Languages

13 pages, 991 KB

Open AccessReview

Speech Segmentation with Prosodic and Statistical Cues Is Language-Specific in Infancy

by Mireia Marimon, Amanda Saksida, Barbara Höhle and Alan Langus

Languages 2025, 10(9), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090240 - 19 Sep 2025

Speech segmentation is one of the first tasks infants face when learning their mother tongue. It has been argued that statistical learning could function as a gateway to speech segmentation in the absence of pre-existing knowledge about the language to be acquired. However, [...] Read more.

Speech segmentation is one of the first tasks infants face when learning their mother tongue. It has been argued that statistical learning could function as a gateway to speech segmentation in the absence of pre-existing knowledge about the language to be acquired. However, infants also segment speech with prosodic cues, such as lexical stress. Here, we review recent evidence from studies that look at how infants weigh statistical and prosodic information when segmenting continuous speech. We argue that the idea that statistical regularities have a main role in early speech segmentation, as evidenced in English-learning infants, is not found with German-learning infants. With more natural speech stimuli, German-learning infants only become sensitive to statistical regularities in the speech signal by their first birthday. We provide further support for this hypothesis by showing that there are cross-linguistic differences in how statistical models segment child-directed speech (CDS) and that CDS changes as infants grow. This suggests that speech input to younger infants is not tailored for speech segmentation with statistical cues, but that it is subject to cross-linguistic differences like prosody. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)

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23 pages, 2168 KB

Open AccessArticle

Interactive Functions of Palm-Up: Cross-Linguistic and Cross-Modal Insights from ASL, American English, LSFB and Belgian French

by Alysson Lepeut and Emily Shaw

Languages 2025, 10(9), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090239 - 19 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study dives into the interactive functions of the palm-up across four language ecologies drawing on comparable corpus data from American Sign Language (ASL)-American English and French Belgian Sign Language (LSFB)-Belgian French. While researchers have examined palm-up in many different spoken and signed [...] Read more.

This study dives into the interactive functions of the palm-up across four language ecologies drawing on comparable corpus data from American Sign Language (ASL)-American English and French Belgian Sign Language (LSFB)-Belgian French. While researchers have examined palm-up in many different spoken and signed language contexts, they have primarily focused on the canonical forms and its epistemic variants. Work that directly compares palm-up across modalities and language ecologies remains scarce. This study addresses such gaps by documenting all instances of the palm approaching supination in four language ecologies to analyze its interactive functions cross-linguistically and cross-modally. Capitalizing on an existing typology of interactive gestures, palm-up annotations were conducted using ELAN on a total sample of 48 participants interacting face-to-face in dyads. Findings highlight the multifunctional nature of palm-up in terms of conversational dynamics with cross-modal differences in the specific interactive use of palm-up between spoken and signed language contexts. These findings underscore the versatility of the palm-up and reinforce its role in conversational dynamics as not merely supplementary but integral to human interaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-representational Gestures: Types, Use, and Functions)

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13 pages, 373 KB

Open AccessArticle

Varieties of Polar Question Bias: Lessons from Vietnamese

by Michael Yoshitaka Erlewine and Anne Nguyen

Languages 2025, 10(9), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090238 - 19 Sep 2025

Abstract

This paper describes the use conditions of different polar question constructions in Vietnamese and their consequences for the description and analysis of polar question bias. We argue that the behavior of questions with the final particle à highlights the utility and relevance of [...] Read more.

This paper describes the use conditions of different polar question constructions in Vietnamese and their consequences for the description and analysis of polar question bias. We argue that the behavior of questions with the final particle à highlights the utility and relevance of the theoretical notion of projected bias for describing polar question bias, distinct from and in addition to original bias based on the speaker’s prior beliefs and contextual bias based on evidence available in the context. We also argue that some but not all bias requirements may be described as due to pragmatic competition between different question forms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics)

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19 pages, 398 KB

Open AccessArticle

On the Licensing Condition on Sluicing: Evidence from Japanese

by Shun Ihara and Yuya Noguchi

Languages 2025, 10(9), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090237 - 19 Sep 2025

Abstract

Recent studies on sluicing have been pursuing its licensing condition by examining mismatch phenomena in sluicing. The groundbreaking work was by Rudin, who proposes a syntactic licensing condition on sluicing through investigating mismatch phenomena. This paper aims to critically examine Rudin’s proposal by [...] Read more.

Recent studies on sluicing have been pursuing its licensing condition by examining mismatch phenomena in sluicing. The groundbreaking work was by Rudin, who proposes a syntactic licensing condition on sluicing through investigating mismatch phenomena. This paper aims to critically examine Rudin’s proposal by discussing novel Japanese data regarding mismatches in modality, polarity and verbs. We show that these data challenge Rudin’s proposal both conceptually and empirically and thus suggest that it needs to be re-examined. We then show that Kroll’s semantic licensing condition on sluicing captures the Japanese data in question and thus argue that the condition has a wider empirical coverage compared with Rudin’s proposal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Ellipsis and Ellipsis Mismatch: Studies in Japanese and Beyond)

23 pages, 1736 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Sociolinguistics of Quotatives in Sri Lankan English: Corpus-Based Insights

by Tobias Bernaisch

Languages 2025, 10(9), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090236 - 18 Sep 2025

Abstract

This paper examines the quotative system of Sri Lankan English. Quotatives are identified in face-to-face conversations in the Sri Lankan component of the International Corpus of English. The use of kiyala indicating and following quoted material has been transferred from Sinhala, one of [...] Read more.

This paper examines the quotative system of Sri Lankan English. Quotatives are identified in face-to-face conversations in the Sri Lankan component of the International Corpus of English. The use of kiyala indicating and following quoted material has been transferred from Sinhala, one of the indigenous languages of the country, into Sri Lankan English. Together with the occurrence of complementising that, the localisation of the Sri Lankan English quotative system is evident. Special emphasis is given to the choice between BE like and SAY, the by far most frequent quotative forms in the informal spoken data analysed. They are annotated with established structural (e.g., content of the quote or tense) and sociobiographic variables (e.g., age and gender of the speaker) apparent from earlier quotative research, but also with new ones (e.g., quote length or speakers’ stays abroad or media exposure to particular varieties of English). Via a generalised linear mixed-effects model tree implementing the latest methodological suggestions for classification trees, it is found that BE like is favoured over SAY in Sri Lankan English with younger speakers—particularly when the conversation took place after 2015 and events are narrated using the historical present. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sociolinguistic Variation and Change: Focus on English as a Second and Foreign Language)

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26 pages, 1194 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pronoun Mixing in Netherlandic Dutch Revisited: Perception of ‘u’ and ‘jij’ Use by Pre-University Students

by Suzanne Pauline Aalberse

Languages 2025, 10(9), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090235 - 18 Sep 2025

Abstract

Prescriptive grammars of Netherlandic Dutch usually explicitly warn against mixing T- and V-pronouns. Although the prescriptive norm opposes mixing, pronoun mixing does occur, and its use can often be interpreted as strategic, in the sense that mixing pronouns might help to balance conflicting [...] Read more.

Prescriptive grammars of Netherlandic Dutch usually explicitly warn against mixing T- and V-pronouns. Although the prescriptive norm opposes mixing, pronoun mixing does occur, and its use can often be interpreted as strategic, in the sense that mixing pronouns might help to balance conflicting needs such as signaling respect and formality to the addressee on the one hand as well as expressing closeness on the other hand. This article explores the perception of pronoun mixing among high school students who were in the process of acquiring the norm. As part of a student science project, we asked students to categorize real-world examples of pronoun mixing that they themselves had gathered as a strategy or as a mistake. Based on the students’ responses, we extrapolated that the most acceptable forms of mixing were brief switches to V in a T-context to express humor or urgency and—if there was no clear default pronoun—that mixing was most acceptable (1) when the text was free of spelling errors and other signs of sloppiness, (2) when the mixing was intersentential, (3) when the number of switches was infrequent, and (4) when there was a clear division of tasks between the pronouns. As an offshoot of this student science project, we designed a brief follow-up survey to gain insight into domains and consensus and variation among the students’ perceptions of pronoun mixing. This follow-up survey revealed that if not explicitly asked, most students do not notice pronoun mixing. We asked students to rank four real-life examples of address pronoun mixing that they had gathered during the student science project. We expected that with respect to their perception of the mixing of address pronouns all students would rank examples of mixing in the same order. A primary result of this part of our exploration was that there were large individual differences in the perception of mixing and that there was variation in the ranking of examples among the students. Intersentential mixing yielded the most neutral evaluations by the students, but intrasentential mixing showed the most extreme evaluations. It was disliked most strongly by students who had a general dislike of mixing and liked best by students who appreciated mixing as a style. Briefly switching to V in contexts associated with the T-pronoun was perceived to be humorous by a quarter of the students, and half of the students perceived a switch to the petrified abbreviation AUB (‘if you-V please’) as expressing urgency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perception and Processing of Address Terms)

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25 pages, 962 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Production-Comprehension Relationship in the Acquisition of Prosodic Focus Marking: The Role of Age and Individual Differences

by Aoju Chen and Huub van den Bergh

Languages 2025, 10(9), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090234 - 16 Sep 2025

Abstract

Central to the debate on the production–comprehension relationship in prosodic development is the acquisition of the focus-to-prosody mapping in West Germanic languages. Past research primarily examined the production–comprehension relationship in 4- to 5-year-old English and Dutch-speaking children and yielded evidence both for and [...] Read more.

Central to the debate on the production–comprehension relationship in prosodic development is the acquisition of the focus-to-prosody mapping in West Germanic languages. Past research primarily examined the production–comprehension relationship in 4- to 5-year-old English and Dutch-speaking children and yielded evidence both for and against a production-precedes-comprehension asymmetry. Recent research shows a protracted developmental trajectory to adult-like use of the full range of prosodic means for focus marking in Dutch-speaking children, suggesting a comprehension-precedes-production asymmetry. Little is known about whether the production–comprehension relationship changes with age and differs between children. To elucidate the effect of age on the production–comprehension relationship and shed initial light on individual differences in this domain, we investigated production and comprehension of the focus-to-prosody mapping in SVO sentences by 71 Dutch-speaking children aged 4 to 8 years, using picture-based production and online comprehension tasks. Multilevel modelling showed that the children’s comprehension was predictive of their production in sentence-initial focus but not in sentence-final focus across ages. However, this predictive relationship between comprehension and production differed for different children depending on whether their comprehension was adult-like. In conclusion, we have found limited evidence that children’s comprehension of the focus-to-prosody mapping supports their use of prosody to mark focus in production. The stability of individual differences across development is similar to findings in other domains of language acquisition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)

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17 pages, 406 KB

Open AccessArticle

Partition by Exhaustification and Polar Questions in Vietnamese

by Tue Trinh

Languages 2025, 10(9), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090233 - 15 Sep 2025

Abstract

This note presents a series of contrasts pertaining to Vietnamese polar questions: (i) The subject can be definite but not quantificational; (ii) the subject can be plain but not only-focused; (iii) the modal adverb chắc chắn (‘certainly’) can follow but not precede [...] Read more.

This note presents a series of contrasts pertaining to Vietnamese polar questions: (i) The subject can be definite but not quantificational; (ii) the subject can be plain but not only-focused; (iii) the modal adverb chắc chắn (‘certainly’) can follow but not precede verum focus. I argue that a monoclausal analysis, advocated in several previous works, will have difficulties accounting for these contrasts and propose a bi-clausal analysis that explains them in a natural way. The explanation relies on the assumption of a general condition on questions, Partition by Exhaustification (PbE), in conjunction with some other independently motivated semantic and pragmatic constraints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics)

28 pages, 453 KB

Open AccessArticle

Language Learning in the Wild: The L2 Acquisition of English Restrictive Relative Clauses

by Stephen Levey, Kathryn L. Rochon and Laura Kastronic

Languages 2025, 10(9), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090232 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

We argue that quantitative analysis of community-based speech data furnishes an indispensable adjunct to theoretical and experimental studies targeting the acquisition of relativization. Drawing on a comparative sociolinguistic approach, we make use of three corpora of natural speech to investigate second-language (L2) speakers’ [...] Read more.

We argue that quantitative analysis of community-based speech data furnishes an indispensable adjunct to theoretical and experimental studies targeting the acquisition of relativization. Drawing on a comparative sociolinguistic approach, we make use of three corpora of natural speech to investigate second-language (L2) speakers’ acquisition of restrictive relative clauses in English. These corpora comprise: (i) spontaneous L2 speech; (ii) a local baseline variety of the target language (TL); and (iii) L2 speakers’ first language (L1), French. These complementary datasets enable us to explore the extent to which L2 speakers reproduce the discursive frequency of relative markers, as well as their fine-grained linguistic conditioning, in the local TL baseline variety. Comparisons with French facilitate exploration of possible L1 transfer effects on L2 speakers’ production of English restrictive relative clauses. Results indicate that evidence of L1 transfer effects on L2 speakers’ restrictive relative clauses is tenuous. A pivotal finding is that L2 speakers, in the aggregate, closely approximate TL constraints on relative marker selection, although they use the subject relativizer who significantly less often than their TL counterparts. We implicate affiliation with, and integration into, the local TL community as key factors facilitating the propagation of TL vernacular norms to L2 speakers. Full article

21 pages, 1740 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Dual Functions of Adaptors

by Renia Lopez-Ozieblo

Languages 2025, 10(9), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090231 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

Adaptors, self-touching movements that supposedly lack communicative significance, have often been overlooked by researchers focusing on co-speech gestures. A significant complication in their study arises from the somewhat ambiguous definition of adaptors. Examples of these movements include self-manipulations like scratching a leg, bringing [...] Read more.

Adaptors, self-touching movements that supposedly lack communicative significance, have often been overlooked by researchers focusing on co-speech gestures. A significant complication in their study arises from the somewhat ambiguous definition of adaptors. Examples of these movements include self-manipulations like scratching a leg, bringing a hand to the mouth or head, and fidgeting, nervous tics, and micro hand or finger movements. Research rooted in psychology indicates a link between adaptors and negative emotional states. However, psycholinguistic approaches suggest that these movements might be related to the communicative task. This study analyzes adaptors in forty Cantonese speakers of English as a second language in monologues and dialogues in face-to-face and online contexts, revealing that adaptors serve functions beyond emotional expression. Our data indicate that adaptors might have cognitive functions. We also identify micro-movements, flutter-like adaptors or “flutters” for short, that may have interactive functions conveying engagement. These findings challenge the traditional view of adaptors as purely non-communicative. Participants’ self-reports corroborate these interpretations, highlighting the complexity and individual variability in adaptor use. This study advocates for the inclusion of adaptors in gesture analysis, which may enrich understanding of gesture–speech integration and cognitive and emotional processes in communication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-representational Gestures: Types, Use, and Functions)

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16 pages, 406 KB

Open AccessArticle

Anglicizing Humor in a Spanish Satirical TV Show—Pragmatic Functions and Discourse Strategies

by María-Isabel González-Cruz

Languages 2025, 10(9), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090230 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

Humor is a pragmatic and interdisciplinary phenomenon whose sociocultural relevance has been increasingly recognized by the Academia. Surprisingly, although the anthropo-philosophical theory of homo risu emerged in the 7th century, linguists became interested in the study of the linguistic mechanisms of humor only [...] Read more.

Humor is a pragmatic and interdisciplinary phenomenon whose sociocultural relevance has been increasingly recognized by the Academia. Surprisingly, although the anthropo-philosophical theory of homo risu emerged in the 7th century, linguists became interested in the study of the linguistic mechanisms of humor only a few years ago. One of those mechanisms is the use of Anglicisms, because of their pragmatic potential to provide some added value, a halo of prestige and modernity, which creates playful effects of complicity. This paper examines the way Anglicisms crucially contribute to the humorous discourse of the satirical news show El Intermedio, the longest-running program on a Spanish private TV channel. Monitoring of 300 episodes broadcast between April 2022 and December 2024 proves how, in addition to puns and irony, scriptwriters tend to resort to a number of strategies involving the creative use of Anglicisms, which perform different pragmatic functions, while showing sociolinguistic awareness. They also offer an up-to-date sample of the great vitality of Anglicisms in contemporary Spain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Pragmatics in Contemporary Cross-Cultural Contexts)

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19 pages, 765 KB

Open AccessArticle

Language Attitudes Regarding Communication with Young Children and the Use of Diminutives

by Reili Argus and Andra Kütt-Leedis

Languages 2025, 10(9), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090229 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

Parental attitudes play a crucial role in shaping children’s language development. Language attitudes within families and parental beliefs about communicating with young children are under-researched, particularly in Estonia. This study aims to investigate language attitudes in Estonian-speaking families regarding communication with children under [...] Read more.

Parental attitudes play a crucial role in shaping children’s language development. Language attitudes within families and parental beliefs about communicating with young children are under-researched, particularly in Estonia. This study aims to investigate language attitudes in Estonian-speaking families regarding communication with children under three years old. Using data collected via a web-based questionnaire from 246 Estonian families, the article addresses the following questions: How important do Estonian-speaking parents consider communication with young children during early stages of language development, including the pre-verbal period?; Do parents believe that speaking to young children should differ from communication with adults?; What specific features of child-directed speech (e.g., the use of diminutives) are known and applied by parents?; How do language ideologies about child-directed communication relate to socio-economic factors such as parental education, age, language skills, or residential environment (e.g., rural vs. urban)? The findings contribute to understanding the interplay between individual attitudes and beliefs in language strategies used with speaking with young children. Almost all parents considered speaking with children very important. Altogether, 58% of respondents answered that one should speak even with pre-verbal children, 67% reported that they use diminutives when speaking with children. Attitudes were more strongly expressed by individuals who indicated that they do not use a different register when speaking with children. Many respondents justified their perspective by emphasizing the importance of using normative and correct language with young children. Socio-economic status factors such as age, education, language skills, and residential environment did not appear to influence attitudes toward communicating with small children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)

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15 pages, 1165 KB

Open AccessArticle

Revisiting Negative Particle Questions in Sixian Hakka

by Yi-Ling Irene Liao

Languages 2025, 10(9), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090228 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the syntactic structure of negative particle questions (NPQs), also known as VP-NEG questions, in Sixian Hakka (a variety of Chinese spoken in Taiwan). We revisit the existing literature on Hakka NPQs, pointing out unresolved issues in previous analyses. Drawing on [...] Read more.

This study investigates the syntactic structure of negative particle questions (NPQs), also known as VP-NEG questions, in Sixian Hakka (a variety of Chinese spoken in Taiwan). We revisit the existing literature on Hakka NPQs, pointing out unresolved issues in previous analyses. Drawing on previous analysis of VP-NEG questions in Middle Chinese, we argue that the negator mo in Hakka NPQs has grammaticalized into a disjunctive head, as mo and the predicate do not show agreement. This proposal not only accounts for the syntactic properties of NPQs in Sixian Hakka but also addresses potential problems found in previous studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))

19 pages, 694 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Syntax of Serbian How-Complements

by Alberto Frasson

Languages 2025, 10(9), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090227 - 8 Sep 2025

Abstract

This paper discusses a special type of complement of perception verbs in Serbian, introduced by kako (‘how’). Via a parallel corpus analysis, I compare the distribution of Serbian kako-clauses and English -ing forms. I show that two types of non-interrogative kako [...] Read more.

This paper discusses a special type of complement of perception verbs in Serbian, introduced by kako (‘how’). Via a parallel corpus analysis, I compare the distribution of Serbian kako-clauses and English -ing forms. I show that two types of non-interrogative kako-clauses can be used in translations of English -ing forms, distinguished based on their formal and interpretive properties: ‘eventive’ and propositional kako-clauses. Eventive clauses focus on directly perceived events and cannot be negated or combined with epistemic verbs, while propositional clauses express beliefs or judgments and have a truth value. At a formal level, eventive clauses feature a null subject, while propositional clauses feature an overt nominative subject. I argue that this distinction is captured syntactically through the notion of phasehood, with only propositional clauses merging a full CP domain. Adopting the Form-Copy operation, I propose that eventive clauses lack a phase boundary, allowing for the deletion of a lower subject copy and yielding the observed case alternation and null embedded subject. This analysis offers a unified syntactic account of kako-complements and contributes to the typology of perception-based clause embedding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))

21 pages, 320 KB

Open AccessReview

Virtual Reality as a Mediating Tool in Addressing Social Communication Disorder: Current Understanding and Implementation Strategies

by Weifeng Han, Tianchong Wang, Yu Takizawa and Shane Pill

Languages 2025, 10(9), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090226 - 5 Sep 2025

Abstract

Social Communication Disorder (SCD) involves persistent verbal and non-verbal communication difficulties, significantly impacting children and adolescents’ social interactions. Traditional interventions, while valuable, face practical limitations, including difficulties replicating real-world social contexts and low engagement among some learners. This paper examines Virtual Reality (VR) [...] Read more.

Social Communication Disorder (SCD) involves persistent verbal and non-verbal communication difficulties, significantly impacting children and adolescents’ social interactions. Traditional interventions, while valuable, face practical limitations, including difficulties replicating real-world social contexts and low engagement among some learners. This paper examines Virtual Reality (VR) as an innovative intervention tool for SCD through a comprehensive review of empirical studies (2010–2024). Analysis of 11 peer-reviewed studies, encompassing both autism spectrum disorder (ASD)-specific and broader SCD populations, revealed five key themes being discussed in the current literature: usability and acceptability, social skills training, gaze and attention tracking, measurement and assessment, and applications in inclusive education. Our findings demonstrate VR’s potential as a mediating tool between therapeutic interventions and real-world social interactions, offering controlled yet naturalistic environments that enable safe, structured practice while maintaining engagement. The alignment with cognitive science principles enhances learning processes through effective management of cognitive demands. Building on these findings, we propose implementation strategies for educational and therapeutic settings, addressing design considerations, delivery methods, and outcome evaluation. This synthesis advances the understanding of VR as an innovative, scalable approach to supporting social communication development in children and adolescents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Communication Disorders in Childhood: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Assessment and Intervention)

12 pages, 381 KB

Open AccessArticle

Russian–Belarusian Border Dialects and Their “Language Roof”: Dedialectization and Trajectories of Changes

by Anastasiia Ryko

Languages 2025, 10(9), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090225 - 5 Sep 2025

Abstract

The dialects discussed in this article were considered Belarusian in the early 20th century, and later, as a result of the transfer of the administrative (state) border, they became part of the Russian territory and were considered Russian. The changes occurring in these [...] Read more.

The dialects discussed in this article were considered Belarusian in the early 20th century, and later, as a result of the transfer of the administrative (state) border, they became part of the Russian territory and were considered Russian. The changes occurring in these dialects as a result of the influence of the standard Russian language are interesting from various perspectives. Firstly, the linguistic self-identification of dialect speakers changes and the perception of their dialect as less prestigious compared to the standard language is formed. Secondly, linguistic features that dialectologists previously defined as characteristic of the Belarusian language are being replaced by standard Russian ones. By analyzing the linguistic data obtained from the dialect speakers of different generations, we can trace the emergence of variation and then its loss. Observing which linguistic features are subject to change first, and which remain more stable, allows us to examine linguistic changes through the lens of the “hierarchy of borrowings” theory. Additionally, given the linguistic inequality between the dialect and the standard language, we can observe the gradual transformation of the dialect under the influence of the prestigious standard idiom. Therefore, the loss of Belarusian–Russian variation can be viewed as a process of dedialectization, bringing the dialect closer to the standard language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Attitudes and Language Ideologies in Eastern Europe)

34 pages, 3234 KB

Open AccessArticle

L1 Attrition vis-à-vis L2 Acquisition: Lexicon, Syntax–Pragmatics Interface, and Prosody in L1-English L2-Italian Late Bilinguals

by Mattia Zingaretti, Vasiliki Chondrogianni, D. Robert Ladd and Antonella Sorace

Languages 2025, 10(9), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090224 - 4 Sep 2025

Abstract

Late bilingual speakers immersed in a second language (L2) environment often experience the non-pathological attrition of their first language (L1), exhibiting selective and reversible changes in L1 processing and production. While attrition research has largely focused on long-term residents in anglophone countries, examining [...] Read more.

Late bilingual speakers immersed in a second language (L2) environment often experience the non-pathological attrition of their first language (L1), exhibiting selective and reversible changes in L1 processing and production. While attrition research has largely focused on long-term residents in anglophone countries, examining changes primarily within a single L1 domain, the present study employs a novel experimental design to investigate L1 attrition, alongside L2 acquisition, across three domains (i.e., the lexicon, syntax–pragmatics interface, and prosody) in two groups of L1-English L2-Italian late bilinguals: long-term residents in Italy vs. university students in the UK. A total of 112 participants completed online tasks assessing lexical retrieval, anaphora resolution, and sentence stress patterns in both languages. First, both bilingual groups showed comparable levels of semantic interference in lexical retrieval. Second, at the syntax–pragmatics interface, only residents in Italy showed signs of L1 attrition in real-time processing of anaphora, while resolution preferences were similar between groups; in the L2, both bilingual groups demonstrated target-like preferences, despite some slowdown in processing. Third, while both groups showed some evidence of target-like L2 prosody, with residents in Italy matching L1-Italian sentence stress patterns closely, prosodic attrition was only reported for residents in Italy in exploratory analyses. Overall, this study supports the notion of L1 attrition as a natural consequence of bilingualism—one that is domain- and experience-dependent, unfolds along a continuum, and involves a complex (and possibly inverse) relationship between L1 and L2 performance that warrants further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Determining the Scope, Nature and Causes of Attrition in Adult L1 Grammars)

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24 pages, 1479 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond L2 Learners: Evaluating LexTALE-ESP as a Proficiency Measure for Heritage Language Learners of Spanish

by Cristina Lozano-Argüelles and Alberta Gatti

Languages 2025, 10(9), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090223 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

LexTALE has emerged as a popular measure of language proficiency in research studies. While it has been widely validated for L2 learners across multiple languages, its applicability to heritage language learners (HLLs)—who often show distinct language development from L2ers—has not been established. Here, [...] Read more.

LexTALE has emerged as a popular measure of language proficiency in research studies. While it has been widely validated for L2 learners across multiple languages, its applicability to heritage language learners (HLLs)—who often show distinct language development from L2ers—has not been established. Here, we evaluate the Spanish version of LexTALE (LexTALE-Esp) as a predictor of writing proficiency among college-aged HLLs in the United States. We show that LexTALE-Esp scores significantly correlate with ACTFL-rated functional writing levels and outperform self-assessment as a predictor of proficiency. Our results suggest that, despite concerns about HLLs’ limited experience with written texts in the heritage language, vocabulary-based tasks capture core aspects of written language ability. These findings indicate that vocabulary-based tests like LexTALE-Esp capture proficiency-relevant lexical knowledge across speaker profiles and may tap into dimensions of both core and extended language competence. Full article

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20 pages, 616 KB

Open AccessArticle

L2 Korean Learners’ Socialization into Discourses Around the Non-Honorific ‘Banmal’ Style: Affective and Pedagogical Consequences

by Devon Renfroe and Katharine E. Burns

Languages 2025, 10(9), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090222 - 30 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study examines L2 Korean learners’ self-reports of their socialization into discourses around the use of two categories of non-honorific (banmal) and honorific (jondaenmal) language. L2 Korean learners (n = 49) of varying proficiency levels completed a questionnaire aimed [...] Read more.

This study examines L2 Korean learners’ self-reports of their socialization into discourses around the use of two categories of non-honorific (banmal) and honorific (jondaenmal) language. L2 Korean learners (n = 49) of varying proficiency levels completed a questionnaire aimed at capturing their beliefs, attitudes, and practices regarding learning and using banmal. A subset of questionnaire participants (n = 11) were interviewed, and transcripts were analyzed using discourse analysis to understand how banmal is positioned discursively in participants’ self-reported accounts of learning and using L2 Korean. Findings revealed three dominant discourses in learners’ self-reported accounts of their socialization into learning and using banmal: (1) jondaenmal is more important to them than banmal, (2) banmal does not belong in formal learning contexts such as classrooms, and (3) banmal instruction should be delayed until the intermediate or advanced level. Additionally, these discourses were connected to two overarching, at times contradictory, affective responses from participants. While they reported heightened anxiety over when to use banmal, they also described how using it instilled confidence in their sociopragmatic abilities. These findings highlight the connection between the affective experiences of learners and prevailing discourses on particular linguistic forms. Finally, we suggest the need for more integrated approaches to teaching speech styles in L2 Korean classrooms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)

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