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Languages, Volume 10, Issue 9 (September 2025) – 31 articles

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28 pages, 453 KB  
Article
Language Learning in the Wild: The L2 Acquisition of English Restrictive Relative Clauses
by Stephen Levey, Kathryn L. Rochon and Laura Kastronic
Languages 2025, 10(9), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090232 - 10 Sep 2025
Viewed by 57
Abstract
We argue that quantitative analysis of community-based speech data furnishes an indispensable adjunct to theoretical and experimental studies targeting the acquisition of relativization. Drawing on a comparative sociolinguistic approach, we make use of three corpora of natural speech to investigate second-language (L2) speakers’ [...] Read more.
We argue that quantitative analysis of community-based speech data furnishes an indispensable adjunct to theoretical and experimental studies targeting the acquisition of relativization. Drawing on a comparative sociolinguistic approach, we make use of three corpora of natural speech to investigate second-language (L2) speakers’ acquisition of restrictive relative clauses in English. These corpora comprise: (i) spontaneous L2 speech; (ii) a local baseline variety of the target language (TL); and (iii) L2 speakers’ first language (L1), French. These complementary datasets enable us to explore the extent to which L2 speakers reproduce the discursive frequency of relative markers, as well as their fine-grained linguistic conditioning, in the local TL baseline variety. Comparisons with French facilitate exploration of possible L1 transfer effects on L2 speakers’ production of English restrictive relative clauses. Results indicate that evidence of L1 transfer effects on L2 speakers’ restrictive relative clauses is tenuous. A pivotal finding is that L2 speakers, in the aggregate, closely approximate TL constraints on relative marker selection, although they use the subject relativizer who significantly less often than their TL counterparts. We implicate affiliation with, and integration into, the local TL community as key factors facilitating the propagation of TL vernacular norms to L2 speakers. Full article
21 pages, 1740 KB  
Article
The Dual Functions of Adaptors
by Renia Lopez-Ozieblo
Languages 2025, 10(9), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090231 - 10 Sep 2025
Viewed by 317
Abstract
Adaptors, self-touching movements that supposedly lack communicative significance, have often been overlooked by researchers focusing on co-speech gestures. A significant complication in their study arises from the somewhat ambiguous definition of adaptors. Examples of these movements include self-manipulations like scratching a leg, bringing [...] Read more.
Adaptors, self-touching movements that supposedly lack communicative significance, have often been overlooked by researchers focusing on co-speech gestures. A significant complication in their study arises from the somewhat ambiguous definition of adaptors. Examples of these movements include self-manipulations like scratching a leg, bringing a hand to the mouth or head, and fidgeting, nervous tics, and micro hand or finger movements. Research rooted in psychology indicates a link between adaptors and negative emotional states. However, psycholinguistic approaches suggest that these movements might be related to the communicative task. This study analyzes adaptors in forty Cantonese speakers of English as a second language in monologues and dialogues in face-to-face and online contexts, revealing that adaptors serve functions beyond emotional expression. Our data indicate that adaptors might have cognitive functions. We also identify micro-movements, flutter-like adaptors or “flutters” for short, that may have interactive functions conveying engagement. These findings challenge the traditional view of adaptors as purely non-communicative. Participants’ self-reports corroborate these interpretations, highlighting the complexity and individual variability in adaptor use. This study advocates for the inclusion of adaptors in gesture analysis, which may enrich understanding of gesture–speech integration and cognitive and emotional processes in communication. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-representational Gestures: Types, Use, and Functions)
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16 pages, 406 KB  
Article
Anglicizing Humor in a Spanish Satirical TV Show—Pragmatic Functions and Discourse Strategies
by María-Isabel González-Cruz
Languages 2025, 10(9), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090230 - 10 Sep 2025
Viewed by 300
Abstract
Humor is a pragmatic and interdisciplinary phenomenon whose sociocultural relevance has been increasingly recognized by the Academia. Surprisingly, although the anthropo-philosophical theory of homo risu emerged in the 7th century, linguists became interested in the study of the linguistic mechanisms of humor only [...] Read more.
Humor is a pragmatic and interdisciplinary phenomenon whose sociocultural relevance has been increasingly recognized by the Academia. Surprisingly, although the anthropo-philosophical theory of homo risu emerged in the 7th century, linguists became interested in the study of the linguistic mechanisms of humor only a few years ago. One of those mechanisms is the use of Anglicisms, because of their pragmatic potential to provide some added value, a halo of prestige and modernity, which creates playful effects of complicity. This paper examines the way Anglicisms crucially contribute to the humorous discourse of the satirical news show El Intermedio, the longest-running program on a Spanish private TV channel. Monitoring of 300 episodes broadcast between April 2022 and December 2024 proves how, in addition to puns and irony, scriptwriters tend to resort to a number of strategies involving the creative use of Anglicisms, which perform different pragmatic functions, while showing sociolinguistic awareness. They also offer an up-to-date sample of the great vitality of Anglicisms in contemporary Spain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Pragmatics in Contemporary Cross-Cultural Contexts)
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19 pages, 765 KB  
Article
Language Attitudes Regarding Communication with Young Children and the Use of Diminutives
by Reili Argus and Andra Kütt-Leedis
Languages 2025, 10(9), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090229 - 9 Sep 2025
Viewed by 176
Abstract
Parental attitudes play a crucial role in shaping children’s language development. Language attitudes within families and parental beliefs about communicating with young children are under-researched, particularly in Estonia. This study aims to investigate language attitudes in Estonian-speaking families regarding communication with children under [...] Read more.
Parental attitudes play a crucial role in shaping children’s language development. Language attitudes within families and parental beliefs about communicating with young children are under-researched, particularly in Estonia. This study aims to investigate language attitudes in Estonian-speaking families regarding communication with children under three years old. Using data collected via a web-based questionnaire from 246 Estonian families, the article addresses the following questions: How important do Estonian-speaking parents consider communication with young children during early stages of language development, including the pre-verbal period?; Do parents believe that speaking to young children should differ from communication with adults?; What specific features of child-directed speech (e.g., the use of diminutives) are known and applied by parents?; How do language ideologies about child-directed communication relate to socio-economic factors such as parental education, age, language skills, or residential environment (e.g., rural vs. urban)? The findings contribute to understanding the interplay between individual attitudes and beliefs in language strategies used with speaking with young children. Almost all parents considered speaking with children very important. Altogether, 58% of respondents answered that one should speak even with pre-verbal children, 67% reported that they use diminutives when speaking with children. Attitudes were more strongly expressed by individuals who indicated that they do not use a different register when speaking with children. Many respondents justified their perspective by emphasizing the importance of using normative and correct language with young children. Socio-economic status factors such as age, education, language skills, and residential environment did not appear to influence attitudes toward communicating with small children. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)
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15 pages, 1165 KB  
Article
Revisiting Negative Particle Questions in Sixian Hakka
by Yi-Ling Irene Liao
Languages 2025, 10(9), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090228 - 9 Sep 2025
Viewed by 196
Abstract
This study investigates the syntactic structure of negative particle questions (NPQs), also known as VP-NEG questions, in Sixian Hakka (a variety of Chinese spoken in Taiwan). We revisit the existing literature on Hakka NPQs, pointing out unresolved issues in previous analyses. Drawing on [...] Read more.
This study investigates the syntactic structure of negative particle questions (NPQs), also known as VP-NEG questions, in Sixian Hakka (a variety of Chinese spoken in Taiwan). We revisit the existing literature on Hakka NPQs, pointing out unresolved issues in previous analyses. Drawing on previous analysis of VP-NEG questions in Middle Chinese, we argue that the negator mo in Hakka NPQs has grammaticalized into a disjunctive head, as mo and the predicate do not show agreement. This proposal not only accounts for the syntactic properties of NPQs in Sixian Hakka but also addresses potential problems found in previous studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))
19 pages, 694 KB  
Article
The Syntax of Serbian How-Complements
by Alberto Frasson
Languages 2025, 10(9), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090227 - 8 Sep 2025
Viewed by 263
Abstract
This paper discusses a special type of complement of perception verbs in Serbian, introduced by kako (‘how’). Via a parallel corpus analysis, I compare the distribution of Serbian kako-clauses and English -ing forms. I show that two types of non-interrogative kako [...] Read more.
This paper discusses a special type of complement of perception verbs in Serbian, introduced by kako (‘how’). Via a parallel corpus analysis, I compare the distribution of Serbian kako-clauses and English -ing forms. I show that two types of non-interrogative kako-clauses can be used in translations of English -ing forms, distinguished based on their formal and interpretive properties: ‘eventive’ and propositional kako-clauses. Eventive clauses focus on directly perceived events and cannot be negated or combined with epistemic verbs, while propositional clauses express beliefs or judgments and have a truth value. At a formal level, eventive clauses feature a null subject, while propositional clauses feature an overt nominative subject. I argue that this distinction is captured syntactically through the notion of phasehood, with only propositional clauses merging a full CP domain. Adopting the Form-Copy operation, I propose that eventive clauses lack a phase boundary, allowing for the deletion of a lower subject copy and yielding the observed case alternation and null embedded subject. This analysis offers a unified syntactic account of kako-complements and contributes to the typology of perception-based clause embedding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))
21 pages, 320 KB  
Review
Virtual Reality as a Mediating Tool in Addressing Social Communication Disorder: Current Understanding and Implementation Strategies
by Weifeng Han, Tianchong Wang, Yu Takizakwa and Shane Pill
Languages 2025, 10(9), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090226 - 5 Sep 2025
Viewed by 315
Abstract
Social Communication Disorder (SCD) involves persistent verbal and non-verbal communication difficulties, significantly impacting children and adolescents’ social interactions. Traditional interventions, while valuable, face practical limitations, including difficulties replicating real-world social contexts and low engagement among some learners. This paper examines Virtual Reality (VR) [...] Read more.
Social Communication Disorder (SCD) involves persistent verbal and non-verbal communication difficulties, significantly impacting children and adolescents’ social interactions. Traditional interventions, while valuable, face practical limitations, including difficulties replicating real-world social contexts and low engagement among some learners. This paper examines Virtual Reality (VR) as an innovative intervention tool for SCD through a comprehensive review of empirical studies (2010–2024). Analysis of 11 peer-reviewed studies, encompassing both autism spectrum disorder (ASD)-specific and broader SCD populations, revealed five key themes being discussed in the current literature: usability and acceptability, social skills training, gaze and attention tracking, measurement and assessment, and applications in inclusive education. Our findings demonstrate VR’s potential as a mediating tool between therapeutic interventions and real-world social interactions, offering controlled yet naturalistic environments that enable safe, structured practice while maintaining engagement. The alignment with cognitive science principles enhances learning processes through effective management of cognitive demands. Building on these findings, we propose implementation strategies for educational and therapeutic settings, addressing design considerations, delivery methods, and outcome evaluation. This synthesis advances the understanding of VR as an innovative, scalable approach to supporting social communication development in children and adolescents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Communication Disorders in Childhood: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Assessment and Intervention)
12 pages, 381 KB  
Article
Russian–Belarusian Border Dialects and Their “Language Roof”: Dedialectization and Trajectories of Changes
by Anastasiia Ryko
Languages 2025, 10(9), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090225 - 5 Sep 2025
Viewed by 342
Abstract
The dialects discussed in this article were considered Belarusian in the early 20th century, and later, as a result of the transfer of the administrative (state) border, they became part of the Russian territory and were considered Russian. The changes occurring in these [...] Read more.
The dialects discussed in this article were considered Belarusian in the early 20th century, and later, as a result of the transfer of the administrative (state) border, they became part of the Russian territory and were considered Russian. The changes occurring in these dialects as a result of the influence of the standard Russian language are interesting from various perspectives. Firstly, the linguistic self-identification of dialect speakers changes and the perception of their dialect as less prestigious compared to the standard language is formed. Secondly, linguistic features that dialectologists previously defined as characteristic of the Belarusian language are being replaced by standard Russian ones. By analyzing the linguistic data obtained from the dialect speakers of different generations, we can trace the emergence of variation and then its loss. Observing which linguistic features are subject to change first, and which remain more stable, allows us to examine linguistic changes through the lens of the “hierarchy of borrowings” theory. Additionally, given the linguistic inequality between the dialect and the standard language, we can observe the gradual transformation of the dialect under the influence of the prestigious standard idiom. Therefore, the loss of Belarusian–Russian variation can be viewed as a process of dedialectization, bringing the dialect closer to the standard language. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)
34 pages, 3234 KB  
Article
L1 Attrition vis-à-vis L2 Acquisition: Lexicon, Syntax–Pragmatics Interface, and Prosody in L1-English L2-Italian Late Bilinguals
by Mattia Zingaretti, Vasiliki Chondrogianni, D. Robert Ladd and Antonella Sorace
Languages 2025, 10(9), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090224 - 4 Sep 2025
Viewed by 378
Abstract
Late bilingual speakers immersed in a second language (L2) environment often experience the non-pathological attrition of their first language (L1), exhibiting selective and reversible changes in L1 processing and production. While attrition research has largely focused on long-term residents in anglophone countries, examining [...] Read more.
Late bilingual speakers immersed in a second language (L2) environment often experience the non-pathological attrition of their first language (L1), exhibiting selective and reversible changes in L1 processing and production. While attrition research has largely focused on long-term residents in anglophone countries, examining changes primarily within a single L1 domain, the present study employs a novel experimental design to investigate L1 attrition, alongside L2 acquisition, across three domains (i.e., the lexicon, syntax–pragmatics interface, and prosody) in two groups of L1-English L2-Italian late bilinguals: long-term residents in Italy vs. university students in the UK. A total of 112 participants completed online tasks assessing lexical retrieval, anaphora resolution, and sentence stress patterns in both languages. First, both bilingual groups showed comparable levels of semantic interference in lexical retrieval. Second, at the syntax–pragmatics interface, only residents in Italy showed signs of L1 attrition in real-time processing of anaphora, while resolution preferences were similar between groups; in the L2, both bilingual groups demonstrated target-like preferences, despite some slowdown in processing. Third, while both groups showed some evidence of target-like L2 prosody, with residents in Italy matching L1-Italian sentence stress patterns closely, prosodic attrition was only reported for residents in Italy in exploratory analyses. Overall, this study supports the notion of L1 attrition as a natural consequence of bilingualism—one that is domain- and experience-dependent, unfolds along a continuum, and involves a complex (and possibly inverse) relationship between L1 and L2 performance that warrants further investigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Determining the Scope, Nature and Causes of Attrition in Adult L1 Grammars)
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24 pages, 1479 KB  
Article
Beyond L2 Learners: Evaluating LexTALE-ESP as a Proficiency Measure for Heritage Language Learners of Spanish
by Cristina Lozano-Argüelles and Alberta Gatti
Languages 2025, 10(9), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090223 - 30 Aug 2025
Viewed by 497
Abstract
LexTALE has emerged as a popular measure of language proficiency in research studies. While it has been widely validated for L2 learners across multiple languages, its applicability to heritage language learners (HLLs)—who often show distinct language development from L2ers—has not been established. Here, [...] Read more.
LexTALE has emerged as a popular measure of language proficiency in research studies. While it has been widely validated for L2 learners across multiple languages, its applicability to heritage language learners (HLLs)—who often show distinct language development from L2ers—has not been established. Here, we evaluate the Spanish version of LexTALE (LexTALE-Esp) as a predictor of writing proficiency among college-aged HLLs in the United States. We show that LexTALE-Esp scores significantly correlate with ACTFL-rated functional writing levels and outperform self-assessment as a predictor of proficiency. Our results suggest that, despite concerns about HLLs’ limited experience with written texts in the heritage language, vocabulary-based tasks capture core aspects of written language ability. These findings indicate that vocabulary-based tests like LexTALE-Esp capture proficiency-relevant lexical knowledge across speaker profiles and may tap into dimensions of both core and extended language competence. Full article
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20 pages, 616 KB  
Article
L2 Korean Learners’ Socialization into Discourses Around the Non-Honorific ‘Banmal’ Style: Affective and Pedagogical Consequences
by Devon Renfroe and Katharine E. Burns
Languages 2025, 10(9), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090222 - 30 Aug 2025
Viewed by 345
Abstract
This study examines L2 Korean learners’ self-reports of their socialization into discourses around the use of two categories of non-honorific (banmal) and honorific (jondaenmal) language. L2 Korean learners (n = 49) of varying proficiency levels completed a questionnaire aimed [...] Read more.
This study examines L2 Korean learners’ self-reports of their socialization into discourses around the use of two categories of non-honorific (banmal) and honorific (jondaenmal) language. L2 Korean learners (n = 49) of varying proficiency levels completed a questionnaire aimed at capturing their beliefs, attitudes, and practices regarding learning and using banmal. A subset of questionnaire participants (n = 11) were interviewed, and transcripts were analyzed using discourse analysis to understand how banmal is positioned discursively in participants’ self-reported accounts of learning and using L2 Korean. Findings revealed three dominant discourses in learners’ self-reported accounts of their socialization into learning and using banmal: (1) jondaenmal is more important to them than banmal, (2) banmal does not belong in formal learning contexts such as classrooms, and (3) banmal instruction should be delayed until the intermediate or advanced level. Additionally, these discourses were connected to two overarching, at times contradictory, affective responses from participants. While they reported heightened anxiety over when to use banmal, they also described how using it instilled confidence in their sociopragmatic abilities. These findings highlight the connection between the affective experiences of learners and prevailing discourses on particular linguistic forms. Finally, we suggest the need for more integrated approaches to teaching speech styles in L2 Korean classrooms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)
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23 pages, 379 KB  
Article
Case-Dependent Agreement in an Active–Stative Language
by Guillaume Thomas, Germino Duarte and Akil Ismael
Languages 2025, 10(9), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090221 - 30 Aug 2025
Viewed by 416
Abstract
This paper revisits the cross-reference marking system of Mbyá Guaraní, focusing on two phenomena: object agreement using the prefix i- and its allomorphs, and absolutive cross-reference marking in converbs. The analysis demonstrates that cross-reference marking in Mbyá is sensitive to abstract Case. [...] Read more.
This paper revisits the cross-reference marking system of Mbyá Guaraní, focusing on two phenomena: object agreement using the prefix i- and its allomorphs, and absolutive cross-reference marking in converbs. The analysis demonstrates that cross-reference marking in Mbyá is sensitive to abstract Case. Building on a view of agreement as an obligatory operation whose failure does not result in ungrammaticality, this paper argues that the segment i- is an object agreement prefix, rather than part of an allomorph of an active subject agreement prefix. This marker is underspecified for person, allowing it to cross-reference 1st, 2nd or 3rd objects. The paper further argues that converbs in Mbyá Guaraní follow an absolutive cross-reference marking pattern, where only intransitive subjects or objects are cross-referenced. This pattern is shown to be consistent with cross-linguistic and historical data from the Tupí–Guaraní family. This paper’s contributions include a proposal for case-sensitive agreement in Mbyá, with active agreement prefixes realizing agreement with nominative DPs only. The analysis also emphasizes the different roles of Infl and little v as probes for person features, with little v being underspecified and not triggering cyclic expansion. The proposed framework accounts for both hierarchical cross-reference marking in independent clauses and absolutive marking in converbs, unifying these two patterns under the assumption of Case dependence of agreement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Studies on Morpho-Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics: A View from the South American Lowlands and Beyond)
27 pages, 1025 KB  
Article
Encoding Nonbinary Reference in Syntax: The German Neo-Pronoun xier and Socially Driven Language Change
by Nicholas Catasso
Languages 2025, 10(9), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090220 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 495
Abstract
This paper investigates the morphosyntactic and semanto-pragmatic behavior of the German neo-pronoun xier, a gender-neutral form used to refer to nonbinary individuals. Framed within the Minimalist Program, the analysis explores how xier carries a gender feature that encodes nonbinary identity—not through binary [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the morphosyntactic and semanto-pragmatic behavior of the German neo-pronoun xier, a gender-neutral form used to refer to nonbinary individuals. Framed within the Minimalist Program, the analysis explores how xier carries a gender feature that encodes nonbinary identity—not through binary morphological marking, but via presupposition. The use of xier triggers a presupposition about the referent’s identity: that they are nonbinary. This gender feature is not absent, void or underspecified, but interpretively rich and categorically distinct. The analysis thus rejects any account treating xier as lacking gender. Instead, it argues that xier exemplifies a grammatical strategy of encoding gender beyond the binary, through formal structures that engage the interpretive system directly. The paper further argues that xier’s morphosyntactic profile—including its compatibility with standard agreement morphology—shows that nonbinary gender can be syntactically represented and participate fully in φ-feature interactions. Drawing on cross-linguistic comparisons (e.g., English they and the Italian adaptation ze), the study shows how presuppositional gender encoding supports stable φ-Agree, interface-compatible labeling without requiring binary valuation. The proposal refines the architecture of φ-features by allowing for interpretively active gender categories that are formally encoded even when they do not match traditional binary specifications. This account offers a model for how minimalist syntax can accommodate socially driven innovations without abandoning core theoretical principles. Xier, in this light, demonstrates that grammatical systems can expand to encode emerging reference categories—not by omitting gender, but by formally encoding nonbinary gender via presupposition. This study is the first to offer a formal syntactic account of a German neo-pronoun, linking socially driven innovation to core φ-feature operations like Agree and valuation. Full article
20 pages, 1589 KB  
Article
Articulatory Control by Gestural Coupling and Syllable Pulses
by Christopher Geissler
Languages 2025, 10(9), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090219 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 448
Abstract
Explaining the relative timing of consonant and vowel articulations (C-V timing) is an important function of speech production models. This article explores how C-V timing might be studied from the perspective of the C/D Model, particularly the prediction that articulations are coordinated with [...] Read more.
Explaining the relative timing of consonant and vowel articulations (C-V timing) is an important function of speech production models. This article explores how C-V timing might be studied from the perspective of the C/D Model, particularly the prediction that articulations are coordinated with respect to an abstract syllable pulse. Gestural landmarks were extracted from kinematic data from English CVC monosyllabic words in the Wisconsin X-Ray Microbeam Corpus. The syllable pulse was identified using velocity peaks, and temporal lags were calculated among landmarks and the syllable pulse. The results directly follow from the procedure used to identify pulses: onset consonants exhibited stable timing to the pulse, while vowel-to-pulse timing was comparably stable with respect to C-V timing. Timing relationships with jaw displacement and jaw-based syllable pulse metrics were also explored. These results highlight current challenges for the C/D Model, as well as opportunities for elaborating the model to account for C-V timing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Articulation and Prosodic Structure)
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17 pages, 320 KB  
Article
Language Attitudes of Parents with Russian L1 in Tartu: Transition to Estonian-Medium Education
by Birute Klaas-Lang, Kristiina Praakli and Diana Vender
Languages 2025, 10(9), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090218 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 376
Abstract
In 2023, the authors conducted a qualitative study in five bilingual educational institutions (two general education schools and three kindergartens) in Tartu, Estonia, undergoing a transition to Estonian-medium education. The empirical material for this qualitative research was collected during ten discussion evenings with [...] Read more.
In 2023, the authors conducted a qualitative study in five bilingual educational institutions (two general education schools and three kindergartens) in Tartu, Estonia, undergoing a transition to Estonian-medium education. The empirical material for this qualitative research was collected during ten discussion evenings with Russian L1 parents, with around 300 attendees. Given the emotional and political sensitivity of the topic, the discussions were documented through researchers’ handwritten field notes and subsequently reconstructed from these notes for thematic analysis following the principles of qualitative content analysis. This study aimed to map the concerns and fears of Russian L1 parents and to collaboratively explore possible solutions. The broader objective was to understand and interpret Russian-speaking parents’ attitudes toward the shift to Estonian-medium instruction. A further aim was to raise language awareness among parents and to help lay a more positive foundation for the transition process. The theoretical framework draws on the notion that parents’ language attitudes significantly influence their children’s perceptions of the value of the language being learned. Our results show that many Russian L1 parents in Tartu consider it important for both Estonian- and Russian-speaking children to study in a shared, Estonian-medium learning environment. At the same time, parents identified several key challenges, including concerns about a decline in education quality, increased academic pressure and stress for children learning in a non-native language, a lack of suitable learning materials, and parents’ limited ability to assist with homework due to their own insufficient proficiency in Estonian. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)
21 pages, 466 KB  
Article
The Position of Clitics in Slovene Imperatives Is Not Special
by Sašo Živanović and Ema Štarkl
Languages 2025, 10(9), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090217 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 764
Abstract
In general, Slovene clitics occur in the second, so-called Wackernagel position of the clause. However, Slovene is exceptional among Wackernagel languages in that the clitic cluster may also occupy the clause-initial position. Imperative sentences have been argued to form an exception to this [...] Read more.
In general, Slovene clitics occur in the second, so-called Wackernagel position of the clause. However, Slovene is exceptional among Wackernagel languages in that the clitic cluster may also occupy the clause-initial position. Imperative sentences have been argued to form an exception to this exception, again allowing the clitic cluster only in the second position. In this paper, we present corpus data that speaks against this second-order exception. We categorize the imperative clauses containing initial clitic clusters found in the corpora into three classes: modally subordinated imperatives, imperatives containing the adversative or the concessive particle, and imperatives occuring as a step in an instruction. We argue that all three classes involve a covert anaphoric element residing in the clause-initial position, yielding an illusion of a clause-initial clitic cluster. In conclusion, initial clitic clusters in Slovene imperatives are not ungrammatical but merely uncommon, and their distribution is ultimately governed by the discourse. We also make a theoretical point, emphasizing that the presented analysis offers support to the view that all discursive information must be represented in syntax. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))
24 pages, 6304 KB  
Article
Revisiting Particle-Stranding Ellipsis: A Critical Comparison of Two Analyses
by Ryuta Ono
Languages 2025, 10(9), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090216 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 483
Abstract
This paper presents novel evidence that particle-stranding ellipsis in Japanese is best accounted for by PF-deletion rather than by its theoretical competitor, LF-copying. I begin by examining a central prediction of the LF-copying analysis, which states that overt extraction is categorically ruled out, [...] Read more.
This paper presents novel evidence that particle-stranding ellipsis in Japanese is best accounted for by PF-deletion rather than by its theoretical competitor, LF-copying. I begin by examining a central prediction of the LF-copying analysis, which states that overt extraction is categorically ruled out, and show that this prediction is not supported by the empirical data. Additional evidence comes from covert across-the-board movement, as I demonstrate that particle-stranding ellipsis can occur in environments that are argued to involve this type of movement. This finding presents a serious derivational challenge to the LF-copying theory, given the widely accepted view that covert across-the-board movement is not permitted in the grammar. In addition to these syntactic observations, I present previously unreported prosodic evidence showing that particle-stranding ellipsis involving the negative polarity item -sika can exhibit focus intonation. As the LF-copying analysis cannot account for this prosodic pattern, the data provide strong support for the PF-deletion account. Finally, I show that these findings are well explained by the phonology-based deletion model that was originally proposed in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Ellipsis and Ellipsis Mismatch: Studies in Japanese and Beyond)
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52 pages, 827 KB  
Article
The Consonant Inventory of Proto-Tsonga-Copi
by Isaac Eaton
Languages 2025, 10(9), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090215 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 708
Abstract
Recent studies have greatly furthered our understanding of the Southern Bantu languages, but questions about the internal relationships of the Southern Bantu language subgroups and the validity of the clade as a whole still remain. This study attempts to reconstruct the consonant inventory [...] Read more.
Recent studies have greatly furthered our understanding of the Southern Bantu languages, but questions about the internal relationships of the Southern Bantu language subgroups and the validity of the clade as a whole still remain. This study attempts to reconstruct the consonant inventory of one proposed genetic clade, that of Tsonga-Copi (S50–S60). Using published dictionaries and reference works for each language of the subgrouping, a corpus of cognate vocabulary was assembled. Each term was then matched, where possible, to a reconstruction in the Bantu Lexical Reconstructions 3 (BLR3) database. Sound correspondences were identified and used to reconstruct the consonant inventory of Proto-Tsonga-Copi. In addition to the discovery of several typologically unusual sound changes, the results of this study also lend support to existing and developing hypotheses about both the internal relationships of Southern Bantu clades, as well as the nature of language contact in (pre)historic Southern Africa, particularly the influence of Khoisan and other Bantu languages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Diachrony and Typology of Bantu Languages)
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32 pages, 1326 KB  
Article
Effects of Practice Types on the Acquisition of English Phrasal Verbs
by Yan Feng and Mei Yang
Languages 2025, 10(9), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090214 - 28 Aug 2025
Viewed by 526
Abstract
English phrasal verbs are ubiquitous and challenging for second language (L2) learners, particularly for those whose first language does not have an equivalent structure. This study investigates the facilitative role of three distinct L2 practice types in promoting English phrasal verb acquisition. Eighty [...] Read more.
English phrasal verbs are ubiquitous and challenging for second language (L2) learners, particularly for those whose first language does not have an equivalent structure. This study investigates the facilitative role of three distinct L2 practice types in promoting English phrasal verb acquisition. Eighty first-year college students from China were randomly assigned to three groups: the continuation group, which was first presented with an input text and then required to complete it; the retrieval group, which was first presented with the input text and then required to engage in retrieval practice; and the trial-and-error group, which was first required to engage in trial-and-error practice before reading the input text. The effectiveness of these practice types was compared via both an immediate post-test and a 1-week-delayed post-test. The results showed that in the immediate post-test, the continuation group performed comparably with the retrieval group but outperformed the trial-and-error group. However, in the 1-week-delayed post-test, the continuation group significantly outperformed the other two groups. The findings revealed that the continuation writing task not only initially equips learners with declarative knowledge and subsequently closely integrates static L2 learning with dynamic idea expression but also enhances learners’ task self-efficacy, thereby optimally promoting phrasal verb learning and retention. Full article
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28 pages, 5784 KB  
Article
Gender and Language Ideologies in Russian: Exploring Linguistic Stereotypes and Politeness Evaluations
by Ilenia Del Popolo Marchitto
Languages 2025, 10(9), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090213 - 28 Aug 2025
Viewed by 545
Abstract
Language ideologies about gendered linguistic behaviour are crucial in shaping expectations and metapragmatic judgements on politeness. This study focused on how gender and language ideologies reinforce normative assumptions about the relationship between gender and (im)politeness and at the same time influence individuals’ perception [...] Read more.
Language ideologies about gendered linguistic behaviour are crucial in shaping expectations and metapragmatic judgements on politeness. This study focused on how gender and language ideologies reinforce normative assumptions about the relationship between gender and (im)politeness and at the same time influence individuals’ perception of (im)politeness. Based on data collected from 251 respondents through online questionnaires administered between July 2024 and January 2025, the study investigated whether certain linguistic choices tend to be stereotypically associated with a particular gender and if the same utterance is evaluated differently depending on whether it is attributed to a man or a woman. Participants’ responses revealed systematic associations between linguistic forms and perceived gender, indicating that direct requests were more often linked to male speakers, while indirect or mitigated forms were associated with female speakers. Findings also showed that in 17 out of 19 cases, the same utterance was rated as more polite when attributed to a woman, suggesting that among Russian-speaking participants politeness was not only expected from women but also more readily perceived in their speech, reinforcing existing gender ideologies and stereotypes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)
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22 pages, 634 KB  
Article
Enhancing English Past Tense Acquisition: Comparative Effects of Structured Input, Referential, and Affective Activities
by Kaiqi Shi
Languages 2025, 10(9), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090212 - 28 Aug 2025
Viewed by 481
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of structured input, referential activities, and affective activities on English simple past tense acquisition in a second language (L2). Thirty-three participants from a senior high school were divided into four groups based on the pretest–posttest design: referential only, [...] Read more.
This study investigates the impact of structured input, referential activities, and affective activities on English simple past tense acquisition in a second language (L2). Thirty-three participants from a senior high school were divided into four groups based on the pretest–posttest design: referential only, affective only, a combination of both, and a control group. A self-paced reading (SPR) test was used to measure accuracy and response times to evaluate the effectiveness of these instructional strategies. Structured input and referential tasks enhance grammatical acquisition more rapidly and accurately than affective-only treatments or controls, showing the beneficial effects of structured input on grammar acquisition. The results emphasized the importance of designing instructional strategies that address specific processing challenges in L2 learning by focusing on form–meaning connections. By demonstrating differential impacts of structured input activities on grammatical learning and processing efficiency, the research contributes to the field of second language acquisition. The SPR method was selected for its ability to capture subtle, immediate differences in processing at the word level, its suitability for controlled classroom-based online administration, and its established validity in L2 processing research. Unlike other methods, SPR allows precise measurement of reaction times for specific sentence components, isolating processing effects of the target grammatical form while minimizing the influence of explicit knowledge. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Research on the Role and Effects of Structured Input in Assessing the Nature of Language Processing)
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20 pages, 356 KB  
Article
Variability in the Online Processing of Subject–Verb Number Agreement in Spanish as a Heritage Language: The Role of Lexical Frequency
by Jill Jegerski and Sara Fernández Cuenca
Languages 2025, 10(9), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090211 - 27 Aug 2025
Viewed by 463
Abstract
This eye tracking study examined the role of lexical frequency in the processing of non-local verbal number agreement by heritage speakers of Spanish. Few prior studies of heritage bilingualism have investigated the role of word frequency in the comprehension or production of morphosyntax, [...] Read more.
This eye tracking study examined the role of lexical frequency in the processing of non-local verbal number agreement by heritage speakers of Spanish. Few prior studies of heritage bilingualism have investigated the role of word frequency in the comprehension or production of morphosyntax, and none have employed a real-time measure of sentence processing, despite the well-known sensitivity of such methods to word frequency and the proposal of some scholars that such online methodologies could be particularly useful in research on heritage speakers. Fifty heritage speakers of Spanish read stimulus sentences containing non-local verbal number agreement that depended on a verb that was either high or low frequency, based on published corpus data. The results suggest that the online integration of verbal agreement was both more immediate and more robust with high frequency verbs than with low frequency verbs. Moreover, an analysis of individual language background variables indicates that faster reading was associated with greater sensitivity to verbal agreement with low frequency verbs. These findings are consistent with theoretical claims that lexical frequency can play an important role in the morphosyntax of heritage speakers, due to reduced exposure to the home language and, particularly, low frequency words. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)
17 pages, 543 KB  
Article
Mismatches and Mitigation at CS-PF Interface: The Curious Case of li
by Marijana Marelj
Languages 2025, 10(9), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090210 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 670
Abstract
Taking the domain of polar questions in Bosnian/Croatian/Montenegrin/Serbian (BCMS) as the empirical background, the paper probes into the syntax–phonology (CS-PF) interface and discusses insertion and movement as PF-repair strategies mitigating against the lack of convergence at PF. Contra previous accounts, the analysis treats [...] Read more.
Taking the domain of polar questions in Bosnian/Croatian/Montenegrin/Serbian (BCMS) as the empirical background, the paper probes into the syntax–phonology (CS-PF) interface and discusses insertion and movement as PF-repair strategies mitigating against the lack of convergence at PF. Contra previous accounts, the analysis treats li (lexicalization of Q) as a ‘run-of-the-mill’ 2P clitic in BCMS, whose host cannot always be provided by syntax. I provide evidence against Prosodic Inversion—‘the usual suspect’ for post-syntactic movement in Slavic—thus adding to the body of evidence that Prosodic Inversion does not take place in BCMS. I argue that the PF Movement in such cases has to be raising and adopt Local Dislocation to account for them. Probing into the interaction between Future I and polar questions provides further insights into the ordering of PF Movement operations in BCMS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))
18 pages, 1040 KB  
Article
The Role of Self-Adaptors in Lexical Retrieval
by Kazuki Sekine and Hiroshi Hotta
Languages 2025, 10(9), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090209 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 674
Abstract
This study investigated whether self-adaptor behaviours, defined as non-communicative bodily actions such as touching one’s face or clasping one’s hands, facilitate lexical retrieval. Sixty Japanese-speaking adults were assigned to one of three conditions: a self-adaptor condition (instructed to hold their cheeks), a suppression [...] Read more.
This study investigated whether self-adaptor behaviours, defined as non-communicative bodily actions such as touching one’s face or clasping one’s hands, facilitate lexical retrieval. Sixty Japanese-speaking adults were assigned to one of three conditions: a self-adaptor condition (instructed to hold their cheeks), a suppression condition (hand movements inhibited), and a control condition in which participants were allowed to move their hands freely. Participants completed a lexical retrieval task designed to elicit tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states, followed by a recall task. Responses were categorised as successful retrieval, retrieval failure, TOT success, or TOT failure. Results showed that the self-adaptor condition achieved significantly more correct responses than the suppression condition, indicating that self-adaptor behaviour supports lexical access during retrieval difficulty. However, self-adaptor behaviour did not enhance the resolution of TOT states or improve recall performance. Video-based analysis further revealed that gestures increased markedly during TOT states, while self-adaptor behaviours were more frequent overall. These findings suggest that self-adaptor behaviour contributes to general lexical retrieval processes but does not directly facilitate the resolution of TOT states. The distinction between the functions of spontaneous bodily movements is therefore essential. This study extends the understanding of how embodied behaviours interact with verbal processes and underscores the cognitive significance of non-communicative bodily actions in speech production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-representational Gestures: Types, Use, and Functions)
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4 pages, 180 KB  
Editorial
Introducing the Special Issue “Interface Between Sociolinguistics and Music”
by Verónica Loureiro-Rodríguez and María Irene Moyna
Languages 2025, 10(9), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090208 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 635
Abstract
This Special Issue comprises six original studies that explore the interface between sociolinguistics and music, offering new insights into how language is stylized and perceived in English, Spanish, and code-mixed performance [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interface between Sociolinguistics and Music)
20 pages, 1681 KB  
Article
Reading Between the Lines: Digital Annotation Insights from Heritage and L2 Learners
by Edna Velásquez
Languages 2025, 10(9), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090207 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 673
Abstract
This study investigates how Spanish heritage language (SHL) learners, and second language (L2) learners cognitively and socially engage with texts through collaborative digital annotations. Conducted in two advanced online writing courses with forty students, the study employed Perusall, a social annotation platform, to [...] Read more.
This study investigates how Spanish heritage language (SHL) learners, and second language (L2) learners cognitively and socially engage with texts through collaborative digital annotations. Conducted in two advanced online writing courses with forty students, the study employed Perusall, a social annotation platform, to examine reading behaviors and peer interactions. Quantitative analysis revealed both similarities and differences in strategy use: while both groups demonstrated equal levels of interaction, SHL learners favored Evaluating and Connecting strategies, suggesting reflective, experience-based engagement, whereas L2 learners more frequently used Questioning and Translating strategies, indicating a more analytical approach. Survey responses further highlighted perceived gains in vocabulary, motivation, grammar, and academic language awareness. These findings challenge deficit-based assumptions about SHL literacy and underscore the value of integrating culturally relevant, digitally mediated tasks in language instruction. The study affirms that collaborative annotation not only fosters cognitive engagement but also promotes social presence and academic identity development. It offers practical recommendations for grouping, scaffolding, and platform use, and contributes to a broader understanding of how digital tools can support inclusive, meaningful reading experiences for diverse learners in the twenty-first-century classroom. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)
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26 pages, 1506 KB  
Article
The Role of Non-Representational Hand Gestures in Creative Thinking
by Gyulten Hyusein and Tilbe Göksun
Languages 2025, 10(9), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090206 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 835
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that representational gestures support divergent thinking and that mental imagery is necessary for gestures to aid convergent thinking. However, less is known about non-representational gesture use (i.e., beat and palm-revealing) during creative thinking. Across two experiments, we examined whether these [...] Read more.
Previous studies suggest that representational gestures support divergent thinking and that mental imagery is necessary for gestures to aid convergent thinking. However, less is known about non-representational gesture use (i.e., beat and palm-revealing) during creative thinking. Across two experiments, we examined whether these gestures supported or hindered creativity and the effects of mental imagery on creative thinking. In Experiment 1, we tested both gesture-spontaneous and gesture-encouraged conditions during divergent thinking. Beat gestures, irrespective of condition, were negatively associated with originality in divergent thinking for individuals with high mental imagery. Encouraged palm-revealing gestures were negatively associated with fluency, flexibility, and elaboration in divergent thinking, regardless of mental imagery. In Experiment 2, we examined spontaneous gestures during both divergent and convergent thinking and assessed mental imagery vividness and skills. Beat gestures were negatively associated with convergent thinking for individuals with low or average imagery vividness. Similarly, palm-revealing gestures were negatively associated with convergent thinking for individuals with low mental imagery skills. Vividness of imagery was the only consistent positive predictor of divergent thinking. Spontaneous gestures were not associated with divergent thinking. These findings show that, unlike representational, non-representational gesture use does not facilitate and might even hurt creativity, depending on individual differences in mental imagery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-representational Gestures: Types, Use, and Functions)
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17 pages, 2271 KB  
Article
A Syntactic and Pragmatic Analysis of the Colloquial Expression ʔinno ‘That’ in Jordanian Arabic: Evidence from Social Media Conversation
by Ghada Alkarazoun and Doaa Riziq
Languages 2025, 10(9), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090205 - 25 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1345
Abstract
This study investigates the colloquial expression ʔinno that serves as a complementizer (C) and a discourse marker (DM) in Jordanian Arabic (JA). The data includes (422) instances of ʔinno collected from social media conversations of (60) JA speakers. The analysis shows that for [...] Read more.
This study investigates the colloquial expression ʔinno that serves as a complementizer (C) and a discourse marker (DM) in Jordanian Arabic (JA). The data includes (422) instances of ʔinno collected from social media conversations of (60) JA speakers. The analysis shows that for ʔinno as a (C), there are (259) instances that are used to introduce subordinate clauses, and it is inflected with pronoun suffixes that specify person, gender, and number. It also serves various functions in verbal and nominal sentences. As a DM, Ɂinno are (163) instances that appear in the middle of sentences between two propositions. A list of contexts is developed featuring Ɂinno in JA. The pragmatic functions of Ɂinno are determined in each situation and validated by an Acceptability Judgment Task which is completed by 20 native speakers of JA. The pragmatic functions of ʔinno fall into six primary categories with sub-functions, such as explanatory functions (like giving reasons or expressing results), elaborative functions (including elaboration and giving examples and clarification), emotional and assessment functions (such as expressing surprise or criticism), emphatic and assertive functions (for emphasizing or warning), epistemic and uncertainty functions (covering hesitation and hedging), and a turn-taking function (specifically urging for continuity). This study concludes that Ɂinno is well established among social media users in the Jordanian context and the varied contexts play a vital role in exploring its pragmatic and syntactic functions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Discourse Marker Research)
31 pages, 1409 KB  
Article
Measuring Emotion Recognition Through Language: The Development and Validation of an English Productive Emotion Vocabulary Size Test
by Allen Jie Ein Chee, Csaba Zoltan Szabo and Sharimila Ambrose
Languages 2025, 10(9), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090204 - 25 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1461
Abstract
Emotion vocabulary is essential for recognising, expressing, and regulating emotions, playing a critical role in language proficiency and emotional competence. However, traditional vocabulary assessments have largely overlooked emotion-specific lexicons, limiting their ability to identify learners’ gaps in this area. Therefore, this study addresses [...] Read more.
Emotion vocabulary is essential for recognising, expressing, and regulating emotions, playing a critical role in language proficiency and emotional competence. However, traditional vocabulary assessments have largely overlooked emotion-specific lexicons, limiting their ability to identify learners’ gaps in this area. Therefore, this study addresses this gap by developing and validating the Productive Emotion Vocabulary Size Test (PEVST), a tool designed to evaluate productive emotion vocabulary knowledge in ESL/EFL contexts. The PEVST incorporates low-, mid-, and high-frequency emotion words, assessed through context-rich vignettes, offering a comprehensive tool for measuring productive emotion vocabulary knowledge. The study recruited 156 adult participants with varying language proficiency levels. Findings revealed that word frequency significantly influenced production accuracy: higher frequency words were more easily retrieved, while lower frequency words often elicited higher frequency synonyms. Rasch analysis provided validity evidence for the test’s scoring, highlighting the effectiveness of a granular scoring system that considers nuanced responses. However, some limitations arose from misfitting items and the homogeneity of participants’ language proficiency, calling for further evidence with a more linguaculturally diverse target group and careful control for individual differences. Future iterations should address these challenges by incorporating cultural adaptations and accounting for individual differences. The PEVST offers a robust foundation for advancing emotion vocabulary assessment, deepening our understanding of the interplay between language, emotions, and cognition, and informing emotion-focused language pedagogy. Full article
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36 pages, 614 KB  
Article
Iterative/Semelfactive = Collective/Singulative? Parallels in Slavic
by Marcin Wągiel
Languages 2025, 10(9), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090203 - 22 Aug 2025
Viewed by 519
Abstract
In this paper, I will discuss a topic concerning part–whole structures in the nominal and verbal domain. Specifically, I will address the question of whether there is a universal mechanism for the individuation of entities and events by exploring parallels between singulatives and [...] Read more.
In this paper, I will discuss a topic concerning part–whole structures in the nominal and verbal domain. Specifically, I will address the question of whether there is a universal mechanism for the individuation of entities and events by exploring parallels between singulatives and semelfactives in Slavic. Singulatives are derived unit nouns, whereas semelfactives are punctual verbs that describe a brief event which culminates by returning to the initial state. Cross-linguistically, singulative morphology often alternates with collective marking, whereas semelfactives alternate with iteratives. Collectives and iteratives describe homogenous groupings of entities and events, respectively. From a conceptual perspective, both singulatives and semelfactives individuate to the effect of singular bounded unit reference and in the literature, the parallel between the mass count/distinction and aspect has often been drawn. In Slavic, singulative and semelfactive morphologies share a component; specifically, both markers involve a nasal -n and a vocalic component, e.g., compare Russian gorox ‘peas (as a mass)’ ∼goroš-in-a ‘a pea’ and prygať ‘to jump (repeatedly)’ ∼ pryg-nu-ť ‘to jump once’. I will argue that the singulative -in and semelfactive -nu are complex and both involve the very same -n, which denotes a declustering atomizer modeled in mereotopological terms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb: Analogies in Different Languages and Other Grammatical Domains)
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