoulded undrained shear strength and liquidity index based on laboratory testing of oil sands tailings. Additionally, the results of Atterberg limits tests on oil sands tailings suggests that the inherent variability of the test itself has a greater effect on the measured value than the preparation method and test procedure. The results of this study support the idea that index properties such as Atterberg limits can provide a cost-effective method for field monitoring and early-stage reclamation design. Full article

This article delineates the outcomes of a comprehensive analysis of occupational conditions in coal mining, focusing on dust exposure. A multifaceted model is proposed for the holistic evaluation of occupational environments, integrating risk assessment methodologies and decision-making frameworks within a risk-based paradigm. Risk assessment involved pairwise comparison, T. Saaty’s Analytic Hierarchy Process, a pessimistic decision-making approach, and fuzzy set membership functions. Correlations were established between respiratory disease risk among open pit coal mine workers and dust generation sources at the project design phase. The risk values were then validated using source attributes and particle physicochemical parameter analysis, including disperse composition and morphology. The risk assessment identified haul roads as a predominant factor in occupational disease pathogenesis, demonstrating a calculated risk level of R = 0.512. The dispersed analysis indicated the prevalence of PM1.0 and submicron particles (≤1 µm) with about 77% of the particle count, the mass distribution showed the respirable fraction (1–5 µm) comprising up to 50% of the total dust mass. Considering in situ monitoring data and particulate morphology analysis haul roads (R = 0.281) and the overburden face (R = 0.213) were delineated as primary targets for the implementation of enhanced health and safety interventions. While most critical at the design stage amidst data scarcity and exposure uncertainty, the approach permits subsequent refinement of occupational risks during operations through the incorporation of empirical monitoring data. Full article

This paper presents a real-time quarry truck monitoring system that combines deep learning and license plate recognition (LPR) for operational monitoring and weighbridge reconciliation. Rather than estimating load volumes directly from imagery, the system ensures auditable matching between detected trucks and official weight records. Deployed at quarry checkpoints, fixed cameras stream to an edge stack that performs truck detection, line-crossing counts, and per-frame plate Optical Character Recognition (OCR); a temporal voting and format-constrained post-processing step consolidates plate strings for registry matching. The system exposes a dashboard with auditable session bundles (model/version hashes, Region of Interest (ROI)/line geometry, thresholds, logs) to ensure replay and traceability between offline evaluation and live operations. We evaluate detection (precision, recall, mAP@0.5, and mAP@0.5:0.95), tracking (ID metrics), and (LPR) usability, and we quantify operational validity by reconciling estimated shift-level tonnage T against weighbridge tonnage T* using Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE), R², and Bland–Altman analysis. Results show stable convergence of the detection models, reliable plate usability under varied optics (day, dusk, night, and dust), low-latency processing suitable for commodity hardware, and close agreement with weighbridge references at the shift level. The study demonstrates that vision-based counting coupled with plate linkage can provide regulator-ready KPIs and auditable evidence for production control in quarry operations. Full article

Suspended conveyor belts are widely used in mining, including in systems with non-contact support such as magnetically suspended conveyors, where the maximum admissible linear mass of the loaded belt determines the required supporting forces. This paper presents a method for estimating the upper limit of the linear mass of a suspended belt for a given belt width and bulk material. Several cross-sectional configurations are analysed, and analytical expressions for the bulk cross-sectional area under limiting fill are derived. A numerical search over the troughing radius is then performed to find the radius that maximises the cross-sectional area and to select the configuration that provides the largest area. For this configuration, the extremum condition leads to a transcendental equation; so, symbolic regression with the PySR package is used to obtain an explicit approximation for the radius that maximises the area as a function of belt width and angle of repose. Substituting this expression into the standard formula for linear mass yields a closed-form estimate of the maximum admissible linear mass. Numerical examples show good agreement with the optimisation results and indicate that the formula is suitable for preliminary design of suspended and magnetically suspended belt conveyors. Full article

The mining industry places high priority on occupational safety, process quality and operational efficiency. Roadheaders are widely deployed in coal mines to support fully automated excavation, reducing workers’ physical strain and improving overall safety. This article examines an automatic control system for a roadheader cutting head designed to increase mining efficiency, reduce energy consumption and maintain stable performance under varying coal and rock conditions. The system integrates advanced control algorithms with geological strength index (GSI) analysis and asynchronous motor control strategies. GSI-based adaptive speed control conserves energy and increases cutting efficiency compared to manual control. By reducing dynamic load fluctuations, transitions between different cutting zones become smoother, which decreases equipment wear. The proposed control system incorporates speed feedback loops that use a proportional–integral (PI) controller with field-oriented control (FOC), as well as super-twisted sliding mode control (STSMC) with FOC. FOC with STSMC improves roadheader productivity by applying advanced control strategies, adaptive speed regulation and precise geological strength analysis. It is also better able to handle disturbances and sudden loads thanks to STSMC’s nonlinear control robustness. The result is safer, more efficient, and more cost-effective mining that can be implemented across a wide range of underground mining scenarios. Full article

This article describes the current status and future development trends of mine hoist control systems. The growing market demand for hoists and the need for stable, uninterrupted operation ensure the practical application of this article. A permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) is used as the primary power source for the mine hoist. A MATLAB model is developed, using PID controllers to control the PMSM’Scheme 10. tons of CO₂ from electricity consumption, this equates to a reduction of 300 to 800 tons per year. Full article

Despite technological advancements in mining, Chile lacks comprehensive risk management models for tailings storage facilities (TSFs), which hinders the prevention and mitigation of structural and environmental risks. This study aims to develop an integrated risk management model for TSFs in Chile, combining geological and mining engineering with an updated regulatory framework to enhance safety and reduce environmental impacts. The research adopts a mixed-methods approach. Qualitatively, it draws on 10 semi-structured interviews with engineers, geologists, academics, and professionals from the Chilean mining industry, selected through purposive sampling, to explore how and why the current risk management model should be improved. Quantitatively, it analyzes data from 303 surveys assessing the existing regulatory framework, a proposed new regulatory decree for Chile, and key variables to be considered in TSF risk management. The results present a new model that integrates geochemical and geotechnical characterization, process variables, in situ sensors, remote sensing, and artificial intelligence to generate dynamic risk indicators and early warning systems throughout the life cycle of the facility, including closure and liability valuation. Its multiscale design, adaptable to seismic and hydrogeological conditions and suitable for small- and medium-scale mining, overcomes existing static and fragmented approaches, enabling more effective decision-making with a focus on environmental and community safety. The study concludes that the model provides a robust and coherent tool for TSF risk management by integrating technical expertise, the current regulatory framework, and the management of key variables that enhance the ability to anticipate and mitigate structural and environmental risks. Full article

Reliable detection of defects in steel wire ropes is pivotal to ensuring safety and maintaining operational reliability of hoisting and lifting systems in mining and other industries. This study proposes an automated monitoring method based on analyzing the cross-sectional size profile extracted from high-quality visual images. Each image undergoes preprocessing—adaptive binarization, noise suppression, and edge extraction—followed by formation of a one-dimensional thickness profile along the rope’s longitudinal axis. Aggregate statistical descriptors (mean, standard deviation, extrema, and shape descriptors) computed from this profile are supplied to a CatBoost gradient boosting classifier. The model achieves an F1-score exceeding 0.93 across diagnostic categories (intact, bend, kink, break), with particularly high accuracy for critical damage such as wire breaks. Compared with conventional image CNN classifiers, the proposed approach offers higher interpretability, lower computational complexity, and robustness to noise and visual artifacts. The results substantiate the method’s efficacy for real-time automated condition monitoring of mining equipment and its suitability for integration into industrial machine-vision systems. The results substantiate the method’s efficacy for real-time automated condition monitoring of mining equipment and its suitability for integration into industrial machine-vision systems. Full article

Drillstring vibrations are detrimental to drill bits and downhole equipment, affecting drilling efficiency and operational cost in severe drillstring vibration cases. The complex behavior of drillstring vibration, including axial–torsional–lateral coupling and interactions among external forces, necessitated laboratory experiments to address challenges observed in the field. This review paper aims to provide practical insights into essential design considerations that support the effective development of laboratory-scale drillstring experiments. This study analyzes previous work on design methodologies, experimental configurations, measurement techniques, and downhole dynamic simulations. The comparative analysis, highlighting the key similarities and physical design novelties across different experiments, identifies that instrumentation limitations and incoherent downscaling approaches were among the primary setbacks from achieving realistic downscaled experimental models. Fewer studies have examined the interaction between flowing fluids and the drillstring to simulate realistic drilling operations. The study identifies unified experimental configurations across works that simulate similar drilling and vibration dynamics. A comprehensive summary of the foundational knowledge for research-objective-based design suggestions is presented to guide future laboratory-scale drilling vibration experimental design and innovation. Full article

The determination of the elemental composition of minerals at mining enterprises is important at all stages of mineral processing. An evaluation of metrological characteristics achieved through the online analysis of lump, ore, charge feed, cake and slag materials on a conveyor belt is presented. Each implementation of the online XRF analysis at mining enterprises was preceded by laboratory studies, the development of measurement methods and the calibration of a specific XRF analyzer using standard reference samples for a specific concentration range of the monitored elements. In this work, typical application areas for monitoring the concentration of elements in rocks on conveyor belts are presented, as well as those solutions that made it possible to achieve the required measurement accuracy with an X-ray fluorescence analyzer in an online mode. Full article

The mining industry faces the critical challenge of balancing economic profitability with environmental responsibility. Traditional mine planning models often prioritise financial gains, particularly Net Present Value (NPV), while placing less emphasis on environmental impacts, such as carbon emissions. This research presents a comprehensive multi-objective optimisation model for production scheduling in sublevel stoping operations. The model simultaneously aims to maximise NPV and minimise carbon emissions, providing a more sustainable framework for decision-making. The carbon emission objective comprehensively accounts for energy consumption across all key mining activities, including drilling, blasting, ventilation, transportation, crushing, and backfilling, using a “top-down” accounting method. The multi-objective problem is solved using the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II), which generates a set of Pareto-optimal solutions representing the trade-off between the two conflicting goals. The model is applied to a conceptual copper deposit with 200 stopes. The results demonstrate a clear trade-off: schedules with higher NPV inevitably lead to higher carbon emissions, and vice versa. For instance, one solution yields a high NPV of $312.94 million but with 23,602 tonnes of CO₂ emissions. In contrast, another, more environmentally friendly solution reduces emissions by 26.5% to 18,647 tonnes, resulting in only a 1.21% reduction in NPV. This research concludes that integrating environmental objectives into mine planning is not only feasible but essential for promoting sustainable mining practices, offering a practical tool for operators to make informed, balanced decisions. Full article

Fires in underground mines pose significant risks to worker safety. In this study, a digital twin of an underground mine was created, and the heat, gas distribution, and airflow dynamics were investigated during and after the fire using computational fluid dynamics (CFDs) methods at three different locations. While traditional methods did not indicate any problems, the results from the CFDs analyses revealed some important findings. One of the key findings of the study was the change in airflow direction caused by the changing thermodynamic conditions caused by the fire. The digital twin allows us to demonstrate how a fire at any point within the mine can affect the entire mine under these changing thermodynamic conditions. The digital twin enables the real-time monitoring of underground events. Additionally, it facilitates strategic planning to anticipate potential incidents during a fire in an underground mine, allowing for necessary precautions to be implemented. Full article

With the weathering of iron sulfide minerals, acid rock drainage (ARD) emanates from the 60-millon tonne Main Waste Stockpile (MWS) at the Red Dog Mine. Following completion of the stockpile, a collection trench was constructed in 2012–2013 to capture and treat a portion of the ARD, and a cover system was emplaced from 2021 to 2025 to cover 90% of the stockpile. Select wells in the collection trench are associated with the different cover phases. Analysis of the water chemistry of samples collected at the wells indicates increased pH and decreased dissolved solids with each phase of the cover along with significant changes in flow and solutes such as aluminum, iron, sulfate, and zinc. Although the cover should continue to decrease ARD volume, acidity, and solute concentrations, an evaluation of historical acid production and iron sulfide consumption in the stockpile indicates a likely majority of the iron sulfide content remains available for weathering and acid production. Continued MWS ARD monitoring is necessary to evaluate the multi-year effect of the cover because of the variability of the pre-cover ARD, identification of seasonal and multi-year precipitation influences on ARD generation, and a yet to be determined influence of the cover on the volume of infiltrating precipitation. Full article

The development of a geomechanical model is aimed at enhancing the safety of mining operations through the determination of optimal slope angles and the probabilistic assessment of pit wall stability. For the conditions of open-pit mining, three-dimensional geomechanical models were constructed based on the calculation of the slope stability factor using the Rocscience Slide2/Slide3 (v.9.027, 2023) software package. The stress–strain state of the rock mass at the final stage of extraction was evaluated using the finite element method. Strength reduction factors (SRF) were determined considering the physico-mechanical properties of the rocks forming the near-contour zone of the massif. The stability of the pit slopes was assessed along individual geological cross-sections in accordance with the design contours of the Northern Katpar open pit. Calculations performed using several methods confirmed the overall stability of the pit walls. The final design parameters of the projected open pit were determined. For the first time, it was established that in the southern and southwestern sectors of the Northern Katpar pit, within the elevation range of +700 to +400 m, a reduction in the SFR (from 1.18 to 1.41) occurs due to the predominance of siltstones and the presence of tectonic disturbances. The generalized results of numerical slope stability analyses for the design pit contour, together with the developed geological–structural model of the deposit, provide a basis for ensuring the safe conduct of mining operations at the site. Full article

This study examines Panama’s 2023 mining restrictions to illuminate persistent legitimacy crises in extractive governance. Employing a qualitative case study, it draws on 25 semi-structured interviews with government officials, industry representatives, Indigenous leaders, local communities, mining critics and other civil society actors, alongside policy and document analysis. Findings suggest that legitimacy reconstruction relies on four interdependent conditions: procedural justice, institutional trust, epistemic legitimacy, and relational governance. Stakeholders consistently emphasized transparency, capacity building, and inclusive engagement as essential for future mining activity, underscoring that technical standards alone are insufficient without credible institutions. Building on—but extending beyond—frameworks such as Social License to Operate (SLO) and Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC), this paper offers Social Legitimacy for Mining (SLM) as a provisional, co-produced framework. Developed through literature synthesis and refined by diverse stakeholder perspectives, SLM is applied in Panama as an illustrative proof of concept that may inform further research and practice, while recognizing the need for additional adaptation across jurisdictions. Full article

Underground pumped hydro storage (UPHS) in solution-mined salt caverns offers a promising approach to address the intermittency of renewable energy in flat geological regions such as Southern Ontario, Canada. This work presents the first fully coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) numerical model of a two-cavern UPHS system in Southern Ontario, providing a foundational assessment of long-term cavern stability and brine leakage behavior under cyclic operation. The model captures the key interactions among deformation, leakage, and temperature effects governing cavern stability, evaluating cyclic brine injection–withdrawal at operating temperatures of 10 °C, 15 °C, and 20 °C over a five-year period. Results show that plastic deformation is constrained to localized zones at cavern–shale interfaces, with negligible risk of tensile failure. Creep deformation accelerates with temperature, yielding maximum strains of 2.6–3.2% and cumulative cavern closure of 1.8–2.6%, all within engineering safety thresholds. Leakage predominantly migrates through limestone interlayers, while shale contributes only local discharge pathways. Elevated temperature enhances leakage due to reduced brine viscosity, but cumulative volumes remain very low, confirming the sealing capacity of bedded salt. Overall, lower operating temperatures minimize both convergence and leakage, ensuring greater stability margins, indicating that UPHS operation should preferentially adopt lower brine temperatures to balance storage efficiency with long-term cavern stability. These findings highlight the feasibility of UPHS in Ontario’s salt formations and provide design guidance for balancing storage performance with geomechanical safety. Full article

Aluminum’s unique properties have led to its widespread use across multiple industries, including transportation, aviation, power generation, construction, and food packaging. In recent years, global aluminum consumption has risen significantly, with China experiencing particularly sharp growth in both production and demand. In Russia, the aluminum industry is dominated by UC RUSAL, which consolidates all Russian aluminum and alumina production facilities, along with several international operations and mining assets. Despite its global presence, the company remains heavily reliant on imported raw materials (approximately 50%) for alumina production, resulting in reduced operational efficiency and declining output. This dependency has necessitated the exploration of strategies to diversify raw material sources across different stages of the aluminum production value chain. This study identifies and classifies key diversification options for global aluminum companies, focusing on secondary aluminum production, primary aluminum production, and alumina extraction from mined minerals, industrial waste, and by-products. The options were evaluated based on predefined criteria (feasibility, cost per Mg of alumina, logistics, alumina output, and economic security), and two options were selected. The research substantiates the feasibility of diversifying production through nepheline utilization. For the medium term, an economic efficiency assessment was conducted for a proposed 30% capacity expansion at the Pikalevo Alumina Refinery. Additionally, long-term opportunities for increasing aluminum output were identified, including leveraging foreign assets while accounting for associated risks. Full article