Biology

22 pages, 1020 KB

Open AccessReview

Mechanistic Systems Biology of High-Salinity Fermented Seafood: Multi-Omics Integration for Microbial Safety and Quality Prediction

by Mia Yang Ang, Chen Li, Heru Pramono, Teck Yew Low, Nur Azalina Suzianti Feisal, Guat Jah Wong and Siew Woh Choo

Biology 2026, 15(10), 772; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100772 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Foodborne diseases present a serious public health challenge, causing roughly 600 million illnesses and 420,000 deaths annually. A significant portion of this impact is felt in Asia, where traditional fermented and dry-salted seafood, such as katsuobushi, budu, and peda, are [...] Read more.

Foodborne diseases present a serious public health challenge, causing roughly 600 million illnesses and 420,000 deaths annually. A significant portion of this impact is felt in Asia, where traditional fermented and dry-salted seafood, such as katsuobushi, budu, and peda, are dietary staples. These products rely on diverse microbial communities that determine their final safety, flavor, texture, and shelf life. Historically, research has centered on lactic acid bacteria (LAB), yet the functional contributions of non-LAB halotolerant species, including genera like Tetragenococcus, Staphylococcus, and Bacillus, are functionally important in these high-salinity niches. This review evaluates the transition from basic taxonomic surveys to mechanistic multi-omics approaches, integrating genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to decode microbial functionality under selective environmental pressures. We discuss how genomic mining using platforms such as BAGEL4 and antiSMASH can uncover biosynthetic gene clusters and antimicrobial peptides, while CARD supports antimicrobial resistance monitoring. Transcriptomic analysis reveals microbial responses to osmotic stress, low water activity, and pH fluctuations, whereas proteomic profiling links gene expression to active enzymes, stress proteins, and functional biomarkers. Metabolomics captures the chemical outcomes of fermentation, including amino acids, volatile organic compounds, spoilage markers, and biogenic amines. By merging these high-dimensional datasets with artificial intelligence, researchers can move toward predictive modeling that distinguishes biological causation from simple correlation. This shift offers a strategy to improve the safety, consistency, and resilience of traditional high-salinity fermented seafood systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microbiology)

27 pages, 3625 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil-Nutrient Depletion and Microbial Community Restructuring in Continuous Celery Cropping: Opposing Responses of Bacteria and Fungi

by Junkang Sui, Na Wang, Hongliang Wang, Yanjie Li, Junlong Wang, Mengyao Duan, Mei Liao, Yuting Jiang and Xingang Zhou

Biology 2026, 15(10), 771; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100771 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Continuous cropping obstacles represent a major constraint in agricultural production, yet the underlying microbial mechanisms remain incompletely understood. This study systematically compared soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity, community composition, and nutrient-microbe relationships between continuous cropping (CC) and non-continuous cropping (CK) celery rhizospheres using [...] Read more.

Continuous cropping obstacles represent a major constraint in agricultural production, yet the underlying microbial mechanisms remain incompletely understood. This study systematically compared soil physicochemical properties, microbial diversity, community composition, and nutrient-microbe relationships between continuous cropping (CC) and non-continuous cropping (CK) celery rhizospheres using high-throughput sequencing, soil physicochemical analysis, and Mantel tests. The results revealed that CC soils exhibited severe depletion of available potassium (AK, 69.9% decreased) and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (AN, 65.9% decreased), accompanied by a modest but statistically significant accumulation of total phosphorus (TP, 8.0% increased). Strikingly, bacterial and fungal communities displayed diametrically opposed diversity responses: CC significantly reduced bacterial α-diversity (Shannon: 5.66 vs. 6.67, p < 0.01) and richness (ACE: 2018 vs. 2623, p < 0.01), whereas fungal diversity and richness more than doubled under CC (ACE: 619 vs. 296, p < 0.01; Shannon: 4.13 vs. 3.34, p < 0.01). β-diversity analyses (NMDS and ANOSIM) confirmed fundamental community restructuring in CC soils for both microbial domains. At the taxonomic level, CC soils showed significant depletion of beneficial plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), including Bacillus (↓89.3%), Mesobacillus (↓72.8%), and Pseudomonas (↓30.8%), coupled with dramatic enrichment of the phytopathogenic genus Fusarium (10.9-fold increase, 8.81% vs. 0.81%, p < 0.001). LEfSe analysis identified Fusarium, Arrhenia, and Mortierella as specific biomarkers of CC soils, whereas Bacillus, Mesobacillus, Cladosporium, and Alternaria were biomarkers of CK soils. Mantel tests further revealed that CC significantly altered nutrient-microbe coupling relationships, with bacterial communities significantly correlated with TP, AN, and OC, and fungal communities with TP, TK, AP, and AN. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that continuous celery cropping shifts the rhizosphere microbiome from a bacterial-dominated profile associated with beneficial taxa (e.g., Bacillus, Pseudomonas) toward a fungal-enriched profile dominated by the pathogen Fusarium, suggesting a potential transition from a putatively disease-suppressive to a disease-conducive microbial state. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria: Mechanisms and Applications)

11 pages, 2736 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unlocking Seed Dormancy and Elucidating Storage Behavior in Morinda royoc (Rubiaceae): Crucial Insights for Propagation and Ex Situ Germplasm Conservation

by Duniel Barrios and Ricardo Álvarez-Espino

Biology 2026, 15(10), 770; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100770 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Morinda royoc L. is a shrub with high pharmacological value due to its antimicrobial and metabolic bioactivity. However, its low germination limits its commercial use and conservation. This study characterized the morphophysiology of its diaspores, evaluated pre-germination treatments (mechanical endocarp removal and GA [...] Read more.

Morinda royoc L. is a shrub with high pharmacological value due to its antimicrobial and metabolic bioactivity. However, its low germination limits its commercial use and conservation. This study characterized the morphophysiology of its diaspores, evaluated pre-germination treatments (mechanical endocarp removal and GA₃ soaking at 600 and 1200 ppm), and determined its storage behavior. The analyses showed a highly significant effect where manual endocarp removal overcame mechanical restriction and eliminated dormancy, achieving 100% germination within two weeks, whereas the control reached only 51.5% after 23 weeks. Treatments with GA₃ did not improve germination compared to the control, and an inhibitory effect was observed at 1200 ppm, although 100% of the non-germinated embryos remained viable. The seeds maintain viability above 90% after three months of storage at 25, 5, and −20 °C. Our findings suggest that M. royoc seeds exhibit orthodox behavior (tolerant to desiccation and freezing) and non-deep physiological dormancy. This study documents, for the first time, a method for the complete release of dormancy in the species, which is essential for successful propagation. Our results provide a rapid and economical germination method that facilitates mass propagation, establishing the technical basis for the transition toward commercial-scale cultivation and ensuring the effective conservation of M. royoc germplasm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Science)

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24 pages, 1230 KB

Open AccessReview

A Transcription Factor-Centric View of Transcription Regulation

by Jing He, Jiahui Chi and Siqian Feng

Biology 2026, 15(10), 769; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100769 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Transcription is arguably the most critical regulatory step in gene expression. In eukaryotes, a promoter is necessary for transcription, but it alone often does not lead to significant gene transcription. Distal regulatory elements called enhancers can greatly increase transcription levels. Sequence-specific transcription factors [...] Read more.

Transcription is arguably the most critical regulatory step in gene expression. In eukaryotes, a promoter is necessary for transcription, but it alone often does not lead to significant gene transcription. Distal regulatory elements called enhancers can greatly increase transcription levels. Sequence-specific transcription factors recruited to the enhancers play pivot roles in regulating promoter activities. These enhancer-bound transcription factors represent a central node in biological regulation, by converting various internal and external regulatory signals into biological responses in the form of target gene transcription. In this review, we take a transcription factor-centric view, and summarize recent advances in our understanding of how transcription factors regulate promoter activities. We also highlight significant outstanding questions in the field, and propose possible strategies to solve these questions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transcriptional Regulation in Eukaryotes)

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17 pages, 2031 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Differentiation and Driving Mechanisms of Nekton Community Diversity in Eastern Guangdong Coastal Waters, Northern South China Sea

by Yang Li, Mai Tong, Xi Zheng, Que-Hui Tang, Yan-Ping Zhang, Yu-Song Guo, Zhong-Duo Wang and Jian Liao

Biology 2026, 15(10), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100768 (registering DOI) - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Coastal waters of eastern Guangdong are important fishing grounds and ecologically sensitive areas in the northern South China Sea, where nekton communities are increasingly affected by environmental heterogeneity and human activities. However, systematic studies on the spatial differentiation and driving mechanisms of nekton [...] Read more.

Coastal waters of eastern Guangdong are important fishing grounds and ecologically sensitive areas in the northern South China Sea, where nekton communities are increasingly affected by environmental heterogeneity and human activities. However, systematic studies on the spatial differentiation and driving mechanisms of nekton communities in this region remain insufficient. This study aimed to clarify the community structure, diversity distribution characteristics, and key driving environmental factors of nekton in the coastal waters of eastern Guangdong, and thereby provide scientific support for an ecological health assessment and sustainable utilization of fishery resources in this region. Based on bottom-trawl survey data from 19 stations in the coastal waters of eastern Guangdong, northern South China Sea, this study systematically analyzed the species composition, dominant species, and diversity distribution pattern of nekton and their correlations with environmental factors using methods including the Index of Relative Importance, Alpha diversity indices, Beta diversity indices, and redundancy analysis. A total of 119 nekton species belonging to three phyla, four classes, 14 orders, and 56 families were collected. Among them, there were 79 fish species (accounting for 66.39%), 36 crustacean species (30.25%), and four cephalopod species (3.36%). The dominant species were Trachypenaeus curvirostris and Portunus sanguinolentus (IRI ≥ 1000). Wilcoxon’s test showed that there were significant differences in the Shannon–Wiener index, Gini–Simpson index, and Pielou’s evenness between the nearshore and offshore groups, while no significant regional difference was observed in the richness index. Cluster analysis, based on the Bray–Curtis distance, divided the 19 stations into five clusters, with significant differentiation in species composition and functional structure within the nearshore group. RDA results indicated that environmental factors collectively explained 99.66% of the variation in community structure. Particulate Inorganic Carbon (PIC), Phosphate (PO₄³⁻), Distance to Port, Summer Maximum Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), and Total Suspended Matter (TSM) were identified as the key driving factors. The coastal waters of eastern Guangdong boast rich nekton species, with significant differences in community structure between nearshore and offshore areas. The heterogeneity of the natural environment and human activity disturbances jointly shape the nekton diversity pattern in this region. The research results can provide a theoretical basis for regional marine ecological protection and fishery resource management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Conservation Biology and Biodiversity)

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19 pages, 583 KB

Open AccessArticle

Appraisal of a Hypothesis on Embryo Fusion and Individuation

by Francis J. O’Keeffe and George L. Mendz

Biology 2026, 15(10), 767; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100767 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Aim: Human beings comprising two genetically different types of cells are known as tetragametic individuals. This trait is thought to arise from the fusion of two embryos. This investigation into the hypothesised fusion potential of two embryos was conducted to appraise whether embryo [...] Read more.

Aim: Human beings comprising two genetically different types of cells are known as tetragametic individuals. This trait is thought to arise from the fusion of two embryos. This investigation into the hypothesised fusion potential of two embryos was conducted to appraise whether embryo fusion is a correct explanation for tetragametic chimerism and an appropriate basis for legislation governing human embryo experimentation. Materials: The reported hypotheses to explain embryo fusion. Fifty documented instances of human beings comprising two genetically different types of cells scattered throughout the body. Data from studies of sesquizygotic twins with key information describing embryos with two genetically different types of cells. Methods: The development of the embryo fusion hypotheses was examined. The correctness of three hypotheses of embryo fusion was appraised. Multiple reports of tetragametic human beings were reviewed. In each case, the maternal component of the genetically different cells was analysed to ascertain the presence of identical or dissimilar contributions to the embryo genome and thus establish whether one or more oocytes were fertilised. An investigation of sesquizygotic twinning was employed to assess the possibility of dispermic fertilisation generating tetragametic individuals. Results and Conclusions: The embryo fusion hypotheses have not been demonstrated, and their analyses suggest that they propose highly unlikely/impossible biological events. Individuals with identical maternal contributions incorrectly were assumed to originate from the fusion of embryos. Sesquizygosis is a plausible mechanism by which a human embryo comprised of two genetically different types of cells could be generated. Full article

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17 pages, 13151 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Reproductive Trait-Associated Loci and Candidate Genes in Commercial Pigs via 50K SNP Genotyping and Genome-Wide Association Study

by Wenwu Chen, Fang Yang, Yantong Chen, Sui Liufu, Kaiming Wang, Zhi Li and Haiming Ma

Biology 2026, 15(10), 766; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100766 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

To unravel the genetic basis of economically critical reproductive traits in swine, we genotyped 839 sows from three commercial breeds (Duroc, Landrace, Yorkshire) using the Porcine Breeding Chip_plus 50K SNP array, and analyzed three key traits: total number born (TNB), number born alive [...] Read more.

To unravel the genetic basis of economically critical reproductive traits in swine, we genotyped 839 sows from three commercial breeds (Duroc, Landrace, Yorkshire) using the Porcine Breeding Chip_plus 50K SNP array, and analyzed three key traits: total number born (TNB), number born alive (NBA), and number of healthy piglets (NHP). We integrated principal component analysis (PCA) for population structure, runs of homozygosity (ROH) detection, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and GO/KEGG enrichment analysis. Phenotypically, Yorkshire sows exhibited superior and persistent reproductive capacity across parities 1–7 (peak TNB: 14.17 ± 2.82 at parity 4 based on N ≥ 3 data), Duroc sows had limited data with only parity 1 available (TNB: 9.44 ± 2.13), and Landrace sows showed moderate to high performance across parities 1–4 and 7, with peak TNB at parity 4 (17.08 ± 4.61). ROH analysis further revealed that short ROH fragments (1–5 Mb) were the most abundant category across breeds, while the majority of detected ROH were under 10 Mb in length. GWAS identified significant SNPs concentrated on chromosomes 1 and 2, and annotated candidate genes including AMH (ovarian reserve), IZUMO4 (embryo implantation), ACSBG2 (steroid synthesis), RFX2 (follicular maturation), and DOT1L (embryonic development). GO/KEGG enrichment highlighted pathways such as “histone methyltransferase activity” and “fatty acid biosynthesis”, which are critical for reproductive processes. This study clarifies breed-specific reproductive patterns and identifies key genetic loci/genes for porcine reproductive traits, providing molecular markers and a theoretical basis for improving swine reproductive performance via molecular breeding. Full article

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27 pages, 1936 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Multitaxon Indices of Biotic Integrity for Aquatic Ecosystem Health Assessment in Dongjiang Lake

by Yu Wang, Meiyu Hou, Hanbing Li, Rui Wang, Xin Zhou, Liangjing Zhang, Qiang Zhou and Rui Meng

Biology 2026, 15(10), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100765 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Three locally calibrated Indices of Biotic Integrity (IBIs) based on macroinvertebrates (B-IBI), zooplankton (Z-IBI), and phytoplankton (P-IBI) were developed to characterize relative aquatic ecological condition at impaired sites in Dongjiang Lake, a deep reservoir-type lake in China, during 2021–2023. Using synchronous monitoring data, [...] Read more.

Three locally calibrated Indices of Biotic Integrity (IBIs) based on macroinvertebrates (B-IBI), zooplankton (Z-IBI), and phytoplankton (P-IBI) were developed to characterize relative aquatic ecological condition at impaired sites in Dongjiang Lake, a deep reservoir-type lake in China, during 2021–2023. Using synchronous monitoring data, candidate metrics for the three biotic groups were screened and assembled by integrating taxonomic diversity, community composition, pollution-tolerance attributes, trophic indicators, and functional feeding groups. Metric values were standardized using a linear transformation, and site conditions were classified using a unified five-class grading scheme under the present local calibration framework. A total of 327 taxonomic units (species or morphospecies) were recorded across the three biotic groups, indicating relatively high biodiversity in the study area. Under the present locally calibrated framework, most impaired sites were classified within the moderate-to-good range, with clear interannual variation and spatial heterogeneity. Upstream and downstream sections showed greater fluctuations in IBI classes than the lake area. The macroinvertebrate-based IBI was more sensitive to long-term and cumulative habitat disturbance, whereas the zooplankton- and phytoplankton-based IBIs responded more rapidly to short-term variation in nutrients and water quality. Together, these results indicate that multitaxon IBIs can provide complementary information on relative ecological condition within Dongjiang Lake and may support ecological zoning, pollutant management, and restoration prioritization in similar deep reservoir-type lake systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Behavioural Biology)

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Graphical abstract

20 pages, 12428 KB

Open AccessArticle

Antagonistic Activity and Molecular Insights into the Biocontrol of Korla Pear Fire Blight by Paenibacillus sp. TRMB57781

by Xirui Wang, Chaowen Liu, Jinduo Zhao, Yuxin Si, Zagipa Sapakhova, Jiangtao Gao and Xiaoxia Luo

Biology 2026, 15(10), 764; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100764 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Pear fire blight caused by Erwinia amylovora necessitates environmentally friendly biocontrol alternatives. Strain TRMB57781, isolated from Alar chemical plant wastewater, was identified as Paenibacillus sp. via polyphasic taxonomy and 16S rRNA gene analysis. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a biosynthetic gene cluster for fusaricidin B. [...] Read more.

Pear fire blight caused by Erwinia amylovora necessitates environmentally friendly biocontrol alternatives. Strain TRMB57781, isolated from Alar chemical plant wastewater, was identified as Paenibacillus sp. via polyphasic taxonomy and 16S rRNA gene analysis. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a biosynthetic gene cluster for fusaricidin B. Fermentation medium optimization with glucose and cottonseed meal significantly enhanced antibacterial activity. In vitro assays demonstrated that a 1:50 dilution of the fermentation broth achieved 84.62% control efficacy on fragrant pear inflorescences, markedly exceeding agricultural streptomycin (69.48%). Comparable efficacy to streptomycin was observed in detached leaf assays and potted plant protective and curative trials. Through HR-TOF MS analysis combined with genomic verification, the active compound was identified as a key antimicrobial metabolite associated with the antagonism against E. amylovora. This study presents Paenibacillus sp. TRMB57781 as a promising biocontrol agent and provides genomic and metabolomic insights into its antibacterial activity against pear fire blight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Microbial Biology)

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13 pages, 7051 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gut Microbiota Mediates Host Responses to Microplastic Exposure in Artemia salina

by Ruying Ma, Huiru Lu, Shisong Zhang, Hongli Ji, Fengjie Xin and Gang Wang

Biology 2026, 15(10), 763; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100763 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Background: Microplastics, derived from plastic degradation and industrial sources, are widely detected in aquatic environments and food systems, posing increasing environmental and ecological risks. Aims: This study aimed to investigate how microplastics affect host physiology and gut microbiota, as well as determine whether [...] Read more.

Background: Microplastics, derived from plastic degradation and industrial sources, are widely detected in aquatic environments and food systems, posing increasing environmental and ecological risks. Aims: This study aimed to investigate how microplastics affect host physiology and gut microbiota, as well as determine whether microbiota changes actively modulate host responses. Methods: Using A. salina as a model organism, we combined physiological assays, oxidative stress analysis, gut microbiome profiling, and bacterial functional validation under chronic polystyrene microplastics exposure. Results: Polystyrene microplastics accumulated in the gut and significantly impaired growth and survival, accompanied by reduced digestive enzyme activity and immune function, as well as increased oxidative stress, indicating disruption of physiological homeostasis. Microplastic exposure also induced microbial dysbiosis, characterized by decreased diversity and compositional shifts. Functional assays demonstrated that a bacterium enriched under exposure, Pseudomonas knackmussii, partially restored host growth and physiological functions while reducing oxidative stress. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that gut microbiota are not only altered by microplastic exposure but also actively modulate host responses to environmental stress, providing new insight into microbiota-mediated resilience under pollutant stress. Full article

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11 pages, 3569 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Pitfall Trap Spacing on Sample Independence in Ant Community Studies in Homogeneous Grasslands (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

by Francisco Jiménez-Carmona, Soledad Carpintero and Joaquín L. Reyes-López

Biology 2026, 15(10), 762; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100762 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

The spacing between traps is one of the variables that can influence pitfall-trapping results. Very short distances between traps could cause pseudoreplication, which means that samples are not statistically independent. In this study, we evaluated how trap spacing affects the similarity in the [...] Read more.

The spacing between traps is one of the variables that can influence pitfall-trapping results. Very short distances between traps could cause pseudoreplication, which means that samples are not statistically independent. In this study, we evaluated how trap spacing affects the similarity in the composition and abundance of ant communities in two homogeneous grasslands sampled with pitfall traps separated by 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, or 40 m. The results show that dissimilarity between the samples increases progressively with the distance between traps and that, in general, from 5 m onwards, the samples tend to be more independent of each other. These findings suggest that, in homogeneous grasslands, a distance of 5 m between pitfall traps may serve as a practical reference to reduce pseudoreplication. However, the independence threshold between samples should not be generalized directly to more heterogeneous ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecology)

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23 pages, 5441 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nested Fluid–Structure Interaction Predictive Modeling of Fetal Brain Stress During Maternal Trauma

by Jonathan Mayer, Molly Bekbolatova, Timothy Devine, Paula Ryo and Milan Toma

Biology 2026, 15(10), 761; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100761 (registering DOI) - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Background: Mechanical trauma during pregnancy from motor vehicle accidents, falls, and maternal seizures poses significant risks to fetal development. The fetus is protected by multiple hierarchical layers including the uterine wall, amniotic fluid, and cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain. Despite the clinical significance [...] Read more.

Background: Mechanical trauma during pregnancy from motor vehicle accidents, falls, and maternal seizures poses significant risks to fetal development. The fetus is protected by multiple hierarchical layers including the uterine wall, amniotic fluid, and cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain. Despite the clinical significance of maternal trauma occurring in approximately six to eight percent of pregnancies, previous computational studies have focused primarily on amniotic fluid protection while treating the fetus as a homogeneous structure, without examining the nested protective architecture comprising both amniotic fluid and cerebrospinal fluid as an integrated system. Methods: This investigation implements a nested fluid–structure interaction framework simultaneously capturing three hierarchically organized systems: the uterine wall interacting with amniotic fluid, amniotic fluid interacting with the fetal body, and the cranial system comprising skull, cerebrospinal fluid, and brain tissue. The computational architecture employs smoothed particle hydrodynamics for fluid domains coupled with finite element methods for solid structures. Boundary conditions representing traumatic forces were obtained through experimental protocols using an instrumented medical simulation mannequin performing seizure movements. Results: Computational simulations predicted that amniotic fluid absorbed the majority of impact forces through hydraulic cushioning, while cerebrospinal fluid provided additional stress reduction through pressure redistribution, with model predictions suggesting total stress reduction exceeding ninety percent. Peak fetal brain stress values predicted by the model were below injury thresholds reported in adult neural tissue literature, though direct applicability of these thresholds to fetal tissue remains uncertain. The fetal brain exhibited minimal movement relative to the skull despite complex force cascades. Stress distributions showed elevated values in the frontal lobe and brainstem, though magnitudes remained within ranges that the model suggests may be tolerable. Conclusions: Computational modeling suggests that the nested fluid protection architecture operates as an integrated hierarchical system providing potential mechanical protection through sequential energy dissipation. These findings represent model predictions requiring experimental and clinical validation before translation to clinical practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biomechanics in Physiology and Pathology)

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15 pages, 938 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sperm Antioxidant Capacity Discriminates Between Fertile and Infertile Men and Is Strictly Related to Lipid Peroxidation and Lipid Mediator Production

by Cinzia Signorini, Elena Moretti, Laura Liguori, Elena Leoni, Caterina Marcucci, Maria Cristina Salvatici and Giulia Collodel

Biology 2026, 15(10), 760; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100760 (registering DOI) - 10 May 2026

Abstract

Oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation are common causes of male infertility; antioxidants in spermatozoa and especially in seminal plasma play a protective role. The study aims to evaluate whether OS lipid mediators (F₂-isoprostanes: F₂-IsoPs; Resolvin D1: RvD1) measured in [...] Read more.

Oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation are common causes of male infertility; antioxidants in spermatozoa and especially in seminal plasma play a protective role. The study aims to evaluate whether OS lipid mediators (F₂-isoprostanes: F₂-IsoPs; Resolvin D1: RvD1) measured in seminal plasma, and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), measured in both seminal plasma and spermatozoa, are associated with male infertility. Semen samples (18 fertile and 62 infertile subjects) were examined following WHO guidelines and with a mathematically elaborated transmission electron microscopy analysis (fertility index-FI-, % sperm pathologies). F₂-Isops were measured by GC/NICI-MS/MS, RvD1 by ELISA, and TEAC by a commercially available antioxidant assay. F₂-Isops, RvD1, and sperm TEAC (positively interrelated with each other) correlated negatively with seminal parameters and FI and positively with sperm pathologies. F₂-Isops, RvD1, and sperm TEAC levels were significantly higher in infertile vs fertile subjects (p < 0.001). ROC curve analysis demonstrated that sperm TEAC (J index: 0.13 mM) and seminal RvD1 (J index: 38.26 pg/mL) discriminated between fertile and infertile subjects. Spermatozoa stimulate antioxidant capacity in the presence of an OS environment; this data suggests an association in which antioxidant defences may vary in relation to the surrounding seminal plasma. Moreover, sperm TEAC, and to a lesser extent seminal RvD1, emerge as potential markers for identifying infertile patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15 Years of Biology: The View Ahead)

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25 pages, 18017 KB

Open AccessReview

Disrupting the Undruggable: Emerging Modalities for Targeting Protein–Protein Interactions in Oncology

by Mohamed El-Tanani, Syed Arman Rabbani, Adil Farooq Wali, Yahia El-Tanani and Shrestha Sharma

Biology 2026, 15(10), 759; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100759 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Protein–protein interactions (PPIs) are critical for cellular signaling, apoptosis regulation, and immune function in the body, and dysregulation is a hallmark of cancer. The large, dynamic, and shallow nature of PPI interfaces rendered them “undruggable” by conventional small molecules in the past. Recent [...] Read more.

Protein–protein interactions (PPIs) are critical for cellular signaling, apoptosis regulation, and immune function in the body, and dysregulation is a hallmark of cancer. The large, dynamic, and shallow nature of PPI interfaces rendered them “undruggable” by conventional small molecules in the past. Recent advances in structural biology, chemical innovation, and artificial intelligence have revolutionized the landscape of PPI-directed drug discovery. This review summarizes the mechanistic roles of PPIs in oncogenesis, critically discusses novel therapeutic interventions, such as small molecules, peptidomimetics, stapled peptides, proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), molecular glues, and AI-based drug optimization strategies, altering the druggable proteome in oncology. Therapeutics with clinically well-validated action, including Venetoclax and AMG 510, and next-generation candidates demonstrate the translational applications of these approaches. Some of the key challenges, such as interface complexity, specificity, bioavailability, and resistance, are addressed together with countermeasures like rational design, combination therapies, enhanced delivery systems, and biomarker-based patient selection. To this end, the incorporation of multi-omics data and artificial-intelligence (AI)-driven modeling technologies is revolutionizing the personalized cancer therapeutics development space. Collectively, these advances mark a paradigm shift: PPIs, once considered inaccessible, are now at the forefront of precision oncology, offering new hope for patients with previously intractable malignancies. Full article

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20 pages, 2166 KB

Open AccessReview

Visualization of Type IV Pili: Linking Structural Architecture, Dynamic Function, and Translational Opportunities

by Jingchao Zhang and Yutong Liu

Biology 2026, 15(10), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100758 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Type IV pili are widespread and multifunctional filamentous nanomachines that contribute to bacterial motility, adhesion, surface sensing, DNA uptake, biofilm formation, and, in some organisms, extracellular electron transfer. Owing to their small diameter, rapid dynamics, and sensitivity to experimental perturbation, type IV pili [...] Read more.

Type IV pili are widespread and multifunctional filamentous nanomachines that contribute to bacterial motility, adhesion, surface sensing, DNA uptake, biofilm formation, and, in some organisms, extracellular electron transfer. Owing to their small diameter, rapid dynamics, and sensitivity to experimental perturbation, type IV pili have historically been difficult to visualize in their native states. Recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET), fluorescence-based live-cell imaging, and label-free approaches such as interferometric scattering microscopy (iSCAT) have substantially expanded our ability to observe type IV pili across spatial and temporal scales. In this review, we summarize how these visualization strategies have reshaped current understanding of type IV pili, from conserved filament architecture and envelope-spanning assembly machineries to force-dependent behaviors and context-specific physiological functions. We further discuss how imaging-informed knowledge may support translational efforts, including antivirulence intervention, vaccine design, bioelectronic optimization, and microbial engineering, while emphasizing the current limitations of these applications. By integrating structural, dynamic, and functional perspectives, this review aims to provide a coherent framework for future studies of type IV pili in microbiology, infection biology, and biotechnology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microbiology)

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15 pages, 2509 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Low-Head Dams on the Biodiversity of Wintering Waterbirds in China’s Xin’an River Basin

by Fengming Dou, Xueyun Li and Chao Yu

Biology 2026, 15(10), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100757 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2026

Abstract

The rivers in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are important wintering and migration stopovers for waterbirds. The hydrological characteristics of rivers directly affect the habitats of overwintering waterbirds and thus lead to changes in the diversity of overwintering waterbirds. [...] Read more.

The rivers in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are important wintering and migration stopovers for waterbirds. The hydrological characteristics of rivers directly affect the habitats of overwintering waterbirds and thus lead to changes in the diversity of overwintering waterbirds. The construction of artificial low-head dams has altered the natural hydrological processes of rivers, and therefore, investigating their influence on the composition of wintering waterbird communities is of great significance for the conservation and management of waterbirds. This study was carried out in the Xin’anjiang River Basin from October 2021 to March 2022, with 11 low-head dams selected as the research sites. Utilizing the sampling method, it investigated the species and abundance of wintering waterbirds in both the catchment and tailwater zones of these dams. Subsequently, the diversity of overwintering waterbirds in the two aforementioned zones was calculated, and their inter-zonal differences were analyzed and compared. The results of the study indicate that there are significant differences between the catchment area and the tailwater area of the “ZSJC” Dam (Z = 1.945, p = 0.001), whereas no significant disparities are observed in the species count and abundance of wintering waterbirds using that particular area between the catchment and tailwater areas of other dams. Compared with the catchment areas, the tailwater areas of the dams exhibit a more concentrated and abundant distribution of overwintering waterbirds, while the distribution of overwintering waterbirds in the catchment areas is more uniform than that in the tailwater areas. The 11 dams under study all demonstrated spatial turnover advantages, suggesting that catchment areas and tailwater areas make comparable contributions to β diversity. Bivariate correlation analysis in SPSS detected a significant correlation between dam vertical length and β diversity. In summary, low-head dam construction significantly affects the alpha diversity, beta diversity, abundance, and community composition of wintering waterbirds by modifying hydrological conditions and habitat structure in the Xin’an River Basin. This study provides a scientific basis for waterbird protection and low-head dam management. Full article

53 pages, 1146 KB

Open AccessReview

Sensory Neuroimmunology: Bidirectional Neuro-Immune Circuits Governing Pain, Itch, Inflammation, and Host Defense at Barrier Surfaces

by Reza Mosaddeghi-Heris, Nasrin Forghani, Negin Safari Dehnavi, Maryam Saberivand, Amir Tahavvori, Sohrab Azin, Niloofar Taheri and Paolo Martelletti

Biology 2026, 15(10), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100756 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Sensory neurons at barrier tissues were once seen as passive detectors of environmental stimuli. However, in the last five years, increasing evidence has challenged this view, redefining these cells as active immune sentinels that directly affect tissue immunity in the skin, lungs, and [...] Read more.

Sensory neurons at barrier tissues were once seen as passive detectors of environmental stimuli. However, in the last five years, increasing evidence has challenged this view, redefining these cells as active immune sentinels that directly affect tissue immunity in the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. Nociceptors and pruriceptors express various immune-sensing receptors, including Toll-like receptors, cytokine receptors, and alarmin sensors, which allow them to directly detect pathogens, allergens, and tissue damage. When activated, sensory neurons quickly release neuropeptides such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), substance P, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and PACAP (pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide), which guide immune cell recruitment, activation, and resolution. Reciprocally, immune-derived mediators, including IL-33, IL-31, thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), IL-4/IL-13, and TNF-α, modulate neuronal excitability and plasticity, forming bidirectional neuroimmune circuits that control inflammation, host defense, pain, and itch. Landmark studies published in 2024–2025, including neuronal control of gut Treg function and the identification of sensory nerve immune niches, have further refined this framework and revealed tissue-specific circuit specialization. This review synthesizes recent insights from molecular, cellular, and systems levels into the sensory neuroimmune axis, emphasizes its protective versus pathogenic roles, and critically evaluates emerging therapeutic strategies and safety concerns, positioning sensory neuroimmunology as a unifying framework for tissue barrier homeostasis and disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Paper Collection: Understanding Immune Systems)

15 pages, 1306 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nutrient Supply Gradients Modulate Cultivation-Driven Restructuring of Microbial Communities in Desert Soils

by Feng Wen, Xiru Chen, Qiannan Chen, Lianqiang Li, Yingying Zhao, Yongxia You, Shihao Niu and Zhanfeng Xia

Biology 2026, 15(10), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100755 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Understanding how cultivation conditions influence the recovery of microbial diversity is critical for interpreting cultivation-derived communities in relation to in situ microbial ecology, particularly in nutrient-limited environments such as desert soils. In this study, we investigated how an oligotrophic nutrient gradient shapes cultivation [...] Read more.

Understanding how cultivation conditions influence the recovery of microbial diversity is critical for interpreting cultivation-derived communities in relation to in situ microbial ecology, particularly in nutrient-limited environments such as desert soils. In this study, we investigated how an oligotrophic nutrient gradient shapes cultivation outcomes and enrichment-derived bacterial community structure in soils from the Taklimakan Desert. Three enrichment treatments representing decreasing nutrient availability—standard low-nutrient medium (R2A), diluted medium (DR2A), and sterile water—were used to compare enrichment-derived communities with the original soil microbiome. Amplicon sequencing revealed that cultivation substantially altered community composition and reduced both taxonomic richness and diversity relative to the original soil. Across enrichment treatments, bacterial communities were dominated by a limited number of taxa, whereas the original soil contained a broader range of low-abundance lineages. Within the enrichment system, variation in nutrient supply influenced the relative abundance of specific taxa, with differential responses observed at the genus level. In contrast, beta diversity analysis showed only limited separation among enrichment treatments, and co-occurrence network analysis indicated generally simple and weakly connected community structures across all conditions. Overall, our results demonstrate that cultivation represents the primary selective force shaping enrichment-derived bacterial communities, while nutrient supply intensity acts as a secondary modulator of taxon-specific enrichment. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating nutrient gradients into cultivation strategies to improve ecological interpretation and facilitate the recovery of oligotrophy-associated microorganisms from desert soils. Full article

22 pages, 5375 KB

Open AccessArticle

Maternal Cadmium Exposure Impairs Lactational Performance and Milk Quality in Mice

by Meiqian Kuang, Haigang Xu, Yujian Chen, Ziyang Lai, Caifang Ren, Pan Huang and Hongjun Huang

Biology 2026, 15(10), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology15100754 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2026

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) is a ubiquitous heavy metal environmental toxicant, and exposure poses a persistent public health concern due to its bioaccumulative properties. However, the impact of maternal Cd exposure on mammary gland function during lactation remains insufficiently understood. In this study, we investigated [...] Read more.

Cadmium (Cd) is a ubiquitous heavy metal environmental toxicant, and exposure poses a persistent public health concern due to its bioaccumulative properties. However, the impact of maternal Cd exposure on mammary gland function during lactation remains insufficiently understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of Cd exposure during pregnancy and lactation on mammary gland development, hormonal homeostasis, and lactational performance using a drinking water exposure model. Pregnant 7-week-old ICR mice were randomly assigned into Control and Cd groups. The Control group received standard drinking water, while the Cd group was administered water supplemented with Cd (12 mg/L). Results demonstrated that maternal Cd exposure markedly reduced maternal and offspring weight, respectively. Histological analysis revealed that Cd exposure resulted in decreased numbers of mammary alveoli and widened interstitial spaces, indicating impaired mammary development. In addition, Cd exposure markedly compromised lactational performance, as reflected by reduced milk yield and decreased levels of milk protein, fat, and lactose across multiple lactation stages. Integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses further revealed substantial alterations in hormonal profiles and metabolic pathways associated with mammary gland function. Notably, Cd accumulation was detected in mammary tissue and milk, accompanied by transcriptional changes in genes involved in milk synthesis and lipid metabolism. In conclusion, these findings indicated that maternal Cd exposure during pregnancy and lactation is associated with structural and functional alterations of the mammary gland, leading to reduced lactational performance and impaired offspring growth. The findings contribute to a better understanding of the risks posed by environmental Cd exposure, emphasizing the need for effective public health strategies to mitigate its impact on maternal and infant health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physiology)

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