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Languages

Languages is an international, multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed, open access journal on interdisciplinary studies of languages published monthly online by MDPI. The European Society for Transcultural and Interdisciplinary Dialogue (ESTIDIA) is affiliated with Languages and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), ERIH Plus, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Linguistics) / CiteScore - Q1 (Language and Linguistics)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 56.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 10.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 0.9 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-471X

Latest Articles

49 pages, 4502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Whys and Wherefores: The Aetiology of the Left Periphery (With Reference to Vietnamese)

by Nigel Duffield

Languages 2025, 10(5), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050116 - 19 May 2025

This paper offers a detailed description of the left periphery of embedded clauses in Vietnamese. Five kinds of pre-subject constituent are considered in isolation, and in interaction with one another: subordinating conjunctions; embedded topics; fronted quantifier expressions; fronted adverbials, and the Vietnamese equivalent [...] Read more.

This paper offers a detailed description of the left periphery of embedded clauses in Vietnamese. Five kinds of pre-subject constituent are considered in isolation, and in interaction with one another: subordinating conjunctions; embedded topics; fronted quantifier expressions; fronted adverbials, and the Vietnamese equivalent of English why (Italian perché). A systematic comparison is made with the functional sequence of Italian, proposed in the cartographic literature. Whilst largely consistent with the Italian pattern, our findings diverge in certain respects, especially in suggesting a modification of previous treatments of the *‘why-to’ constraint observed in English and a number of other varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics)

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20 pages, 815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Relationship Between Oral Reading Miscues and Comprehension in L2 Chinese

by Sicheng Wang

Languages 2025, 10(5), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050115 - 19 May 2025

Reading comprehension in Chinese as a second language (L2 Chinese) presents unique challenges due to the language’s logographic writing system. Analysis of oral reading miscues reveals specific patterns in L2 learners’ reading processes and comprehension difficulties. Despite established theoretical frameworks for miscue analysis [...] Read more.

Reading comprehension in Chinese as a second language (L2 Chinese) presents unique challenges due to the language’s logographic writing system. Analysis of oral reading miscues reveals specific patterns in L2 learners’ reading processes and comprehension difficulties. Despite established theoretical frameworks for miscue analysis in alphabetic languages, empirical research on miscues in logographic systems such as Chinese remains limited, particularly regarding their relationship with reading comprehension. This study investigates the relationship between oral reading miscues and literal comprehension of Chinese texts among L2 Chinese learners. Sixty-six intermediate-level Chinese learners from U.S. universities participated in the study. Oral reading and sentence-level translation tasks were administered to examine miscues and assess comprehension. Through analyzing the oral reading data, we identified 14 types of oral reading miscues, and they were categorized into four categories: orthographic, syntactic, semantic, and word processing miscues. Results showed strong negative correlations between oral reading miscues and comprehension. Orthographic, syntactic, and semantic miscues were negatively correlated with reading comprehension performance, while word processing miscues showed no significant correlation with comprehension. The findings reveal the complex relationship between character recognition, word processing behaviors, and comprehension in L2 Chinese reading, and suggest a need for a nuanced approach to oral reading error correction in L2 Chinese reading instruction. Based on the findings, pedagogical implications for effective reading instruction and reading assessment in L2 Chinese classrooms are discussed. Full article

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20 pages, 321 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Representation Matters: An Exploration of the Impact of Afro-Latinx Representation in an L2 Class

by Lillie Vivian Padilla, Frederica Jackson and Sydney Nii Odotei Odoi

Languages 2025, 10(5), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050114 - 16 May 2025

Several studies emphasize that the limited representation of Afro-Latinx communities in Spanish language curricula affects students’ understanding of the diversity in Spanish-speaking societies. However, research has yet to evaluate the impact of a curricular intervention incorporating an Afro-Latinx module into an L2 Spanish [...] Read more.

Several studies emphasize that the limited representation of Afro-Latinx communities in Spanish language curricula affects students’ understanding of the diversity in Spanish-speaking societies. However, research has yet to evaluate the impact of a curricular intervention incorporating an Afro-Latinx module into an L2 Spanish language course. The present study addresses two research questions: (1) what the changes in knowledge after implementing an Afro-Latinx module in an L2 Spanish language course are, and (2) how the module impacts students’ understanding of language variation and diversity in Afro-descendant communities. Guided by Critical Race Theory, Critical Language Awareness, and Raciolinguistics, this mixed methods study analyzed pre- and post-tests alongside journal reflections completed by 50 college students. The findings demonstrated significant improvements in students’ knowledge, indicating a strong association between the intervention and the observed increase in knowledge regarding the representation of Afro-Latinx communities. It also deepened students’ understanding of language variation within Afro-descendant communities and illustrated the role of language in deconstructing social hierarchies and enabling collective memory, resistance, and empowerment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)

15 pages, 971 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spanish as Immigrant Minority Language in Brussels: A Pilot Study on Maintenance and Vitality

by Samantha Pérez Rodríguez, An Vande Casteele and Rik Vosters

Languages 2025, 10(5), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050113 - 16 May 2025

Despite its demographic relevance, Spanish as an Immigrant Minority Language (IML) remains understudied in Europe. In Brussels, approximately 46,500 residents have Hispanic heritage, but their linguistic practices have largely remained unexplored in sociolinguistic research. This paper presents a pilot study on the language [...] Read more.

Despite its demographic relevance, Spanish as an Immigrant Minority Language (IML) remains understudied in Europe. In Brussels, approximately 46,500 residents have Hispanic heritage, but their linguistic practices have largely remained unexplored in sociolinguistic research. This paper presents a pilot study on the language practices of the Hispanic communities in the city in order to assess language maintenance and vitality. Through an online survey among 125 adults with Hispanic heritage in Brussels, primarily first-generation immigrants, a highly multilingual sample was revealed, with most participants competent in at least four languages. While Spanish usage declines across generations, language competence remains high, with 60% of third-generation speakers still considering it one of their dominant languages. Findings challenge traditional minority–majority language maintenance perspectives, advocating for a multilingual approach to linguistic vitality. Patterns of language transmission, home language use, and integration highlight the communities’ adaptability while maintaining a connection to Spanish. Results point to unexplored sociolinguistic phenomena within the language minority, underscoring the need for further research on the Hispanic communities in Brussels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Linguistic Boundaries: From the Acquisition of Languages to Multilingual Practices)

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28 pages, 413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of L1 Linguistic and Cultural Background on L2 Pragmatic Competence

by Sviatlana Karpava

Languages 2025, 10(5), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050112 - 13 May 2025

This study examined the pragmatic competence and awareness of L2 learners of English, with a focus on their request strategies in L2 English, levels of (in)directness, request perspective, internal and external modifications, and the impact of tasks. The participants comprised 80 Cypriot Greek [...] Read more.

This study examined the pragmatic competence and awareness of L2 learners of English, with a focus on their request strategies in L2 English, levels of (in)directness, request perspective, internal and external modifications, and the impact of tasks. The participants comprised 80 Cypriot Greek (CG) undergraduate students. The pragmatic tests were designed based on Speech Act Theory and included discourse completion tasks (DCTs) and multiple-choice questionnaires (MCQs). Additionally, a role-play and an interview task were employed to assess L2 learners’ pragmatic competence in oral discourse. The tasks featured four conditions related to power and social distance: [+social distance, status equals], [−social distance, status equals], [+social distance, hearer dominance], and [−social distance, hearer dominance]. Overall, the results indicated that L2 learners of English tended to prefer conventionally indirect requests, suggesting that L1 linguistic and cultural backgrounds influence expressions of politeness. Face-threatening situations with a high degree of imposition elicited more conventionally indirect requests. Data analysis revealed contextual variation but not a clear task effect. Factors such as social distance, hearer dominance, power, familiarity, and imposition impacted the degree of (in)directness, request perspective, and both internal and external modifications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Pragmatics in Contemporary Cross-Cultural Contexts)

6 pages, 198 KiB

Open AccessReply

Response to Open Peer Commentaries of Hulstijn’s (2024) Update of BLC Theory

by Jan Hulstijn

Languages 2025, 10(5), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050111 - 12 May 2025

In this article, I respond to six peer commentaries of my essay in Languages 2024, containing an update of BLC Theory. I address the following issues: embedding BLC Theory in more than one metatheory; the match between the theory and usage-based models; the [...] Read more.

In this article, I respond to six peer commentaries of my essay in Languages 2024, containing an update of BLC Theory. I address the following issues: embedding BLC Theory in more than one metatheory; the match between the theory and usage-based models; the importance of processing pressures; the distinction between BLC and ELC; the study of heritage languages; the roles of cognitive factors in L1 and L2 attainment. Full article

16 pages, 705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing Cumulative Lexicalized Effects in Study Abroad: Variable Subject Pronoun Expression in Spanish as an Additional Language

by Esther Brown, Tracy Quan and Javier Rivas

Languages 2025, 10(5), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050110 - 8 May 2025

We examine variable first-person singular subject pronoun expression in Spanish learner data to investigate the effects of study abroad in Mexico and Spain on the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation. In addition to exploring pre- and post-study abroad effects, this work considers whether such [...] Read more.

We examine variable first-person singular subject pronoun expression in Spanish learner data to investigate the effects of study abroad in Mexico and Spain on the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation. In addition to exploring pre- and post-study abroad effects, this work considers whether such impacts wane over time after the study abroad experience. We include in the analyses novel usage-based factors estimating lexically specific usage patterns. We conduct a mixed-effects linear regression model predicting overt yo (‘I’) expression. Results indicate that overt yo expression is more likely after studying abroad (compared to pre-study abroad). Additionally, learners acquire a usage-based pattern of variation evident after the study abroad experience. This effect is not just apparent immediately after studying abroad, but it persists in data collected after a time delay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

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18 pages, 1294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Virtual Exchanges on the Development of Sociolinguistic Competence in Second Language Spanish Learners: The Case of Voseo

by Francisco Salgado-Robles and Angela George

Languages 2025, 10(5), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050109 - 8 May 2025

This study investigates how sociolinguistically informed instruction and virtual exchanges affect the use of the second-person singular pronouns (usted, tú, and vos) by adult second language learners of Spanish enrolled in a third-semester course at a four-year college. The [...] Read more.

This study investigates how sociolinguistically informed instruction and virtual exchanges affect the use of the second-person singular pronouns (usted, tú, and vos) by adult second language learners of Spanish enrolled in a third-semester course at a four-year college. The results from written contextualized tasks and oral discourse completion tasks show that participants who engaged in virtual exchanges with native speakers from Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador (experimental group) significantly improved their use of vos compared to those who did not participate in these exchanges (control group). Both groups increased their use of tú and vos over time, with notable differences between written and oral tasks. These findings provide empirical support for incorporating virtual exchanges into language learning curricula, demonstrating their effectiveness in teaching regional dialectal features such as voseo. Additionally, by focusing on the often-overlooked regionally variable pronoun vos, this study enriches the existing literature on Spanish language instruction and opens new avenues for research on dialectal variation and sociolinguistically informed pedagogy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

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18 pages, 348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Social Networks During Study Abroad: Acquiring Non-Standard Varieties

by Rozenn Gautier and Jean-Pierre Chevrot

Languages 2025, 10(5), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050108 - 8 May 2025

Over the past 20 years, researchers have shown increasing interest in social network analysis to understand second language acquisition (SLA), especially in a study abroad (SA) context. To date, few longitudinal studies have examined the joint evolution of the learners’ sociolinguistic competence and [...] Read more.

Over the past 20 years, researchers have shown increasing interest in social network analysis to understand second language acquisition (SLA), especially in a study abroad (SA) context. To date, few longitudinal studies have examined the joint evolution of the learners’ sociolinguistic competence and socialisation during the SA. By shifting the focus from a global view of the study abroad context to a deep analysis of the composition and structure of each learner’ social networks in the host country, we aim to provide a better understanding of the development of sociolinguistic competence in SLA (Gautier & Chevrot, 2015). We apply the sociological concept of a social network to sociolinguistics. To explore the sociolinguistic competence of 29 learners, we focus on two well-described sociolinguistic variables in French: the optional liaison and the negative ne. We also gathered data on their social networks and provided a deep analysis of each participant’s network. We implemented a quantitative approach to analyse and depict the social networks of the learners. Statistically significant relationships were found between changes in the learners’ personal network and their use of the two sociolinguistic variables. The development of L2-oriented social networks (in terms of size, speaking time, and frequency) over nine months of the SA helps learners to reduce their use of standard variants. Conversely, the development of L1-oriented social networks during the SA is associated with greater use of standard variants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

21 pages, 1637 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Second Language Acquisition of Second-Person Singular Forms of Address: Navigating Usage and Perception in a Tripartite System in Medellin, Colombia

by Nofiya Sarah Denbaum-Restrepo and Falcon Dario Restrepo-Ramos

Languages 2025, 10(5), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050107 - 8 May 2025

Previous studies have found that second language learners can acquire sociolinguistic variation. However, there is a lack of studies that examine the L2 acquisition of second-person singular forms of address (2PS) in Spanish, especially in the immersion context of study abroad. The current [...] Read more.

Previous studies have found that second language learners can acquire sociolinguistic variation. However, there is a lack of studies that examine the L2 acquisition of second-person singular forms of address (2PS) in Spanish, especially in the immersion context of study abroad. The current study examines the acquisition of Spanish 2PS by seven adults learning Spanish in Medellin, Colombia. Participants completed an oral discourse completion task and a matched guise task to measure language perceptions toward each 2PS. Learners’ results are compared to findings from 38 native Spanish speakers from Medellin. Learners produced very few instances of the local variant vos and overproduced tú, differing greatly from native speakers. Two factors were found to significantly condition 2PS usage for learners: speaker gender and interlocutor relationship. Findings show that although learners perceive vos to a somewhat native-like extent and the role that it plays in the local variety, learners do not actually use it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

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22 pages, 1906 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sociolinguistic Competence in Chinese Heritage Language Speakers: Variation in Subject Personal Pronoun Expression

by Xinye Zhang

Languages 2025, 10(5), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050106 - 8 May 2025

Learning a language means both mastering the grammatical structures and using contextually appropriate language, or developing sociolinguistic competence, which has been examined by measuring the native-like patterns of sociolinguistic variables. This study investigates subject personal pronoun expression (SPE) variation in Mandarin by [...] Read more.

Learning a language means both mastering the grammatical structures and using contextually appropriate language, or developing sociolinguistic competence, which has been examined by measuring the native-like patterns of sociolinguistic variables. This study investigates subject personal pronoun expression (SPE) variation in Mandarin by young adult and child heritage language learners (or Chinese Heritage Language, CHL) and explores the development of sociolinguistic competence. With data collected from 15 young adults and 27 children, regression analyses show that internal linguistic constraints, psychophysiological constraints, and social constraints all significantly affect SPE variation in CHL. Overall, CHL children used fewer subject pronouns than young adults. The use of pronouns in both child language and young adult speech is constrained by similar factors. However, the difference in SPE patterns between the two groups was not statistically significant. This suggests that children may have already established some adult-like variation patterns, but these are not further developed until early adulthood. By exploring the development of sociolinguistic competence, this research contributes to the current understanding of how sociolinguistic variables are acquired and employed in heritage language at different developmental stages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

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29 pages, 4542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Why Do Back Vowels Shift in Heritage Korean?

by Laura Griffin and Naomi Nagy

Languages 2025, 10(5), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050105 - 8 May 2025

For heritage speakers (HSs), expectations of influence from the community’s dominant language are pervasive. An alternative account for heritage language variability is that HSs are demonstrating sociolinguistic competence: HSs may either initiate or carry forward a pattern of variation from the homeland variety. [...] Read more.

For heritage speakers (HSs), expectations of influence from the community’s dominant language are pervasive. An alternative account for heritage language variability is that HSs are demonstrating sociolinguistic competence: HSs may either initiate or carry forward a pattern of variation from the homeland variety. We illustrate the importance of this consideration, querying whether /u/-fronting in Heritage Korean is best interpreted as influence from Toronto English, where /u/-fronting also occurs, or a continuation of an ongoing vowel shift in Homeland (Seoul) Korean that also involves /ɨ/-fronting and /o/-fronting. How can patterns of social embedding untangle this question that is central to better understanding sociolinguistic competence in HSs? For Korean vowels produced in sociolinguistic interviews by Heritage (8 adult immigrants, 8 adult children of immigrants) and 10 Homeland adults, F1 and F2 were measured (13,232 tokens of /o/, 6810 tokens of /u/, and 20,637 tokens of /ɨ/), normalized and subjected to linear regression. Models predict effects of gender, age, orientation toward Korean language and culture, the speaker’s average F2 for the other shifting vowels, and duration. These models highlight HS’s sociolinguistic competence: Heritage speakers share linguistic and social patterns with Homeland Korean speakers that are absent in English. Additionally, heritage speakers lack the effects of factors attested in the English change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Acquisition of L2 Sociolinguistic Competence)

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26 pages, 867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Language Variation and Perception: Subject Pronominal Expression in Native and Non-Native Mandarin Chinese

by Xinye Zhang, Aini Li and Xiaoshi Li

Languages 2025, 10(5), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050104 - 8 May 2025

Subject pronoun expression (SPE) has been widely studied as a sociolinguistic variable across a range of languages. However, previous research has primarily focused on production, leaving the perception of subject pronouns largely unexplored. The perception of sociolinguistic variants not only reflects unconscious judgments [...] Read more.

Subject pronoun expression (SPE) has been widely studied as a sociolinguistic variable across a range of languages. However, previous research has primarily focused on production, leaving the perception of subject pronouns largely unexplored. The perception of sociolinguistic variants not only reflects unconscious judgments towards linguistic features but also unveils the social meanings associated with these features. This study explores the perception of SPE in Mandarin by native and non-native listeners. 262 participants (185 native and 77 non-native) were recruited for Mandarin SPE perception tasks in which participants needed to rate the appropriate use of SPE in given contexts. Mixed-effects regression models reveal that native and non-native Mandarin listeners shared similar perception patterns of SPE. SPE rate serves as a significant structural constraint for both native and non-native perception. However, these two groups differ in that person of the subject and L2 experience play a key role in native perception, whereas non-native listeners demonstrated greater sensitivity to gender as a social factor. To what extent production and perception may interact is further discussed. This study contributes to the current understanding of sociolinguistics and second language acquisition by providing empirical evidence of SPE perception, adopting innovative approaches to examine variation perception, addressing the differences between native and non-native patterns of perceptual variation, and exploring the connection between variation production and perception. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)

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40 pages, 1208 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Case Marking in Turkish Heritage Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder

by Nebiye Hilal Şan

Languages 2025, 10(5), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050103 - 8 May 2025

Recent studies on agglutinative languages, such as Japanese, Finnish, and Turkish, have reported case marking deficits in children with developmental language disorder.In this study, we investigate case marking in bilingual children speaking Turkish as a heritage language in Germany in comparison to those [...] Read more.

Recent studies on agglutinative languages, such as Japanese, Finnish, and Turkish, have reported case marking deficits in children with developmental language disorder.In this study, we investigate case marking in bilingual children speaking Turkish as a heritage language in Germany in comparison to those in France and the U.S. and late successive bilinguals in Germany. The research focuses on the potential use of case marking to identify developmental language disorder in Turkish as a heritage language. In this study, we compare data obtained from 73 children with and without developmental language disorder (age 5;1–11;6) that speak Turkish as a heritage language to those obtained from 10 late successive bilinguals (age range 7;12–12;2) in Germany, France, and the U.S., analyzing case marking and the possessive markers included in genitive–possessive constructions and using both standard and heritage Turkish as reference varieties. The results show that the groups differ significantly (p < 0.05) regarding the use of case and possessive markers. Current first language use is the leading predictor of performance in case marker production in the TEDİL when using heritage Turkish as the reference variety in scoring. The results demonstrate that children with developmental language disorder that speak heritage Turkish produce fewer case markers and show higher rates of omission and substitution errors, particularly in accusative/dative and genitive markers, thus confirming the results of previous research. The omission of possessive and genitive markers in simpler structures may serve as a clinical marker of developmental language disorder, allowing for children with typical language development that speak heritage Turkish to be distinguished from those with a developmental language disorder. Full article

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20 pages, 1964 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kazakh–English Bilingualism in Kazakhstan: Public Attitudes and Language Practices

by Dinara Tlepbergen, Assel Akzhigitova and Anastassia Zabrodskaja

Languages 2025, 10(5), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050102 - 7 May 2025

This study investigates the complex dynamics of Kazakh–English bilingualism, the influence of technology on language promotion, and regional variations in language attitudes across Kazakhstan. Using a structured online survey, data were collected from 1000 respondents representing all regions of the country, providing insights [...] Read more.

This study investigates the complex dynamics of Kazakh–English bilingualism, the influence of technology on language promotion, and regional variations in language attitudes across Kazakhstan. Using a structured online survey, data were collected from 1000 respondents representing all regions of the country, providing insights into language competence, daily communication preferences, attitudes toward bilingualism, and the role of technology in language development. Quantitative analysis, including descriptive statistics, cross-tabulation, and Chi-square tests, was conducted to identify significant trends and patterns. The findings highlight Kazakhstan’s evolving language environment, where bilingualism and multilingualism thrive alongside initiatives to strengthen Kazakh language use through technological advancements. This study underscores the need for balanced language policies that embrace linguistic diversity while fostering the development of the national language in an increasingly globalized world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sociolinguistic Variation and Change: Focus on English as a Second and Foreign Language)

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26 pages, 1672 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Sociolectal Identity Through Speech Rhythm in Philippine English

by Teri An Joy Magpale

Languages 2025, 10(5), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050101 - 1 May 2025

This study explores rhythm metrics as a sociolinguistic marker in Philippine English (PhE), addressing gaps in understanding rhythmic variation in Southeast Asian Englishes. It aims to uncover how rhythmic patterns reflect sociolectal identities within a multilingual context. Using acoustic data from 30 participants [...] Read more.

This study explores rhythm metrics as a sociolinguistic marker in Philippine English (PhE), addressing gaps in understanding rhythmic variation in Southeast Asian Englishes. It aims to uncover how rhythmic patterns reflect sociolectal identities within a multilingual context. Using acoustic data from 30 participants in Manila, rhythm metrics (%V, ΔV, ΔC, nPVI, and rPVI) were analyzed to examine rhythmic tendencies. The findings reveal distinct patterns: PhE acrolect aligns with stress-timed rhythms of general American English, PhE basilect reflects syllable-timed features similar to Spanish, and PhE mesolect occupies a hybrid position blending elements of both. By emphasizing rhythm as a key identifier of sociolectal variation, this study advances the understanding of linguistic diversity in World Englishes and provides a novel framework for exploring identity in multilingual settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Discourse and Identity in the Diverse and Evolving Varieties of Southeast Asian Englishes)

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5 pages, 192 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

BLC and Subordination in Heritage Speakers—Towards a New Research Agenda: Commentary on Hulstijn (2024)

by Jeanine Treffers-Daller

Languages 2025, 10(5), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050100 - 30 Apr 2025

In his update on Basic Language Cognition (BLC), Hulstijn formulates a number of predictions derived from BLC Theory, and explains how BLC differs from Extended Language Cognition (ELC). BLC is used to refer to an individual’s capacity to process spoken language productively and [...] Read more.

In his update on Basic Language Cognition (BLC), Hulstijn formulates a number of predictions derived from BLC Theory, and explains how BLC differs from Extended Language Cognition (ELC). BLC is used to refer to an individual’s capacity to process spoken language productively and receptively in everyday life, while ELC is defined as control of the written standard language, as taught in school. In the literature on heritage speakers, so far surprisingly little attention has been paid to the differences between BLC and ELC, despite the relevance of the distinction between oral and written language for our understanding of heritage speakers’ language profiles. In this commentary, I argue that BLC Theory can be used to inform studies of heritage languages, and conversely, how insights from heritage languages can be used to develop BLC Theory further. By way of example, I revisit some of the literature on subordination in Turkish as a heritage language. I also point to issues that need to be clarified and future directions in the study of these phenomena. Full article

5 pages, 195 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

A Role for Processing in Basic Language Cognition: Commentary on Hulstijn (2024)

by William O’Grady

Languages 2025, 10(5), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050099 - 30 Apr 2025

This brief commentary on Jan Hulstijn’s essay examines the importance of processing pressures in usage-oriented approaches to language and learning. I use the syntax of negation to illustrate this line of research and its relevance to linguistic inquiry in general. Full article

6 pages, 207 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

On “Local Theory” Neutrality with Respect to “Meta-Theories” and Data from a Diversity of “Native Speakers”, Including Heritage Speaker Bilinguals: Commentary on Hulstijn (2024)

by Jason Rothman, Fatih Bayram, Jiuzhou Hao and Patrick Rebuschat

Languages 2025, 10(5), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050098 - 30 Apr 2025

This commentary critically engages with Hulstijn’s revised Basic Language Cognition (BLC) Theory, which aims to enhance explanatory power and falsifiability regarding individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency across native and non-native speakers. While commending BLC Theory’s emphasis on separating oral and written language [...] Read more.

This commentary critically engages with Hulstijn’s revised Basic Language Cognition (BLC) Theory, which aims to enhance explanatory power and falsifiability regarding individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency across native and non-native speakers. While commending BLC Theory’s emphasis on separating oral and written language cognition, we raise two key concerns. First, we question the theory’s exclusive alignment with usage-based approaches, arguing that its core constructs are, in principle, compatible with multiple meta-theoretical frameworks, including generative ones. As such, BLC Theory should remain neutral to maximize its cross-paradigmatic utility. Second, we address the theory’s treatment of heritage speaker bilinguals (HSs), particularly the implication that they may not typically acquire BLC. We contend that this position overlooks robust empirical evidence demonstrating that HSs develop systematic, rule-governed grammars influenced by their individual input and usage conditions. Moreover, we highlight how IDs among HSs can provide a valuable testing ground for BLC Theory, particularly regarding the role of input and literacy. We conclude that embracing theory neutrality and integrating diverse speaker data—especially from heritage bilinguals—can enhance BLC Theory’s generalizability, empirical relevance, and theoretical utility across language acquisition research. Full article

5 pages, 189 KiB

Open AccessCommentary

Predictions of Cognitive Individual Differences in Language Acquisition: Commentary on Hulstijn (2024)

by Gisela Granena

Languages 2025, 10(5), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050097 - 30 Apr 2025

Hulstijn’s BLC Theory proposes a dissociation between cognitive individual differences and two types of cognition—the cognition of oral language and the cognition of written language. Specifically, cognitive IDs are expected to affect the acquisition of reading and writing skills in both native and [...] Read more.

Hulstijn’s BLC Theory proposes a dissociation between cognitive individual differences and two types of cognition—the cognition of oral language and the cognition of written language. Specifically, cognitive IDs are expected to affect the acquisition of reading and writing skills in both native and non-native speakers, but not the acquisition of speech comprehension and speech production in either native or non-native speakers. This commentary will discuss the potential and the limitations of these predictions and will suggest directions for future empirical research in the context of BLC Theory. Full article

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Translanguaging and Intercultural Communication Guest Editor: Eriko Sato
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Language Input Effects in Atypical Language Development Guest Editors: Merel Van Witteloostuijn, Imme Lammertink
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Non-representational Gestures: Types, Use, and Functions Guest Editors: Elena Nicoladis, Maria Graziano
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Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe Guest Editors: Anna Verschik, Kapitolina Fedorova
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