Batteries

17 pages, 4572 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Self-Assembled Silicon-Based Graphite Composite Anodes for Commercially Viable High-Energy-Density Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Ruye Cong, Da-Eun Jeong, Ye-Yeong Jung, Hyun-Ho Park, Jiyun Jeon, Hochun Lee and Chang-Seop Lee

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030115 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 544

Abstract

Silicon-based anode materials are used to improve the performance of next-generation high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the inherent limitations and cost of these materials are hindering their mass production. Commercial graphite can overcome the shortcomings of silicon-based materials and partially reduce their cost. [...] Read more.

Silicon-based anode materials are used to improve the performance of next-generation high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the inherent limitations and cost of these materials are hindering their mass production. Commercial graphite can overcome the shortcomings of silicon-based materials and partially reduce their cost. In this study, a high-performance, low-cost, and environmentally friendly composite electrode material suitable for mass production was developed through optimizing the silicon content of commercial silicon–graphite composites and introducing a small amount of graphene and carbon nanofibers. This partially overcomes the inherent limitations of silicon, enhances the interface stability of silicon-based materials and the cycle stability of batteries, and reduces the irreversible capacity loss of the initial cycle. At a silicon content of 15 wt%, the initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) of the battery was 65%. Reducing the silicon content in the composite electrode from 15% to 10% increased the ICE to 70% and improved the first lithiation and delithiation capacities. The battery exhibited excellent cycle stability at a current density of 0.1 A g⁻¹, retaining approximately 65% of its capacity after 100 cycles, good performance at various current densities (0.1–1 A g⁻¹), and an excellent reversible performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Design, Preparation, Reaction Mechanisms of Electrode Materials, and Battery Life Evaluation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 4112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon-Coated CF-Si/Al Anodes for Improved Lithium-Ion Battery Performance

by Liangliang Zeng, Peng Li, Mi Ouyang, Shujuan Gao and Kun Liang

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030114 - 18 Mar 2025

Viewed by 465

Abstract

Despite their high specific capacity, magnetron-sputtered Si/Al thin films face rapid capacity decay due to stress-induced cracking, delamination, and detrimental electrolyte reactions. This study introduces a carbon-coated composite anode that overcomes these limitations, delivering superior reversible capacity, exceptional rate capability, and stable cycling [...] Read more.

Despite their high specific capacity, magnetron-sputtered Si/Al thin films face rapid capacity decay due to stress-induced cracking, delamination, and detrimental electrolyte reactions. This study introduces a carbon-coated composite anode that overcomes these limitations, delivering superior reversible capacity, exceptional rate capability, and stable cycling performance. An electrochemical evaluation reveals that the CF-Si/Al@C-500-1h composite exhibits marked enhancements in capacity retention (43.5% after 100 cycles at 0.6 A·g⁻¹) and rate capability, maintaining 579.1 mAh·g⁻¹ at 3 A·g⁻¹ (1 C). The carbon layer enhances electrical conductivity, buffers volume expansion during lithiation/delithiation, and suppresses silicon aggregation and electrolyte side reactions. Coupled with an aluminum framework, this architecture ensures robust structural integrity and efficient lithium-ion transport. These advancements position CF-Si/Al@C-500-1h as a promising anode material for next-generation lithium-ion batteries, while insights into scalable fabrication and carbon integration strategies pave the way for practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Two-Dimensional Materials for Battery Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 8010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Battery Pack Cooling Efficiency Through Graphite-Integrated Hybrid-Battery Thermal Management Systems

by Amin Rahmani, Mahdieh Dibaj and Mohammad Akrami

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030113 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 412

Abstract

This study investigates a hybrid-battery thermal management system (BTMS) integrating air-cooling, a cold plate, and porous materials to optimize heat dissipation in a 20-cell battery pack during charging and discharging cycles of up to 5C. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model based on [...] Read more.

This study investigates a hybrid-battery thermal management system (BTMS) integrating air-cooling, a cold plate, and porous materials to optimize heat dissipation in a 20-cell battery pack during charging and discharging cycles of up to 5C. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model based on the equivalent circuit model (ECM) is developed to simulate battery pack behavior under various cooling configurations, including different porous media and vortex generators placed between cells. The impact of battery pack configurations on heat generation is analyzed, and five different porous materials are tested for their cooling performance. The results reveal that, among the examined materials, graphite is the most effective in maintaining the battery temperature within an acceptable range, particularly during high C-rate charging. Graphite integration significantly reduces the thermal stabilization time from over an hour to approximately 600 s. Additionally, our parametric experiment evaluates the influence of ambient temperature, airflow velocity, and cold-plate temperature on the system’s cooling efficiency. The findings demonstrate that maintaining the cold-plate temperature between 300 K and 305 K minimizes the temperature gradient, ensuring uniform thermal distribution. This research highlights the potential of hybrid BTMS designs incorporating porous media and cold plates to enhance battery performance, safety, and lifespan under various operational conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

4 pages, 146 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Thermal Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Future Trends

by Mingyi Chen

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030112 - 15 Mar 2025

Viewed by 942

Abstract

Research on the thermal safety of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is crucial for supporting their large-scale application [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Safety of Lithium Ion Batteries)

15 pages, 2084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Free-Standing and Binder-Free Porous Carbon Cloth (C-Felt) Anodes for Lithium-Ion Full Batteries

by Venroy Watson, Yaw D. Yeboah, Mark H. Weatherspoon and Egwu Eric Kalu

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030111 - 14 Mar 2025

Viewed by 564

Abstract

A priority area for low-cost LIBs is the commercial production of electrodes with a high cycle life and efficiency in an environmentally benign fashion and a cost-effective manner. We demonstrate the use of undoped/untreated, flexible, stand-alone, mesh-like carbon cloth (C-felt) as a potential [...] Read more.

A priority area for low-cost LIBs is the commercial production of electrodes with a high cycle life and efficiency in an environmentally benign fashion and a cost-effective manner. We demonstrate the use of undoped/untreated, flexible, stand-alone, mesh-like carbon cloth (C-felt) as a potential alternative anode to commonly used graphite composite anodes (GRAs) in LIBs. The performances of commercial GRAs (9 m²/g) and C-felt (102 m²/g) were compared as anodes vs. LiFePO₄ (14.5 m²/g) cathodes in the full battery. Half-cell test results determined appropriate mass ratios of 2:1 for GRAs (LiFePO₄/GRA) and 1:1 for C-felt (LiFePO₄/C-felt). At a 0.3 C discharge rate, the 1:1 ratio yielded a specific discharge capacity of 104 mAh/g, in contrast to 87 mAh/g for the 2:1 ratio for a full cell in the 100th cycle, corresponding to a retention of 82% for the 1:1 LiFePO₄/C-felt full cell and 70% for the 2:1 LiFePO₄/GRA full cell from their first specific discharge capacities. By varying the ratio of C-felt anode to LiFePO₄ cathode in a full cell and expressing the specific capacity in the 100th cycle as a function of the fraction of C-felt present (at a fixed amount of LiFePO₄), a maximum specific capacity was achieved at a fraction of C-felt equal to 0.542 or (1:1.18) LiFePO₄/C-felt or 106 mAh/g. This corresponds closely to the experimentally determined value and supports (1:1) LiFePO₄/C-felt full cell as an optimum ratio that can outperform the (2:1) LiFePO₄/GRA full cell in our test conditions. Hence, we present C-felt anode as a potential cost-effective, lightweight anode material for low-cost LIBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 2165 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Patent Landscape Analysis on the Recycling of Lithium-Ion Battery Positive Electrode Materials: Trends, Technologies, and the Future

by Zhuoya Tong and Xiaobo Zhu

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030110 - 14 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1023

Abstract

The massive production and utilization of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has intensified concerns about raw material shortage and end-of-life battery management. The development of effective recycling/reusing strategies, especially for the valuable active positive electrode materials, has attracted much interest from both academia and industry. [...] Read more.

The massive production and utilization of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has intensified concerns about raw material shortage and end-of-life battery management. The development of effective recycling/reusing strategies, especially for the valuable active positive electrode materials, has attracted much interest from both academia and industry. This study presents a comprehensive patent analysis on the recycling technologies of spent LIBs. We screened and examined 672 patent filings associated with 367 application families, covering the period from 1994 to 2024. The analysis reveals an explosive growth in patenting activity since 2020, with China and the United States leading in geographical coverage. Hydrometallurgy continues as the most patented recycling technology, followed by direct regeneration, separation, and pyrometallurgy. Key innovations focus on improving leaching efficiency, developing novel purification methods, and exploring various relithiation strategies. The study also highlights the significant involvement of both companies and academic institutions in driving innovation. Our findings provide insights into the technological landscape, identify emerging trends, and lead to the discussion of potential future developments in LIB positive electrode recycling. This analysis serves as a valuable resource for researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers working towards sustainable energy storage solutions and circular economy strategies in the battery sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processes and Advances in Electrode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 7430 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Reduced-Order Modeling Research of Thermal Runaway Propagation in 100 Ah Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Module

by Han Li, Chengshan Xu, Yan Wang, Xilong Zhang, Yongliang Zhang, Mengqi Zhang, Peiben Wang, Huifa Shi, Languang Lu and Xuning Feng

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030109 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 436

Abstract

The thermal runaway propagation (TRP) model of energy storage batteries can provide solutions for the safety protection of energy storage systems. Traditional TRP models are solved using the finite element method, which can significantly consume computational resources and time due to the large [...] Read more.

The thermal runaway propagation (TRP) model of energy storage batteries can provide solutions for the safety protection of energy storage systems. Traditional TRP models are solved using the finite element method, which can significantly consume computational resources and time due to the large number of elements and nodes involved. To ensure solution accuracy and improve computational efficiency, this paper transforms the heat transfer problem in finite element calculations into a state-space equation form based on the reduced-order theory of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems; a simplified method is proposed to solve the heat flow changes in the battery TRP process, which is simple, stable, and computationally efficient. This study focuses on a four-cell 100 Ah lithium iron phosphate battery module, and module experiments are conducted to analyze the TRP characteristics of the battery. A reduced-order model (ROM) of module TRP is established based on the Arnoldi method for Krylov subspace, and a comparison of simulation efficiency is conducted with the finite element model (FEM). Finally, energy flow calculations are performed based on experimental and simulation data to obtain the energy flow rule during TRP process. The results show that the ROM achieves good accuracy with critical feature errors within 10%. Compared to the FEM, the simulation duration is reduced by 40%. The model can greatly improve the calculation efficiency while predicting the three-dimensional temperature distribution of the battery. This work facilitates the efficient computation of TRP simulations for energy storage batteries and the design of safety protection for energy storage battery systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Safety of Lithium Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 9758 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multistage Early Warning of Sodium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway Using Multidimensional Signal Analysis and Redundancy Optimization

by Jinzhong Li, Yuguang Xie, Bin Xu, Jiarui Zhang, Xinyu Wang and Lei Mao

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030108 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 589

Abstract

This paper proposes an early warning method for thermal runaway in sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) based on multidimensional signal analysis and redundancy optimization. By analyzing signals such as voltage, temperature, strain, and gas concentrations, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is employed to evaluate the contribution [...] Read more.

This paper proposes an early warning method for thermal runaway in sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) based on multidimensional signal analysis and redundancy optimization. By analyzing signals such as voltage, temperature, strain, and gas concentrations, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is employed to evaluate the contribution of each signal and reduce data redundancy, while correlation analysis further refines the signal set by eliminating overlapping information. The optimized signals enable a stage-specific warning framework, which identifies distinct phases of thermal runaway progression with high precision. Experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed method, showcasing its potential for real-time monitoring and enhanced safety management of sodium-ion battery systems in critical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries Aging Mechanisms and Diagnosis)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

39 pages, 7752 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Exploiting Artificial Neural Networks for the State of Charge Estimation in EV/HV Battery Systems: A Review

by Pierpaolo Dini and Davide Paolini

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030107 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 901

Abstract

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) improve battery management in electric vehicles (EVs) by enhancing the safety, durability, and reliability of electrochemical batteries, particularly through improvements in the State of Charge (SOC) estimation. EV batteries operate under demanding conditions, which can affect performance and, in [...] Read more.

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) improve battery management in electric vehicles (EVs) by enhancing the safety, durability, and reliability of electrochemical batteries, particularly through improvements in the State of Charge (SOC) estimation. EV batteries operate under demanding conditions, which can affect performance and, in extreme cases, lead to critical failures such as thermal runaway—an exothermic chain reaction that may result in overheating, fires, and even explosions. Addressing these risks requires advanced diagnostic and management strategies, and machine learning presents a powerful solution due to its ability to adapt across multiple facets of battery management. The versatility of ML enables its application to material discovery, model development, quality control, real-time monitoring, charge optimization, and fault detection, positioning it as an essential technology for modern battery management systems. Specifically, ANN models excel at detecting subtle, complex patterns that reflect battery health and performance, crucial for accurate SOC estimation. The effectiveness of ML applications in this domain, however, is highly dependent on the selection of quality datasets, relevant features, and suitable algorithms. Advanced techniques such as active learning are being explored to enhance ANN model performance by improving the models’ responsiveness to diverse and nuanced battery behavior. This compact survey consolidates recent advances in machine learning for SOC estimation, analyzing the current state of the field and highlighting the challenges and opportunities that remain. By structuring insights from the extensive literature, this paper aims to establish ANNs as a foundational tool in next-generation battery management systems, ultimately supporting safer and more efficient EVs through real-time fault detection, accurate SOC estimation, and robust safety protocols. Future research directions include refining dataset quality, optimizing algorithm selection, and enhancing diagnostic precision, thereby broadening ANNs’ role in ensuring reliable battery management in electric vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning for Advanced Battery Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plasticized Ionic Liquid Crystal Elastomer Emulsion-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Zakaria Siddiquee, Hyunsang Lee, Weinan Xu, Thein Kyu and Antal Jákli

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030106 - 12 Mar 2025

Viewed by 534

Abstract

The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural ordering. Specifically, the macroscopic [...] Read more.

The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural ordering. Specifically, the macroscopic alignment of phase-segregated, ordered nanostructures in iLCEs serves as an ion pathway, which can be solidified through photopolymerization to create ion-conductive solid-state polymer lithium batteries (SSPLBs) with high ionic conductivity (1.76 × 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ at 30 °C), and a high (0.61) transference number. Additionally, the rubbery state ensures good interfacial contact with electrodes that inhibits lithium dendrite formation. Furthermore, in contrast to liquid electrolytes, the iLCE shrinks upon heating, thus preventing any overheating-related explosions. The Li/LiFePO₄ (LFP) cells fabricated using iLCE-based solid electrolytes show excellent cycling stability with a discharge capacity of ~124 mAh g⁻¹ and a coulombic efficiency close to 100%. These results are promising for the practical application of iLCE-based SSPLBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances of All-Solid-State Battery)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

27 pages, 21962 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Analysis of Battery Cell Heating Through Electromagnetic Induction-Based Liquid System Considering Induction Power and Flow Rate Effects in Extreme-Cold Conditions

by Alirıza Kaleli and Bilal Sungur

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030105 - 12 Mar 2025

Viewed by 456

Abstract

The performance of lithium-ion batteries deteriorates significantly under extreme-cold conditions due to increased internal resistance and decreased electrochemical activity. This study presents an experimental analysis of a battery thermal management system (BTMS) incorporating electromagnetic induction heating and a fluid-based heat transfer mechanism to [...] Read more.

The performance of lithium-ion batteries deteriorates significantly under extreme-cold conditions due to increased internal resistance and decreased electrochemical activity. This study presents an experimental analysis of a battery thermal management system (BTMS) incorporating electromagnetic induction heating and a fluid-based heat transfer mechanism to alleviate these problems. The experimental setup utilizes a closed-loop circulation system where ethylene glycol-based fluid flows through induction-heated copper tubes, ensuring efficient heat transfer to an 18650-cell battery. This study evaluates heating performance under varying ambient temperatures (−15 °C and −5 °C), fluid flow rates (0.22, 0.3, and 0.5 L/min), and induction power levels (150 W, 225 W, 275 W, and 400 W). The results indicate that lower flow rates (e.g., 0.22 L/min) provide faster heating due to longer thermal interaction time with the battery; however, localized boiling points were observed at these low flow rates, potentially leading to efficiency losses and thermal instability. At −15 °C and 400 W, the battery temperature reached 25 °C in 383 s at 0.22 L/min, while at 0.5 L/min, the same temperature was achieved in 463 s. Higher flow rates improved temperature uniformity but slightly reduced heating efficiency due to increased heat dissipation. Internal resistance measurements revealed a substantial decrease as battery temperature increased, further validating the effectiveness of the system. These findings present a viable alternative for heating electric vehicle batteries in sub-zero environments, thereby optimizing battery performance and extending operational lifespan. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Least Cost Vehicle Charging in a Smart Neighborhood Considering Uncertainty and Battery Degradation

by Curd Schade, Parinaz Aliasghari, Ruud Egging-Bratseth and Clara Pfister

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030104 - 11 Mar 2025

Viewed by 460

Abstract

The electricity landscape is constantly evolving, with intermittent and distributed electricity supply causing increased variability and uncertainty. The growth in electric vehicles, and electrification on the demand side, further intensifies this issue. Managing the increasing volatility and uncertainty is of critical importance to [...] Read more.

The electricity landscape is constantly evolving, with intermittent and distributed electricity supply causing increased variability and uncertainty. The growth in electric vehicles, and electrification on the demand side, further intensifies this issue. Managing the increasing volatility and uncertainty is of critical importance to secure and minimize costs for the energy supply. Smart neighborhoods offer a promising solution to locally manage the supply and demand of energy, which can ultimately lead to cost savings while addressing intermittency features. This study assesses the impact of different electric vehicle charging strategies on smart grid energy costs, specifically accounting for battery degradation due to cycle depths, state of charge, and uncertainties in charging demand and electricity prices. Employing a comprehensive evaluation framework, the research assesses the impacts of different charging strategies on operational costs and battery degradation. Multi-stage stochastic programming is applied to account for uncertainties in electricity prices and electric vehicle charging demand. The findings demonstrate that smart charging can significantly reduce expected energy costs, achieving a 10% cost decrease and reducing battery degradation by up to 30%. We observe that the additional cost reductions from allowing Vehicle-to-Grid supply compared to smart charging are small. Using the additional flexibility aggravates degradation, which reduces the total cost benefits. This means that most benefits are obtainable just by optimized the timing of the charging itself. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 6027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Blended Terpolymer Electrolyte Membrane for Enhanced Safety and Performance in Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Wansu Bae, Sabuj Chandra Sutradhar, Subeen Song, Kijong Joo, Doyul Lee, Donghoon Kang, Hyewon Na, Jiye Lee, Whangi Kim and Hohyoun Jang

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030103 - 11 Mar 2025

Viewed by 488

Abstract

The persistent emphasis on safety issues in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with organic liquid electrolytes revolves around thermal runaway and dendrite formation. The high thermal stability and non-leakage properties of polymer electrolytes (PEs) make them attractive as next-generation electrolytes for LIBs. This study presents [...] Read more.

The persistent emphasis on safety issues in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with organic liquid electrolytes revolves around thermal runaway and dendrite formation. The high thermal stability and non-leakage properties of polymer electrolytes (PEs) make them attractive as next-generation electrolytes for LIBs. This study presents a blended terpolymer electrolyte (BTPE) membrane, integrating the high ionic conductivity of dual ion conducting polymer electrolytes (DICPEs) with the elevated lithium transference number (

t_{+}

) of single-ion conducting polymer electrolytes (SICPEs). The BTPE was synthesized by blending PAA–PVA with lithiated acrylic acid (LiAA), lithiated 2–acrylamido–2–methylpropane sulfonic acid (LiAMPS), and a 2–hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA)–based terpolymer, using lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) as the lithium salt. The synthesized BTPE showed excellent physical and electrochemical stability; it also exhibited an enhanced lithium transference number (

t_{+}

= 0.47) and high ionic conductivity (5.21 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ at 30 °C), attributed to the interaction between the FSI anion and the NH group of AMPS. This research presents an innovative strategy for the design of next-generation LIB electrolytes by integrating polymer electrolytes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rechargeable Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 11484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Interphase Stability of Hard Carbon for Sodium-Ion Battery by Ionic Liquid Additives

by Dexi Meng, Zongkun Bian, Kailimai Su, Yan Wang, Zhibin Lu, Enlin Cai and Junwei Lang

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030102 - 8 Mar 2025

Viewed by 958

Abstract

Hard carbon (HC), which is one of the anode materials widely used in commercial sodium-ion batteries at present, suffers from a thick and unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer formed by the self-reduction in traditional carbonate-based electrolytes on its surface. This phenomenon impacts [...] Read more.

Hard carbon (HC), which is one of the anode materials widely used in commercial sodium-ion batteries at present, suffers from a thick and unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer formed by the self-reduction in traditional carbonate-based electrolytes on its surface. This phenomenon impacts the battery’s Coulomb efficiency, cycle stability, and rate performance. In this paper, a pyrrolidinium-type di-cation ionic liquid, butyl-1,4-di(methylpyrrolidinium) di[hexafluorophosphate] (C₄di[mPy].di[PF₆]), is studied as an electrolyte additive to improve the interphase stability of the HC anode. The PF₆⁻ in C₄di[mPy].di[PF₆] enhances the coordination number between Na⁺ and PF₆⁻, and C₄di[mPy]²⁺ is preferentially reduced, jointly participating in the construction of stable, thin, dense and NaF-rich SEI films, thus laying the foundation for improving battery performance. As a result, in the carbonate electrolyte containing 2 wt% C₄di[mPy].di[PF₆], the reversible capacity of the HC/Na half-cell is increased by 14.7%, and the capacity retention rate remains at 90.4% after 400 cycles. This work provides reference for future research and design of high-performance ion liquid additives. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 10085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Safety-Critical Influence of Ageing on Mechanical Properties of Lithium-Ion Pouch Cells

by Gregor Gstrein, Syed Muhammad Abbas, Eduard Ewert, Michael Wenzl and Christian Ellersdorfer

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030099 - 7 Mar 2025

Viewed by 728

Abstract

While the effect of ageing has been thoroughly analysed, to improve the cycle life of lithium-ion batteries, its impact on safety in case of a mechanical loading is still a new field of research. It has to be found out how mechanical properties, [...] Read more.

While the effect of ageing has been thoroughly analysed, to improve the cycle life of lithium-ion batteries, its impact on safety in case of a mechanical loading is still a new field of research. It has to be found out how mechanical properties, such as the tolerable failure force or deformation, change over the operational lifetime of a battery. To answer this question, mechanical abuse tests were carried out with pouch cells used in recent electric vehicles in a fresh state and after usage over 160.000 km. These tests were complemented with a detailed component level analysis, in order to identify mechanisms that lead to changed cell behaviour. For the analysed aged cells, a significantly different mechanical response was observed in comparison with the respective fresh samples. The tolerable force was severely reduced (up to −27%), accompanied by a notable reduction in the allowable deformation level (up to −15%) prior to failure, making the aged cells clearly more safety critical. Based on the subsequent component tests, the predominant mechanism for this different behaviour was concluded to be particle cracking in the cathode active material. The found results are partly in contrast with the (few) other already published works. It is, however, unclear if this difference is rooted in different cell chemistries or types, or another battery state resulting from varying ageing procedures. This underlies the importance of further investigations in this research field to close the apparent gap of knowledge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries Aging Mechanisms and Diagnosis)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 3683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monodisperse Hierarchical N-Doped Carbon Microspheres with Uniform Pores as a Cathode Host for Advanced K–Se Batteries

by Hyun-Jin Kim, Jeong-Ho Na and Seung-Keun Park

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030101 - 7 Mar 2025

Viewed by 672

Abstract

K–Se batteries offer high energy density and cost-effectiveness, making them promising candidates for energy storage systems. However, their practical applications are hindered by Se aggregation, sluggish ion diffusion, and significant volumetric expansion. To address these challenges, monodisperse hierarchical N-doped carbon microspheres (NCHS) with [...] Read more.

K–Se batteries offer high energy density and cost-effectiveness, making them promising candidates for energy storage systems. However, their practical applications are hindered by Se aggregation, sluggish ion diffusion, and significant volumetric expansion. To address these challenges, monodisperse hierarchical N-doped carbon microspheres (NCHS) with uniformly sized pores were synthesized as cathode hosts. The flower-like microstructure, formed by the assembly of two-dimensional building blocks, mitigated Se aggregation and facilitated uniform distribution within the pores, enhancing Se utilization. Nitrogen doping, introduced during synthesis, strengthened chemical bonding between selenium and the carbon host, suppressed side reactions, and accelerated reaction kinetics. These synergistic effects enabled efficient ion transport, improved electrolyte accessibility, and enhanced redox reactions. Additionally, the uniform particle and pore sizes of NCHS effectively mitigated volumetric expansion and surface accumulation, ensuring long-term cycling stability and superior electrochemical performance. Se-loaded NCHS (Se@NCHS) exhibited a high discharge capacity of 199.4 mA h g⁻¹ at 0.5 C after 500 cycles with 70.4% capacity retention and achieved 188 mA h g⁻¹ at 3.0 C, outperforming conventional carbon hosts such as Super P. This study highlights the significance of structural and chemical modifications in optimizing cathode materials and offers valuable insights for developing high-performance energy storage systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrolyte and Electrode Design for Next-Generation Rechargeable Batteries)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 2959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning-Assisted Design of Doping Strategies for High-Voltage LiCoO₂: A Data-Driven Approach

by Man Fang, Yutong Yao, Chao Pang, Xiehang Chen, Yutao Wei, Fan Zhou, Xiaokun Zhang and Yong Xiang

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030100 - 7 Mar 2025

Viewed by 581

Abstract

Doping lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂) cathode materials is an effective strategy for mitigating the detrimental phase transitions that occur at high voltages. A deep understanding of the relationships between cycle capacity and the design elements of doped LiCoO₂ is critical [...] Read more.

Doping lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂) cathode materials is an effective strategy for mitigating the detrimental phase transitions that occur at high voltages. A deep understanding of the relationships between cycle capacity and the design elements of doped LiCoO₂ is critical for overcoming the existing research limitations. The key lies in constructing a robust and interpretable mapping model between data and performance. In this study, we analyze the correlations between the features and cycle capacity of 158 different element-doped LiCoO₂ systems by using five advanced machine learning algorithms. First, we conducted a feature election to reduce model overfitting through a combined approach of mechanistic analysis and Pearson correlation analysis. Second, the experimental results revealed that RF and XGBoost are the two best-performing models for data fitting. Specifically, the RF and XGBoost models have the highest fitting performance for IC and EC prediction, with R² values of 0.8882 and 0.8318, respectively. Experiments focusing on ion electronegativity design verified the effectiveness of the optimal combined model. We demonstrate the benefits of machine learning models in uncovering the core elements of complex doped LiCoO₂ formulation design. Furthermore, these combined models can be employed to search for materials with superior electrochemical performance and processing conditions. In the future, we aim to develop more accurate and efficient machine learning algorithms to explore the microscopic mechanisms affecting doped layered oxide cathode material design, thereby establishing new paradigms for the research of high-performance cathode materials for lithium batteries. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 6626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Solubility of Ethylene Carbonate in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide: A Pathway for Sustainable Electrolyte Recycling from Li-Ion Batteries

by Nils Zachmann, Claude Cicconardi and Burçak Ebin

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030098 - 4 Mar 2025

Viewed by 687

Abstract

Ethylene carbonate is, among other applications, used in Li-ion batteries as an electrolyte solvent to dissociate Li-salt. Supercritical CO₂ extraction is a promising method for the recycling of electrolyte solvents from spent batteries. To design an extraction process, knowledge of the solute [...] Read more.

Ethylene carbonate is, among other applications, used in Li-ion batteries as an electrolyte solvent to dissociate Li-salt. Supercritical CO₂ extraction is a promising method for the recycling of electrolyte solvents from spent batteries. To design an extraction process, knowledge of the solute solubility is essential. In this work, the solubility of ethylene carbonate at different pressure (80–160 bar) and temperature (40 °C, and 60 °C) conditions is studied. It is shown that the solubility of ethylene carbonate increased with pressure at both temperatures, ranging from 0.24 to 8.35 g/kg CO₂. The retrieved solubility data were fitted using the Chrastil model, and the average equilibrium association number was determined to be 4.46 and 4.02 at 40 °C and 60 °C, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis of the collected ethylene carbonate indicated that the crystal morphology and structure remained unchanged. A proof-of-principle experiment showed that EC can be successfully extracted from Li-ion battery waste at 140 bar and 40 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling and Reuse of End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Strategies–2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 2120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Validation of Anode-Free Sodium-Ion Pouch Cells Employing Prussian White Cathodes

by Ashley Willow, Marcin Orzech, Sajad Kiani, Nathan Reynolds, Matthew Houchell, Olutimilehin Omisore, Zari Tehrani and Serena Margadonna

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030097 - 4 Mar 2025

Viewed by 776

Abstract

This study investigated the impact of pouch cell design on energy density, both volumetric and gravimetric, through the development of accurate 3D models of small-format (<5 Ah) pouch cells. Various configurations were analysed, considering material properties and extrapolating expected electrochemical performance from studies [...] Read more.

This study investigated the impact of pouch cell design on energy density, both volumetric and gravimetric, through the development of accurate 3D models of small-format (<5 Ah) pouch cells. Various configurations were analysed, considering material properties and extrapolating expected electrochemical performance from studies on Prussian white cathodes in coin and pouch cells. This approach allowed for a rapid assessment of several performance-influencing factors, including the number of layers in the pouch cell, cathode thickness, active material percentage, and electrolyte volume. The highest calculated energy density of small-format pouch cells was shown to be 282 Wh kg⁻¹ and 454 Wh L⁻¹, achieved in a 3 Ah, 20-layer pouch cell. The calculations were validated using sodium-ion anode-free pouch cells utilising a Prussian white cathode in single- and few-layer format pouch cells (<0.1 Ah) cycled under a low external pressure (~200 kPa). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials Development and Optimization for Sodium/Potassium-Ion Batteries)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

33 pages, 14192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Model and Experimental Investigation of Venting Dynamics and Mass Loss in Lithium-Ion Batteries Under a Thermal Runaway

by Ai Chen, Resul Sahin, Marco Ströbel, Thomas Kottke, Stefan Hecker and Alexander Fill

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030096 - 3 Mar 2025

Viewed by 637

Abstract

Thermal runaway (TR) has become a critical safety concern with the widespread use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as an energy storage solution to meet the growing global energy demand. This issue has become a significant barrier to the expansion of LIB technologies. Addressing [...] Read more.

Thermal runaway (TR) has become a critical safety concern with the widespread use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as an energy storage solution to meet the growing global energy demand. This issue has become a significant barrier to the expansion of LIB technologies. Addressing the urgent need for safer LIBs, this study developed a comprehensive model to simulate TR in cylindrical 18650 nickel cobalt manganese (NMC) LIBs. By incorporating experiments with LG^®-INR18650-MJ1 cells, the model specifically aimed to accurately predict critical TR parameters, including temperature evolution, internal pressure changes, venting phases, and mass loss dynamics. The simulation closely correlated with experimental outcomes, particularly in replicating double venting mechanisms, gas generation, and the characteristics of mass loss observed during TR events. This study confirmed the feasibility of assuming proportional relationships between gas generation and the cell capacity and between the mass loss from solid particle ejection and the total mass loss, thereby simplifying the modeling of both gas generation and mass loss behaviors in LIBs under TR. Conclusively, the findings advanced the understanding of TR mechanisms in LIBs, providing a solid foundation for future research aimed at mitigating risks and promoting the safe integration of LIBs into sustainable energy solutions. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1 pages, 106 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Akram, M.N.; Abdul-Kader, W. Repurposing Second-Life EV Batteries to Advance Sustainable Development: A Comprehensive Review. Batteries 2024, 10, 452

by Muhammad Nadeem Akram and Walid Abdul-Kader

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030095 - 3 Mar 2025

Viewed by 347

Abstract

The authors wish to make the following corrections to their paper [...] Full article

30 pages, 2480 KiB

Open AccessReview

High-Volume Battery Recycling: Technical Review of Challenges and Future Directions

by Sheikh Rehman, Maher Al-Greer, Adam S. Burn, Michael Short and Xinjun Cui

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030094 - 28 Feb 2025

Viewed by 2356

Abstract

The growing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), driven by their use in portable electronics and electric vehicles (EVs), has led to an increasing volume of spent batteries. Effective end-of-life (EoL) management is crucial to mitigate environmental risks and prevent depletion of valuable raw [...] Read more.

The growing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), driven by their use in portable electronics and electric vehicles (EVs), has led to an increasing volume of spent batteries. Effective end-of-life (EoL) management is crucial to mitigate environmental risks and prevent depletion of valuable raw materials like lithium (Li), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), and manganese (Mn). Sustainable, high-volume recycling and material recovery are key to establishing a circular economy in the battery industry. This paper investigates challenges and proposes innovative solutions for high-volume LIB recycling, focusing on automation for large-scale recycling. Key issues include managing variations in battery design, chemistry, and topology, as well as the availability of sustainable raw materials and low-carbon energy sources for the recycling process. The paper presents a comparative study of emerging recycling techniques, including EV battery sorting, dismantling, discharge, and material recovery. With the expected growth in battery volume by 2030 (1.4 million per year by 2040), automation will be essential for efficient waste processing. Understanding the underlying processes in battery recycling is crucial for enabling safe and effective recycling methods. Finally, the paper emphasizes the importance of sustainable LIB recycling in supporting the circular economy. Our proposals aim to overcome these challenges by advancing automation and improving material recovery techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 6580 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Study of LFP-Based Positive Electrodes: Process Parameters’ Influence on the Electrochemical Properties

by Beatriz Arouca Maia, Natália Magalhães, Eunice Cunha, Nuno Correia, Maria Helena Braga and Raquel M. Santos

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030093 - 27 Feb 2025

Viewed by 830

Abstract

This study explores the preparation of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) electrodes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), focusing on electrode loadings, dispersion techniques, and drying methods. Using a three-roll mill for LFP slurry dispersion, good electrochemical properties were achieved with loadings of 5–8 mg·cm⁻² [...] Read more.

This study explores the preparation of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) electrodes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), focusing on electrode loadings, dispersion techniques, and drying methods. Using a three-roll mill for LFP slurry dispersion, good electrochemical properties were achieved with loadings of 5–8 mg·cm⁻² (0.8–1.2 mAh·cm⁻² areal capacity). Adding polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) during the final milling stage reduced performance due to premature solidification in-between rolls. Vacuum-free drying improved ionic conductivity, stability against lithium metal, and discharge capacity, whereas vacuum-dried samples exhibited higher initial resistance and lower capacity retention. These findings highlight critical parameters for enhancing LFP electrode performance, paving the way for high-performance, and sustainable energy-storage solutions. Full article

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

15 pages, 4480 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Synthesis and Electrochemical Characterization of Dissymmetric Tetrathiafulvalene Derivatives for Aqueous Rechargeable Batteries

by João F. G. Rodrigues, Isabel C. Santos, Sandra Rabaça and Diogo M. F. Santos

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030092 - 27 Feb 2025

Viewed by 519

Abstract

Organic electroactive materials (OEMs) offer advantages such as cost-effectiveness, environmental sustainability, and simplified end-of-life processing compared to inorganic electrode materials. Aqueous electrolytes further enhance sustainability and safety relative to organic electrolytes. Investigating the electrochemical properties of OEMs in aqueous media provides valuable insights [...] Read more.

Organic electroactive materials (OEMs) offer advantages such as cost-effectiveness, environmental sustainability, and simplified end-of-life processing compared to inorganic electrode materials. Aqueous electrolytes further enhance sustainability and safety relative to organic electrolytes. Investigating the electrochemical properties of OEMs in aqueous media provides valuable insights into their redox behavior and stability under such conditions. However, challenges remain, including low electronic conductivity and structural stability concerns, while aqueous rechargeable batteries (ARBs) face inherent energy density limitations. Tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) has been previously reported as an electrode material for ARBs, while its oligomers have been proposed for organic electrolyte batteries. This study focuses on the synthesis and characterization of two new dissymmetric TTF derivatives—cyanobenzene tetrathiafulvalene pyrazine (CNB-TTF-Pz) (1) and 4-cyanobenzene tetrathiafulvalene pyrazine (4-CNB-TTF) (2)—as well as one symmetric TTF derivative, dipyrazine tetrathiafulvalene ((Pz)₂-TTF) (3). Their electrochemical behavior in aqueous lithium and potassium nitrate electrolytes was systematically characterized using cyclic voltammetry. The study provides insights into the redox properties and electroactivity of these compounds, highlighting challenges related to low electronic conductivity and redox potentials close to the water stability limits. These findings contribute to broadening our understanding of the electrochemical properties of TTF derivatives in aqueous electrolytes and offer a preliminary assessment of their potential application as electrodes for ARBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Aqueous Rechargeable Batteries)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

22 pages, 4732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Impedance Measurement of Lithium-Ion Batteries Under Pulse Ex-Citation and Analysis of Impedance Characteristics of the Regularization Distributed Relaxation Time

by Haisen Chen, Jinghan Bai, Zhengpu Wu, Ziang Song, Bin Zuo, Chunxia Fu, Yunbin Zhang and Lujun Wang

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030091 - 27 Feb 2025

Viewed by 571

Abstract

To address the limitations of conventional electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) testing, we propose an efficient rapid EIS testing system. This system utilizes an AC pulse excitation signal combined with an “intelligent fast fourier transform (IFFT) optimization algorithm” to achieve rapid “one-to-many” impedance data [...] Read more.

To address the limitations of conventional electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) testing, we propose an efficient rapid EIS testing system. This system utilizes an AC pulse excitation signal combined with an “intelligent fast fourier transform (IFFT) optimization algorithm” to achieve rapid “one-to-many” impedance data measurements. This significantly enhances the speed, flexibility, and practicality of EIS testing. Furthermore, the conventional model-fitting approach for EIS data often struggles to resolve the issue of overlapping impedance arcs within a limited frequency range. To address this, the present study employs the Regularization Distributed Relaxation Time (RDRT) method to process EIS data obtained under AC pulse conditions. This approach avoids the workload and analytical uncertainties associated with assuming equivalent circuit models. Finally, the practical utility of the proposed testing system and the RDRT impedance analysis method is demonstrated through the estimation of battery state of health (SOH). In summary, the method proposed in this study not only addresses the issues associated with conventional EIS data acquisition and analysis but also broadens the methodologies and application scope of EIS impedance testing. This opens up new possibilities for its application in fields such as lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) energy storage. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 3379 KiB

Open AccessReview

Solid-State Lithium Batteries: Advances, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

by Subin Antony Jose, Amethyst Gallant, Pedro Lechuga Gomez, Zacary Jaggers, Evan Johansson, Zachary LaPierre and Pradeep L. Menezes

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030090 - 22 Feb 2025

Viewed by 3003

Abstract

Solid-state lithium-ion batteries are gaining attention as a promising alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries. By utilizing a solid electrolyte instead of a liquid, these batteries offer the potential for enhanced safety, higher energy density, and longer life cycles. The solid electrolyte typically consists [...] Read more.

Solid-state lithium-ion batteries are gaining attention as a promising alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries. By utilizing a solid electrolyte instead of a liquid, these batteries offer the potential for enhanced safety, higher energy density, and longer life cycles. The solid electrolyte typically consists of a polymer matrix integrated with ceramic fillers, which can significantly boost ionic conductivity. Research efforts are currently focused on advancing materials for the battery’s three primary components: the electrolyte, anode, and cathode. Furthermore, innovative strategies are being developed to optimize the interfaces between these components, addressing key challenges in performance and durability. Cutting-edge manufacturing techniques are also being explored to improve production efficiency and reduce costs. With continued advancements, solid-state lithium-ion batteries are poised to become integral to next-generation technologies, including electric vehicles and wearable electronics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toward Next-Generation Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Future Prospects)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 8396 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries Based on Metal–Organic Frameworks: Progress and Prospects

by Qiancheng Zhu, Weize Sun, Hua Zhou and Deyu Mao

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030089 - 22 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1152

Abstract

Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs) are considered candidates for next-generation energy storage systems due to their high theoretical energy density and low cost. However, their practical applications are constrained by the shuttle effect, lithium dendrites, low conductivity, and volume expansion of sulfur. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) [...] Read more.

Lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs) are considered candidates for next-generation energy storage systems due to their high theoretical energy density and low cost. However, their practical applications are constrained by the shuttle effect, lithium dendrites, low conductivity, and volume expansion of sulfur. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising materials for addressing these challenges, owing to their exceptional adsorption and catalysis capabilities, coupled with a readily adjustable form-factor design. This review provides a broader perspective by comprehensively examining the applications of MOFs in LSBs, covering their roles in cathodes, separators, and electrolytes from multiple dimensions, including their reaction mechanisms, the development potential of MOFs as cathode materials, and the positive impacts on LSBs’ performance achieved through the preparation of MOFs and modifications of intermediate, separator, and electrolyte. Finally, we provide perspectives on future development directions in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy-Dense Metal–Sulfur Batteries)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

8 pages, 1536 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Electrochemical Studies of Metal Phthalocyanines as Alternative Cathodes for Aqueous Zinc Batteries in “Water-in-Salt” Electrolytes

by Wentao Hou, Andres Eduardo Araujo-Correa, Shen Qiu, Crystal Otero Velez, Yamna D. Acosta-Tejada, Lexis N. Feliz-Hernández, Karilys González-Nieves, Gerardo Morell, Dalice M. Piñero Cruz and Xianyong Wu

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030088 - 22 Feb 2025

Viewed by 846

Abstract

Aqueous zinc batteries are emerging technologies for energy storage, owing to their high safety, high energy, and low cost. Among them, the development of low-cost and long-cycling cathode materials is of crucial importance. Currently, Zn-ion cathodes are heavily centered on metal-based inorganic materials [...] Read more.

Aqueous zinc batteries are emerging technologies for energy storage, owing to their high safety, high energy, and low cost. Among them, the development of low-cost and long-cycling cathode materials is of crucial importance. Currently, Zn-ion cathodes are heavily centered on metal-based inorganic materials and carbon-based organic materials; however, the metal–organic compounds remain largely overlooked. Herein, we report the electrochemical performance of metal phthalocyanines, a large group of underexplored compounds, as alternative cathode materials for aqueous zinc batteries. We discover that the selection of transition metal plays a vital role in affecting the electrochemical properties. Among them, iron phthalocyanine exhibits the most promising performance, with a reasonable capacity (~60 mAh g⁻¹), a feasible voltage (~1.1 V), and the longest cycling (550 cycles). The optimal performance partly results from the utilization of zinc chloride “water-in-salt” electrolyte, which effectively mitigates material dissolution and enhances battery performance. Consequently, iron phthalocyanine holds promise as an inexpensive and cycle-stable cathode for aqueous zinc batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Aqueous Rechargeable Batteries—2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

29 pages, 11229 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Air-Outlet and Step-Number Effects on a Step-like Plenum Battery’s Thermal Management System

by Olanrewaju M. Oyewola, Emmanuel T. Idowu, Morakinyo J. Labiran, Michael C. Hatfield and Mebougna L. Drabo

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030087 - 21 Feb 2025

Viewed by 586

Abstract

Optimizing the control of the battery temperature (

T_{b}

), while minimizing the pressure drop (

∆ P

) in air-cooled thermal management systems (TMSs), is an indispensable target for researchers. The Z-type battery thermal management system’s (BTMS’s) structure is one of [...] Read more.

Optimizing the control of the battery temperature (

T_{b}

), while minimizing the pressure drop (

∆ P

) in air-cooled thermal management systems (TMSs), is an indispensable target for researchers. The Z-type battery thermal management system’s (BTMS’s) structure is one of the widely investigated air-cooled TMSs. Several designs of air-cooled BTMSs are often associated with the drawback of a rise in

∆ P

, consequently resulting in an increase in pumping costs. In this study, the investigation of a Step-like plenum design was extended by exploring one and two outlets to determine possible decreases in the maximum battery temperature (

T_{m a x}

), maximum battery temperature difference (

{∆ T}_{m a x}

), and pressure drop (

∆ P

). The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method was employed to predict the performances of different designs. The designs combine Step-like plenum and two outlets, with the outlets located at different points on the BTMS. The results from the study revealed that using a one-outlet design, combined with a Step-like plenum design, reduced

T_{m a x}

by 3.52 K when compared with that of the original Z-type system. For another design with two outlets and the same Step-like plenum design, a reduction in

T_{m a x}

by 3.45 K was achieved. For

{∆ T}_{m a x}

, the use of a two-outlet design and a Step-like plenum design achieved a reduction of 6.34 K. Considering the

∆ P

performance, the best- and poorest-performing designs with two outlets reduced

∆ P

by 5.91 Pa and 3.66 Pa, respectively, when compared with that of the original Z-type design. The performances of the designs in this study clearly show the potential of two-outlet designs in reducing

∆ P

in systems. This study, therefore, concludes that the operational cost of the Step-like plenum Z-type BTMS can be reduced through the careful positioning of the two-outlet section, which will promote the design and development of current and future electric vehicle (EV) technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 3745 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of the Remaining Useful Life of Lithium–Ion Batteries Based on Mode Decomposition and ED-LSTM

by Bingzeng Song, Guangzhao Yue, Dong Guo, Hanming Wu, Yonghai Sun, Yuhua Li and Bin Zhou

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030086 - 21 Feb 2025

Viewed by 567

Abstract

The prediction of remaining useful life (RUL) of lithium–ion batteries is key to the reliability assessment of batteries and affects safe application of batteries. This article introduces a CEEMDAN-RF-MHA-ED-LSTM method. Using CEEMDAN, the battery capacity data were decomposed to obtain intrinsic mode functions [...] Read more.

The prediction of remaining useful life (RUL) of lithium–ion batteries is key to the reliability assessment of batteries and affects safe application of batteries. This article introduces a CEEMDAN-RF-MHA-ED-LSTM method. Using CEEMDAN, the battery capacity data were decomposed to obtain intrinsic mode functions (IMFs), and the weight of each IMF was obtained via the random forest (RF) algorithm. The LSTM neural network was used, the encoder–decoder (ED) structure was introduced, the multi-head attention (MHA) mechanism was used to construct a network model, and the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was used to optimize the model parameters. Each IMF was input into the model, and the obtained forecast results were weighted and reconstructed to obtain the final forecast data. This method was validated on the battery dataset released by NASA. Compared with that of the single LSTM model, the mean absolute error of the proposed method decreases by 74%, 62%, 71%, and 55% on the No. 05, 06, 07, and 18th battery datasets, respectively. The root mean square error decreased by 72%, 59%, 70%, and 54%, and the mean absolute percent error decreased by 75%, 65%, 71%, and 58%, respectively. This method can accurately predict battery RUL. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Batteries, Volume 11, Issue 3 (March 2025) – 33 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI