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Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2026) | Viewed by 8863

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Teresa Pereira da Silva

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LNEG (National Laboratory for Energy and Geology), Mineral Resources and Geophysics Research Unit, Estrada da Portela, Apartado 7586, 2610-999 Amadora, Portugal
Interests: mineralogy; geochemistry; mineral resources; mining heritage; geoheritage; spectroscopy; XANES; synchrotron radiation
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Dr. Daniel P. S. De Oliveira

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LNEG (National Laboratory for Energy and Geology), Mineral Resources and Geophysics Research Unit, Estrada da Portela, Apartado 7586, 2610-999 Amadora, Portugal
Interests: metallogeny of mineral deposits; mineralogy and mineral chemistry; geochemistry; critical raw materials; energy critical elements; synchrotron radiation; geoheritage
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Dr. João Pedro Veiga

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Department of Conservation and Restoration, Center for Materials Research CENIMAT/i3N, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, NOVA University of Lisbon, Campus de Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
Interests: cultural heritage; materials science; X-rays; crystal chemistry; crystallography; ceramics; glass; stone; mortars; binders; glass beads; tiles; majolica; mineralogy; synchrotron radiation; exafs; XANES
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Following the success of the first Special Issue on the “Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials”, we are pleased to announce a second edition that builds upon the high-quality research and innovative methodologies previously published. The first edition brought together a diverse range of studies, from the advanced mineralogical and geochemical characterization of geological materials to novel approaches in sustainable resource management, geoheritage conservation, and cutting-edge analytical techniques.

This second edition seeks to further push the boundaries of knowledge in mineralogy, geochemistry, and their interdisciplinary applications. We invite contributions that offer state-of-the-art insights into the following areas:

Sustainability-driven studies on raw materials, secondary resources, and circular economy applications.
Exploration of critical raw materials, emerging mineral deposits, and resource efficiency strategies.
Soil contamination, acid mine drainage, and innovative remediation strategies.
Advanced mineralogical and geochemical characterization methods (e.g., synchrotron-based techniques, high-resolution spectroscopy, AI-assisted mineral classification).
Geoarchaeology, geoheritage, and industrial heritage linked to mining and cultural landscapes.
Degradation processes in geological and heritage materials under changing environmental conditions.
Case studies showcasing best practices and novel methodologies.

This Special Issue reaffirms our commitment to promote high-impact research that contributes to the understanding of geological materials, their sustainable management and practical applications, novel techniques for provenance studies, and the integration of AI and big data in geochemical analysis.

We look forward to receiving your submissions.

Dr. Teresa Pereira da Silva
Dr. Daniel P. S. De Oliveira
Dr. João Pedro Veiga
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

critical raw materials
ores, rocks, soils, minerals
mineral deposits and exhausted mines
geomaterials
mining
waste materials
acid mine drainage
mineral resources
secondary minerals
secondary raw materials
efflorescent minerals
ornamental stones
rock weathering
degradation phenomena
built heritage
mortars
geological tourism
mining heritage

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Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials in Minerals (10 articles)

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23 pages, 1196 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geostatistical Assessment of Critical Raw Materials in Nine Mining and Metallurgical Waste Types from the Cartagena–La Unión District (SE Spain)

by Ángel Brime Barrios, Alberto Alcolea, Ana Méndez and Roberto Rodríguez-Pacheco

Minerals 2026, 16(5), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16050477 - 30 Apr 2026

Viewed by 260

Abstract

Mining and metallurgical residues represent one of the largest untapped secondary raw-material resources in Europe; however, their critical raw material (CRM) potential remains insufficiently quantified. This study applies a comprehensive mineralogical, geochemical, and geostatistical framework to evaluate nine distinct waste types from the Cartagena–La Unión Mining District (SE Spain), a historically exploited polymetallic system. A total of 79 samples were analysed using X-ray diffraction, wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence, and advanced multivariate statistical techniques (correlation analysis, principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering) to identify geochemical associations controlling CRM distribution. The results reveal strong geochemical heterogeneity, with systematic enrichment in Co, Ni, Cu, Ga, Nb, and rare-earth proxies. Three dominant geochemical controls were identified: (i) a lithogenic silicate association governing Al–Si–Ti–Nb patterns, (ii) a sulphide-derived metalliferous association characterized by Cu–As–Sb, and (iii) an oxidation–adsorption association responsible for Ga–Y affinity. Several CRM concentrations approach or exceed typical global ore grades for secondary resources, particularly in flotation-derived and oxidation-rich residues. Geostatistical modelling confirms spatially coherent CRM hotspots, with base-metal enrichment linked to sulphide relics and Ga–Nb–Y controlled by Fe–Mn oxyhydroxides. Environmental assessment indicates potential metal mobility under acidic conditions, while also highlighting significant remediation benefits associated with residue reprocessing. Taken together, this study provides a robust and reproducible methodology for CRM assessment in legacy mining wastes and identifies priority residue types within the district with the highest strategic recovery potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

17 pages, 50353 KB

Open AccessArticle

Floating Rafts from Coastal Hypersaline Environments in Brazil

by Carolina N. Keim, André Rossi and Marcos Farina

Minerals 2026, 16(5), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16050445 - 24 Apr 2026

Viewed by 276

Abstract

Floating rafts are thin, flat mineral layers that precipitate at still air–water interfaces. They are composed of calcite, aragonite, vaterite, gypsum, trona, carnallite, and/or halite. Floating rafts present a flat surface at the top in contact with air, and a rough surface at the bottom, which develops as they grow into the water. In this work, we describe floating rafts from hypersaline environments using imaging and analytical microscopy techniques. The four rafts studied consist of interconnected polycrystalline grains. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the top surfaces were flat, whereas in the bottom surfaces, the grains protrude into the water. High magnification revealed nanoparticles arranged in stacks, suggesting growth through the organized agglutination of nanocrystals. Electron diffraction of two of the rafts indicates that they consist of aragonite. Accordingly, electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) shows the C K-edges characteristic of carbonates, along with O and Ca edges. Energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) in the SEM also revealed a few Ca sulfate crystals on the bottom surface. In addition, the presence of cubic shapes indicates the presence of halite. We hypothesize that the genesis of these rafts is driven by evaporation of still water, which increases supersaturation at the very surface, leading to mineral nucleation at the air–water interface, where the activation energy is lower. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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36 pages, 17973 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Multi-Analytical Approach to the Study of Phosphatic Materials from the Lower Cambrian of Spain

by Yihao Xie, Aili Zhu, Ting Huang, Lei Jin and David C. Fernández-Remolar

Minerals 2026, 16(4), 405; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040405 - 15 Apr 2026

Viewed by 375

Abstract

Phosphatic deposits from the Lower Cambrian Pedroche Formation (Sierra de Córdoba, Spain) provide key insights into early diagenetic mineralization processes during the Cambrian radiation. This study applies an integrated multi-analytical approach combining Raman spectroscopy, SEM–EDS, LA-ICP-MS, and ToF-SIMS to investigate mineralogical, elemental, and molecular signatures of phosphatized bioclastic carbonates and associated siliciclastic facies from the Los Lagares-1 borehole. Results reveal a systematic phosphatization gradient from carbonate-dominated skeletal rims to phosphate-rich interiors composed of carbonate fluorapatite with variable carbonate and hydroxyl substitution. Trace-element systematics and REE patterns indicate seawater-influenced phosphogenesis under suboxic porewater conditions, coupled to iron reduction and early diagenetic clay mineral formation. In contrast, the siliciclastic siltstone facies preserves poorly crystalline phosphate phases associated with detrital aluminosilicates and chlorite, reflecting distinct porewater chemistry and crystallization kinetics. ToF-SIMS mapping demonstrates spatial coupling between fluorine and phosphate within fossil structures, confirming fluorapatite formation and localized organic matter entombment. These results highlight the strong control of host lithology on phosphate crystallization pathways and trace-element redistribution, and provide new constraints on microbially mediated phosphogenesis in restricted Early Cambrian reef–lagoon systems along the northern Gondwanan margin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 7065 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Li-Ores from European Deposits for Mineral Processing

by Asija Durjagina, Extivonus Kiki Fransiskus, Peter Eitz, Margarita Mezzetti and Holger Lieberwirth

Minerals 2026, 16(4), 395; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040395 - 12 Apr 2026

Viewed by 812

Abstract

This study investigates the comminution behavior and beneficiation potential of lithium-bearing ores, zinnwaldite from Cínovec (Czech-Germany border) and lepidolite from Villasrubias (Spain) by integrating mineralogical analysis and mechanical characterization. The research is driven by Europe’s need for secure lithium supply chains. In particular, it focuses on the challenges associated with low-grade, fine-grained lithium micas found in hard-rock ores, which offer significant potential to supply in Europe but also pose substantial processing challenges. QMA (Quantitative Microstructural Analysis) revealed distinct differences in the textural and structural characteristics of the studied ores. Zinnwaldite-bearing rocks are coarser-grained with high interlocking and roughness, while lepidolite-bearing samples showed finer grains, lower roughness, and more disseminated mica distribution, indicated by their low clustering degree. In terms of mechanical characterization, zinnwaldite-rich ores have the lowest compressive strength, while lepidolite-rich samples showed the highest values, attributed to their finer grain size and more cohesive structure. This suggests that lepidolite may require higher energy input and finer crushing stages to achieve the target liberation size. These features influenced the breakage behavior observed during mechanical testing and comminution and are essential for enabling selective comminution, separating mica from gangue material. This study contributes to analyzing the potential of European hard-rock lithium resources from the perspective of upstream comminution, which is an essential step influencing downstream energy consumption, reagent use, and overall recovery efficiency. The results of this research emphasize that selective comminution should not rely solely on mineral hardness contrasts but must incorporate microstructural parameters such as clustering, grain size distribution, and orientation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 9051 KB

Open AccessArticle

New Contributions to Mineralogical and Geochemical Knowledge of Old Preguiça Mine, Beja, Portugal

by Teresa P. Silva, Igor Morais, Sofia Soares, Ivo Rodrigues, Daniel P. S. de Oliveira and José Mirão

Minerals 2026, 16(4), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040348 - 26 Mar 2026

Viewed by 651

Abstract

Abandoned mining areas provide valuable opportunities to investigate ore-forming processes, supergene mineral transformations, and the geochemical behaviour of metals. In this sense, the old Preguiça mine (Beja, Portugal), exploited for Fe–Zn–Pb, was studied providing new mineralogical and geochemical data aimed at improving the understanding of the secondary mineral assemblages of this deposit. A total of 70 samples collected from three accessible underground levels (first, second and third) and mine waste, complemented by 16 samples from a deeper level (fourth) previously collected, were analysed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and a portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) equipment. Mineralogical phases are dominated by a wide range of secondary oxides, carbonates, arsenates, vanadates, silicates, phosphates and sulphates, but remnants of primary sulphides were also found. The following minerals can be emphasised: goethite, hematite, calcite, dolomite, descloizite, willemite, mimetite, cerussite, smithsonite and fraipontite. The presence of massicot in the Preguiça mine, is described for the first time. Bulk geochemical analyses show high concentrations of Fe, Ca, Zn and Pb, consistent with the observed mineralogy. The presence of vanadium- and arsenic-bearing minerals highlights the occurrence of critical raw materials, supporting the importance of reassessing other abandoned mining areas in the context of sustainable resource management and strategic raw-material planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 16529 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geology, Mineralogy, and Age of Li-Bearing Pegmatites: Case Study of Alday Area (Eastern Kazakhstan)

by Natalya A. Zimanovskaya, Indira E. Mataibayeva, Gulizat B. Orazbekova, Seib Nadine and Arailym Zh. Amrenova

Minerals 2026, 16(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16020148 - 28 Jan 2026

Viewed by 695

Abstract

This study investigates the geological, mineralogical, and geochemical features of the Alday ore occurrence (Central Kalba, East Kazakhstan) and aims to identify indicators of rare-metal mineralization, with lithium considered to be one of its principal components. In this study, the structural–stratigraphic position of the occurrence is refined; three series of albite–spodumene pegmatites are identified; the compositions of the ore-bearing schists and the granitoids of the Kunush and Kalba complexes are compared; and the role of metasomatic alteration in the concentration of Li, Ta, Nb, Be, and Sn is established. The plagiogranites and dikes of the Kunush complex are characterized by Li anomalies (up to 306 g/t), Ta (up to 64 g/t), and a fractionated REE spectrum (La/Yb up to 108). In addition, the following predictive criteria are formulated: the presence of tectonically disrupted dikes in the Kunush complex with Na₂O/K₂O > 4, the presence of albite and muscovite alteration zones, and the presence of ladder-type spodumene-bearing pegmatites controlled by northwest-trending faults. The ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar muscovite age of the Alday pegmatites (~292 Ma) aligns with the age range of the Kalba granite complex. Based on the main principles of rare-metal pegmatite generation, it is determined that the Tochka pegmatites were formed during the fluid–magmatic fractionation of magma in large granitic reservoirs of the Kalba complex. The Karagoin–Saryozek zone—located between several large granite massifs of the Kalba complex, where host rocks function as a roof—may be promising for investigating rare-metal pegmatite mineralization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 4191 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Optical Light Microscopy for Classification of Real Coal Mine Dust Samples

by Nestor Santa, Lizeth Jaramillo and Emily Sarver

Minerals 2026, 16(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010015 - 23 Dec 2025

Viewed by 765

Abstract

Occupational exposure to respirable coal mine dust remains a significant health risk, especially for underground workers. Rapid dust monitoring methods are sought to support timely identification of hazards and corrective actions. Recent research has investigated how optical light microscopy (OLM) with automated image processing might meet this need. In laboratory studies, this approach has been demonstrated to classify particles into three primary classes—coal, silicates and carbonates. If the same is achievable in the field, results could support both hazard monitoring and dust source apportionment. The objective of the current study is to evaluate the performance of OLM with image processing to classify real coal mine dust particles, employing scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) as a reference method. The results highlight two possible challenges for field implementation. First, particle agglomeration can effectively yield mixed particles that are difficult to classify, so integration of a dispersion method into the dust collection or sample preparation should be considered. Second, optical differences can exist between dust particles used for classification model development (i.e., typically generated in the lab from high-purity materials) versus real mine dust, so our results demonstrate the necessity of site-specific model calibration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2550 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Raman Measurement and Pre-Processing Method for the Fast In Situ Identification of Minerals

by Dhiraj Gokuladas, Julia Sohr, Andreas Siegfried Braeuer and Daniela Freyer

Minerals 2025, 15(12), 1316; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15121316 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 788

Abstract

Through this work, an experimental setup and pre-processing method for obtaining fluorescence and quasi-noise-free Raman spectra of minerals for in situ mineral identification in an underground environment is proposed. It uses a combination of methodologies like dual excitation wavelengths, Shifted Excitation Raman Difference Spectroscopy (SERDS), and deep learning-based U-Net model for background and noise correction. The dual excitation wavelengths technique employs a near-infrared SERDS laser for the fingerprint and a red laser for the large Raman shift region. The SERDS laser operates at two excitation wavelengths and is tuneable in the vicinity of 785 nm. The red laser uses 671 nm excitation wavelength. The obtained fingerprint and large Raman shift Raman spectra are then fed to a pre-processing method containing the trained U-Net model for obtaining a background-corrected and quasi-noise-free Raman spectrum. The proposed method addresses issues of existing handheld Raman systems in terms of spectrometer sensitivity, spectrum acquisition speed, pre-processing time, fluorescence effects, and other interferences due to surrounding light or vibration. The obtained final processed Raman spectrum is then deconstructed into pseudo-Voigt peaks. The identification of the minerals can be based on the number and the positions of the pseudo-Voigt peaks. Samples of gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) and anhydrite (CaSO₄) were used for evaluating the performance of the proposed method. The influence of measurement time on the reproducibility and precision of the peak identification and, thus, mineral identification is also analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 4535 KB

Open AccessArticle

Petrophysical Characterisation and Suitability of Serpentinites from the Monteferrato Area (Tuscany, Italy) for Architectural Restoration

by Alba P. Santo, Carlo Alberto Garzonio, Elena Pecchioni and Teresa Salvatici

Minerals 2025, 15(11), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15111105 - 23 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 832

Abstract

This study investigates the mineralogical and physical properties of serpentinite from the Monteferrato area (Tuscany, Italy) to evaluate its potential use in Tuscany architectural restoration. The research addresses the need to identify replacement materials compatible with historic stones while preserving their original features. Representative specimens from the Bagnolo quarry were analysed through physical testing and a wide range of mineralogical and geochemical techniques, including polarised light microscopy, X-ray diffraction, electron probe micro-analysis, whole-rock chemistry, and fibre quantification. The results show a mineralogical composition dominated by serpentine-group minerals and magnetite, with physical properties generally consistent across samples. Measured capillary water absorption ranges from 3.27 to 5.27 g/m²·s^0.5, open porosity from 5.25% to 8.93%, apparent densities range from 2.49 to 2.56 g/cm³, and imbibition coefficient from 2.16% to 3.71%. Comparative analysis with serpentinite from historic sources (Figline di Prato quarry, Tuscany) and from monuments (Baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence) demonstrates close compositional and textural affinities, supporting the suitability of the rock from the studied quarry for restoration purposes in Tuscany monuments. However, chrysotile concentrations up to 14,153 mg/kg, exceeding Italian regulatory thresholds, represent a critical limitation. This not only requires the implementation of strict safety measures but also raises serious concerns regarding the practical feasibility of using this stone in conservation projects. More broadly, the presence of asbestiform minerals in serpentinites highlights a significant and often underestimated health risk associated with their extraction, processing, and use. Despite its importance, detailed fibre count data are rarely published or made publicly accessible, hindering both transparent risk assessment and informed decision-making. By integrating petrographic, mineralogical, and physical–mechanical characterisation with fibre quantification, this study not only assesses the technical suitability of Monteferrato serpentinites for restoration of Tuscan monuments but also contributes to a more responsible and evidence-based approach to their use, emphasising the urgent need for transparency and health protection in conservation practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 2455 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution of Uranium and Thorium in the Soils of North Macedonia

by Trajče Stafilov and Robert Šajn

Minerals 2025, 15(10), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15101063 - 9 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1374

Abstract

The aim of the study was to determine the spatial distribution and assess uranium and thorium contamination in the soils of North Macedonia. Topsoil samples (0–30 cm) were collected from 995 locations across the country on a 5 × 5 km grid. The soil samples were analysed by inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) using the total digestion method. The distribution of uranium and thorium in the soils is discussed according to the country’s 8 statistical regions, 15 major geological formations and 13 pedological units. The average uranium content is 2.1 mg/kg, ranging from <0.1 to 13 mg/kg (median 2.0 mg/kg), while the average thorium content is 9.3 mg/kg, ranging from 0.20 to 92 mg/kg (median 9.5 mg/kg). The spatial distribution patterns of U and Th in the soils of North Macedonia are very similar and are determined by geology (parent material and mineralisation). High uranium (2.9–13 mg/kg) and thorium (42–92 mg/kg) contents were found mainly in soils in the areas of Neogene and Palaeozoic igneous rocks and Neogene clastites (Pelagonian, East Macedonian zone), as well as in the Kratovo-Zletovo Massif in the north-eastern part of the country and in the Kožuf Mountains in the central and southern parts, where Neogene igneous rocks predominate. According to the pedological units, the hydromorphic soils (mean content of 2.9 mg/kg U and 12 mg/kg Th) in the valleys of the country’s main rivers, which predominate in the western part, were the richest for these elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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45 pages, 10083 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

The Conservation of Architectural Heritage Structures Built with Tuff and Coral Rock: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis of Geopolymer Formulation, Application, Compatibility and Durability

by Kent Benedict Aleonar Salisid, Raul Lucero, Jr., Reymarvelos Oros, Mylah Villacorte-Tabelin, Theerayut Phengsaart, Shengguo Xue, Jiaqing Zeng, Ivy Corazon A. Mangaya-ay, Takahiko Arima, Ilhwan Park, Mayumi Ito, Sanghee Jeon and Carlito Baltazar Tabelin

Minerals 2026, 16(4), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040426 - 20 Apr 2026

Viewed by 809

Abstract

The conservation of tuff- and coral rock-built architectural heritage structures (AHS) is challenging because access to original tuff and coral rock has become difficult and severely limited due to urbanization, land reclamation, the depletion of stone quarries, anti-mining and anti-quarrying legislation. An emerging approach to address this issue is to create compatible “replacement” rocks via geopolymerization, a process that is more sustainable and greener than the use of conventional cement and concrete. To explore the potential of geopolymers for AHS conservation strategies, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were implemented; 103 eligible articles were identified and classified into geopolymers for AHS (34 articles), tuff-built AHS (60 articles), and coral rock-built AHS (9 articles). Tuff substrates in AHSs appear in a variety of colors (yellowish-brown, grayish-cream, reddish-brown, pale greenish-gray and pink hues), densities (1.0–2.5 g/m³), and compressive strengths (3–100 MPa). Meanwhile, coral rock substrates in AHSs appear in whitish-cream color and are coarse-pored (1–5 MPa), fine-grained (8–15 MPa), and calcarenite (50–60 MPa). In terms of geopolymer formulation, metakaolin was reported as the most popular main precursor or admixture, while NaOH and Na₂SiO₃ were used simultaneously as alkaline activators. Aggregates used in geopolymer formulations depended on local availability, including quartz sand, river sand, crushed stones, carbonate stones, volcanic rock, volcanic sand, tuff, brick, ceramic tiles, and waste materials. Aesthetics, chemical composition, physical attributes, and mechanical properties have been identified as key criteria to ensure geopolymer compatibility for AHS conservation application. To date, geopolymers have been applied for AHS conservation as repair mortars, consolidants (i.e., grout and adhesives), and masonry strengthening (i.e., fiber-reinforced mortar). Finally, geopolymers formulated for AHS conservation have similar durability as the original substrate based on accelerated aging tests (i.e., salt mist, wet-dry, and freeze–thaw) and long-term outdoor exposure experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogical and Geochemical Characterization of Geological Materials, 2nd Edition)

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