-
Reconsidering the Social in Language Learning: A State of the Science and an Agenda for Future Research in Variationist SLA
-
Kazakh–English Bilingualism in Kazakhstan: Public Attitudes and Language Practices
-
Whys and Wherefores: The Aetiology of the Left Periphery (With Reference to Vietnamese)
-
Veiled Sonority Rise in Cluster Development
Journal Description
Languages
Languages
is an international, multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed, open access journal on interdisciplinary studies of languages published monthly online by MDPI. The European Society for Transcultural and Interdisciplinary Dialogue (ESTIDIA) is affiliated with Languages and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), ERIH Plus, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Linguistics) / CiteScore - Q1 (Language and Linguistics)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 56.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 10.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
1.2 (2024);
5-Year Impact Factor:
1.2 (2024)
Latest Articles
Reformulation in Early 20th Century Substandard Italian
Languages 2025, 10(7), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070165 - 3 Jul 2025
Abstract
This study investigates reformulation in a substandard variety of Italian, italiano popolare, from the early 20th Century, focusing on a collection of letters and postcards from semi-literate Sicilian peasants during World War I. The analysis identifies three reformulation markers: cioè, anzi
[...] Read more.
This study investigates reformulation in a substandard variety of Italian, italiano popolare, from the early 20th Century, focusing on a collection of letters and postcards from semi-literate Sicilian peasants during World War I. The analysis identifies three reformulation markers: cioè, anzi, and vuol dire. These markers are affected by hypercorrection, interference, and structural simplification, reflecting the sociolinguistic dynamics of italiano popolare. Additionally, the study of these markers sheds light on the relationships between reformulation and related discourse functions, namely paraphrase, correction, addition, and motivation. By positioning occurrences of reformulation along a continuum between the spoken and written mode, the findings suggest that this discourse function is employed more as a rhetorical strategy that characterizes planned written texts, rather than as a feature of disfluency that is typical of unplanned speech. Ultimately, examining reformulation in italiano popolare provides valuable insights into the relationship between sociolinguistic variation and language change in the beginning of the 20th Century, a key phase in the spread of Italian as a national language.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pragmatic Diachronic Study of the 20th Century)
►
Show Figures
Open AccessArticle
Second Language Learner Attitudes Towards Peer Use of a Variable Sociophonetic Cue
by
Elena Schoonmaker-Gates
Languages 2025, 10(7), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070164 - 30 Jun 2025
Abstract
Studies that have examined /s/ weakening as a social practice have found that L1 Spanish speakers perceive this cue as an indicator of lower status, region of origin, and greater friendliness, and even L2 Spanish learners have been found to associate /s/ weakening
[...] Read more.
Studies that have examined /s/ weakening as a social practice have found that L1 Spanish speakers perceive this cue as an indicator of lower status, region of origin, and greater friendliness, and even L2 Spanish learners have been found to associate /s/ weakening with lower status. The question remains, however, whether L2 learners who use /s/ weakening are perceived as having these same social attributes or whether their nonnative status interrupts said assessment. The present study examines the attitudes of 30 beginning and intermediate-level L2 learners of Spanish towards L1 and L2 speech that was digitally modified to contain /s/ deletion in coda positions, a regionally and stylistically variable sociophonetic cue in Spanish that is often not adopted by L2 learners. Participants rated the speech samples on Likert scales of perceived status, solidarity, and nativeness. Results revealed that learners rated L1 speech with /s/ deletion significantly lower for status and L2 speech with /s/ deletion significantly higher for nativeness.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Lost and Found? Shifts in Heritage Speakers’ Processing of Mood Morphology over the Course of a Semester Abroad
by
David Giancaspro and Sara Fernández Cuenca
Languages 2025, 10(7), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070163 - 29 Jun 2025
Abstract
Of the few studies that have investigated the linguistic development of heritage speakers (HSs) in the study abroad (SA) context, none have utilized on-line experiments, in spite of these tasks’ clear methodological benefits. In this study, therefore, we test HSs’ on-line sensitivity to
[...] Read more.
Of the few studies that have investigated the linguistic development of heritage speakers (HSs) in the study abroad (SA) context, none have utilized on-line experiments, in spite of these tasks’ clear methodological benefits. In this study, therefore, we test HSs’ on-line sensitivity to lexically selected mood morphology in Spanish. Ten adult HSs completed a self-paced reading task at the beginning and end of a fifteen-week-long SA program in Spain. The task assessed both (a) whether HSs were sensitive to mood incongruencies (e.g., by slowing down after ungrammatical verbs) and (b) whether that (in)sensitivity was different with regular vs. irregular verbs. It was hypothesized that participants would be more sensitive to mood with irregular verbs and that their mood sensitivity would increase over the course of the semester abroad, but these hypotheses were only partially supported. Although HSs developed sensitivity to mood incongruencies with regular verbs over the course of the semester abroad, they showed the reverse pattern with irregular verbs, demonstrating sensitivity at Session 1 but not Session 2. Nonetheless, because participants’ reading times decreased sharply over the semester—and without any concomitant decrease in comprehension accuracy—we argue that SA immersion likely does facilitate morphosyntactic processing in the HL.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
What Is Written(ness), and What Is Spoken(ness) in a Letter? The Oral–Scriptural Interface Throughout Greetings and Farewells in a Corpus of Spanish Civil War Soldiers’ Correspondence
by
Adrià Pardo Llibrer
Languages 2025, 10(7), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070162 - 29 Jun 2025
Abstract
This study examines around 350 handwritten letters from semiliterate soldiers during the Spanish Civil War, focusing on written orality and its interaction with scriptural conventions. The theoretical framework combines epistolography research (in which 20th-century popular correspondence reveals oral-like features) with studying the oral–scriptural
[...] Read more.
This study examines around 350 handwritten letters from semiliterate soldiers during the Spanish Civil War, focusing on written orality and its interaction with scriptural conventions. The theoretical framework combines epistolography research (in which 20th-century popular correspondence reveals oral-like features) with studying the oral–scriptural interface. As detailed in the methodology, including the corpus compilation process, I present the selection criteria for the letters, which were segmented using the Val.Es.Co. model of discourse units. Segmentation facilitates my analysis, which addresses two aspects of the oral–scriptural interface: ritualized politeness in salutations and procedural devices that structure discursive moves. After summarizing the key findings, I discuss the hybrid nature of these letters, in which oral and written conventions intertwine.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pragmatic Diachronic Study of the 20th Century)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Perception and Interpretation of Contrastive Pitch Accent During Spoken Language Processing in Autistic Children
by
Pumpki Lei Su, Duane G. Watson, Stephen Camarata and James Bodfish
Languages 2025, 10(7), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070161 - 28 Jun 2025
Abstract
Although prosodic differences in autistic individuals have been widely documented, little is known about their ability to perceive and interpret specific prosodic features, such as contrastive pitch accent—a prosodic signal that places emphasis and helps listeners distinguish between competing referents in discourse. This
[...] Read more.
Although prosodic differences in autistic individuals have been widely documented, little is known about their ability to perceive and interpret specific prosodic features, such as contrastive pitch accent—a prosodic signal that places emphasis and helps listeners distinguish between competing referents in discourse. This study addresses that gap by investigating the extent to which autistic children can (1) perceive contrastive pitch accent (i.e., discriminate contrastive pitch accent differences in speech); (2) interpret contrastive pitch accent (i.e., use prosodic cues to guide real-time language comprehension); and (3) the extent to which their ability to interpret contrastive pitch accent is associated with broader language and social communication skills, including receptive prosody, pragmatic language, social communication, and autism severity. Twenty-four autistic children and 24 neurotypical children aged 8 to 14 completed an AX same–different task and a visual-world paradigm task to assess their ability to perceive and interpret contrastive pitch accent. Autistic children demonstrated the ability to perceive and interpret contrastive pitch accent, as evidenced by comparable discrimination ability to neurotypical peers on the AX task and real-time revision of visual attention based on prosodic cues in the visual-world paradigm. However, autistic children showed significantly slower reaction time during the AX task, and a subgroup of autistic children with language impairment showed significantly slower processing of contrastive pitch accent during the visual-world paradigm task. Additionally, speed of contrastive pitch accent processing was significantly associated with pragmatic language skills and autism symptom severity in autistic children. Overall, these findings suggest that while autistic children as a group are able to discriminate prosodic forms and interpret the pragmatic function of contrastive pitch accent during spoken language comprehension, differences in prosody processing in autistic children may be reflected not in accuracy, but in speed of processing measures and in specific subgroups defined by language ability.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessEditorial
Typology of Chinese Languages: An Introduction to the Special Issue
by
Umberto Ansaldo and Pui Yiu Szeto
Languages 2025, 10(7), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070160 - 27 Jun 2025
Abstract
Of the world’s major language groups, the Sinitic (Chinese) branch of the Sino-Tibetan family stands out for the profound disconnect between its popular perception and its linguistic reality [...]
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Typology of Chinese Languages: One Name, Many Languages)
Open AccessArticle
The Neglected Group: Cognitive Discourse Markers as Signposts of Prosodic Unit Boundaries
by
Simona Majhenič, Mitja Beras and Janez Križaj
Languages 2025, 10(7), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070159 - 27 Jun 2025
Abstract
The present paper examines and compares the role of cognitive discourse markers (DMs), such as uhm, like, or I mean, and a set of prosodic parameters as indicators of prosodic boundaries. Cognitive DMs traditionally are not studied as a separate
[...] Read more.
The present paper examines and compares the role of cognitive discourse markers (DMs), such as uhm, like, or I mean, and a set of prosodic parameters as indicators of prosodic boundaries. Cognitive DMs traditionally are not studied as a separate DM group on par with the ideational, sequential, rhetorical, or interpersonal group. However, as they reflect the speaker’s mental processes during speech production, they offer an exceptional glimpse into how speakers construct their verbalisations. Along with the analysis of DMs, prosodic parameters, including pitch and intensity reset, speech rate change, and pauses, were automatically annotated to determine how well they overlapped with the manually annotated prosodic boundaries. To accommodate for the natural variability in speech, the parameters were evaluated using relative comparison methods. Among the prosodic parameters, pauses were found to overlap most often with the manually annotated prosodic boundaries. Cognitive DMs in the function of realising new information, restructuring, and emphasis indeed proved as relevant boundary indicators, however, the group of cognitive DMs as a whole fell behind the group of sequential and rhetorical DMs, which overlapped most frequently with the manually annotated prosodic boundaries.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends in Discourse Marker Research)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
The Syntax of Null Possessors with Kinship Terms and Body Part Nouns in Vietnamese
by
Andrew Simpson and Linh Pham
Languages 2025, 10(7), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070158 - 27 Jun 2025
Abstract
Bare nouns representing kinship terms (KNs) and body parts (BPNs) can be assumed to project a null possessor argument, which allows for the interpretation of such nouns relative to other linguistically present NPs. In Vietnamese, the distribution of KNs and BPNs is subject
[...] Read more.
Bare nouns representing kinship terms (KNs) and body parts (BPNs) can be assumed to project a null possessor argument, which allows for the interpretation of such nouns relative to other linguistically present NPs. In Vietnamese, the distribution of KNs and BPNs is subject to different locality conditions and leads to the analysis of null possessors with KNs as covert anaphors, while null possessors with BPNs are null pronominals (pro). This contrasts with Mandarin Chinese, where it has been suggested that null possessors of KNs and BPNs are two different types of null anaphors. The observed distributional differences and analyses of bare KNs and BPNs in Vietnamese vs. Chinese raise questions of parametric variation with regard to null elements with parallel interpretive properties and also whether linking mechanisms may occur with other bare nouns without the projection of null possessors that are subject to binding theoretic locality restrictions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics)
Open AccessArticle
Corrective and Exhaustive Foci: A Comparison Between Italian and French
by
Marco Casentini and Tania Stortini
Languages 2025, 10(7), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070157 - 26 Jun 2025
Abstract
This paper investigates the acceptability of focused Objects with [+corrective, +exhaustive] features in Italian and French, considering the role of syntactic rigidity, Exhaustivity Markers (EMs), and argument structure. We conducted two parallel acceptability judgment experiments (one per language), testing focused Objects in three
[...] Read more.
This paper investigates the acceptability of focused Objects with [+corrective, +exhaustive] features in Italian and French, considering the role of syntactic rigidity, Exhaustivity Markers (EMs), and argument structure. We conducted two parallel acceptability judgment experiments (one per language), testing focused Objects in three positions: (i) in situ, (ii) fronted (FF), and (iii) clefted (CC). Each sentence was also presented with and without an explicit EM, and the verb type was controlled across three categories: transitive, unergative, and unaccusative verbs. Results reveal key cross-linguistic differences: (i) FF is the least acceptable strategy in both languages, contradicting the assumption that Italian tolerates FF more than French; (ii) Italian speakers prefer in situ Focus with an explicit EM, whereas French speakers rate in situ and CC Focus equally acceptable, favoring implicit exhaustivity; (iii) verb type does not significantly impact Focus acceptability, except in French, where intervention effects may reduce FF acceptability in transitive/unergative contexts; (iv) CC remains a viable alternative to in situ Focus in French, possibly acting as a repair strategy. These findings suggest that, as far as [+corrective, +exhaustive] Focus is concerned, Italian does not appear to be less syntactically rigid than French.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Narrow Focus and Fronting Strategies)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Semantic Development in Taiwan Mandarin-Speaking Children: A Study of V-Diao
by
Chun-Yin Doris Chen and Jheng-Syun Eliot Huang
Languages 2025, 10(7), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070156 - 26 Jun 2025
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
This study investigates the semantic development of V-diao in Taiwan Mandarin-speaking children, focusing on how they acquire both literal and non-literal meanings. Three key factors influencing this acquisition—type, metaphoricality, and context—were examined. This study recruited sixty elementary school children, divided into three age
[...] Read more.
This study investigates the semantic development of V-diao in Taiwan Mandarin-speaking children, focusing on how they acquire both literal and non-literal meanings. Three key factors influencing this acquisition—type, metaphoricality, and context—were examined. This study recruited sixty elementary school children, divided into three age groups (7, 9, and 11 years old), along with twenty graduate students serving as an adult control group. Two truth value judgment tasks were employed: the Word-in-Sentences (WISE) task, which presents sentences containing the V-diao construction, and the Word-in-Scenarios (WISC) task, which uses stories and pictures as additional aids. The results indicated that V-diao1 was the easiest for children to comprehend, followed by V-diao2, while V-diao3 and V-diao4 were more challenging. Literal meanings of V-diao were found to be easier to acquire than non-literal ones, highlighting the metaphorical effect. Additionally, participants performed better on the WISE task than the WISC task, suggesting that contextual aids like stories and pictures did not enhance performance. These findings provide insights into the semantic development of Mandarin-speaking children and the role of metaphorical and contextual factors in language acquisition.
Full article

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Intonational Focus Marking by Syrian Arabic Learners of German: On the Role of Cross-Linguistic Influence and Proficiency
by
Zarah Kampschulte, Angelika Braun and Katharina Zahner-Ritter
Languages 2025, 10(7), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070155 - 25 Jun 2025
Abstract
Acquiring prosodic focus marking in a second language (L2) is difficult for learners whose native language utilizes strategies that differ from those of the target language. German typically uses pitch accents (L+H*/H*) to mark focus, while (Modern Standard) Arabic preferably employs a syntactic
[...] Read more.
Acquiring prosodic focus marking in a second language (L2) is difficult for learners whose native language utilizes strategies that differ from those of the target language. German typically uses pitch accents (L+H*/H*) to mark focus, while (Modern Standard) Arabic preferably employs a syntactic strategy (word order) or lexical means. In Syrian Arabic, a variety which is predominantly oral, pitch accents are used to mark focus, but the distribution and types are different from German. The present study investigates how Syrian Arabic learners of German prosodically mark focus in L2 German. A question–answer paradigm was used to elicit German subject-verb-object (SVO)-sentences with broad, narrow, or contrastive focus. Productions of advanced (C1, N = 17) and intermediate (B1/B2, N = 8) Syrian Arabic learners were compared to those of German controls (N = 12). Like the controls, both learner groups successfully placed pitch accents on focused constituents. However, learners, especially those with lower proficiency, used more pitch accents in non-focal regions than the controls, revealing challenges in de-accentuation. These may result from the larger number of phrase boundaries in learners’ productions, which in turn might be explained by transfer from the L1 or aspects of general fluency. Learners also differed from the controls with respect to accent type. They predominantly used H* for narrow or contrastive focus (instead of L+H*); proficiency effects played only a minor role here. Our study hence reveals an intricate interplay between cross-linguistic influence and proficiency in the L2 acquisition of prosodic focus marking, targeting a language pair so far underrepresented in the literature (German vs. Syrian Arabic).
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
The Formal Address Forms in Heritage Polish in Germany: The Dynamics of Transgenerational Language Change
by
Vladislava Warditz
Languages 2025, 10(7), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070154 - 25 Jun 2025
Abstract
This paper investigates transgenerational change in the use of formal address forms among Polish heritage speakers in Germany by analyzing their language attitudes and usage preferences. The survey-based study involved 100 bilingual Polish speakers with a migration background, including both late and early
[...] Read more.
This paper investigates transgenerational change in the use of formal address forms among Polish heritage speakers in Germany by analyzing their language attitudes and usage preferences. The survey-based study involved 100 bilingual Polish speakers with a migration background, including both late and early immigrants vs. representatives of the first and second generations, respectively. The survey included two parts: (1) a questionnaire assessing language attitudes toward formal address systems in Polish and German, respectively, and (2) an Acceptability Judgment Task evaluating respondents’ preferences for different address variants, including contact-induced hybrid forms, in simulated communicative situations. By comparing language attitudes and usage preferences among heritage speakers, the study seeks to identify mechanisms of transgenerational change in pragmatics of their heritage language. The findings reveal a discrepancy between language attitudes and actual language use by heritage speakers. While respondents recognize asymmetries between Polish and German formal address systems, their usage preferences align predominantly with the Polish monolingual norm, particularly in perceptually oriented tasks. However, the emergence of hybrid forms of formal address suggests a gradual shift toward increased tolerance and acceptance of contact-induced variations. This finding supports the hypothesis that pragmatics, like other linguistic levels, undergoes a transgenerational shift in migration settings, with language attitudes serving as earlier indicators of change.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Pragmatics in Contemporary Cross-Cultural Contexts)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Dealing with Idioms: An Eye-Tracking Study of Cognitive Processing on L1, L2 and Heritage Speakers of Spanish
by
Pilar Valero Fernández, Adriana Cruz, Mathis Teucher, Inés Recio Fernández and Óscar Loureda Lamas
Languages 2025, 10(7), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070153 - 25 Jun 2025
Abstract
This study investigates the cognitive processing of Spanish idioms from a pragmatic perspective, with the goal of examining the idiom superiority effect. An eye-tracking experiment was conducted with 77 participants to assess how idiomaticity influences processing and whether heritage speakers align more
[...] Read more.
This study investigates the cognitive processing of Spanish idioms from a pragmatic perspective, with the goal of examining the idiom superiority effect. An eye-tracking experiment was conducted with 77 participants to assess how idiomaticity influences processing and whether heritage speakers align more with L1 or L2 patterns. Results show a processing advantage for idioms among L1 speakers, suggesting reduced cognitive load in later stages. Both heritage and L2 speakers showed longer reading times, but only L2 speakers benefited consistently from idiomaticity. Heritage speakers processed idioms more slowly, indicating difficulty with opacity despite early exposure. Findings support hybrid models of idiom processing and highlight the unique strategies of heritage speakers shaped by dual input sources.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Are Children Sensitive to Ironic Prosody? A Novel Task to Settle the Issue
by
Francesca Panzeri and Beatrice Giustolisi
Languages 2025, 10(7), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070152 - 25 Jun 2025
Abstract
Ironic remarks are often pronounced with a distinctive intonation. It is not clear whether children rely on acoustic cues to attribute an ironic intent. This question has been only indirectly tackled, with studies that manipulated the intonation with which the final remark is
[...] Read more.
Ironic remarks are often pronounced with a distinctive intonation. It is not clear whether children rely on acoustic cues to attribute an ironic intent. This question has been only indirectly tackled, with studies that manipulated the intonation with which the final remark is pronounced within an irony comprehension task. We propose a new task that is meant to assess whether children rely on prosody to infer speakers’ sincere or ironic communicative intentions, without requiring meta-linguistic judgments (since pragmatic awareness is challenging for young children). Children listen to evaluative remarks (e.g., “That house is really beautiful”), pronounced with sincere or ironic intonation, and they are asked to identify what the speaker is referring to by selecting one of two pictures depicting an image corresponding to a literal interpretation (a luxury house) and one to its reverse interpretation (a hovel). We tested eighty children aged 3 to 11 years and found a clear developmental trend, with children consistently responding above the chance level from age seven, and there was no correlation with the recognition of emotions transmitted through the vocal channel.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Williams Syndrome and Agreement: The Case for Spanish Speakers
by
Antònia Llull Febrer, Lluís Barceló-Coblijn and Elga Cremades
Languages 2025, 10(7), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070151 - 25 Jun 2025
Abstract
►▼
Show Figures
This paper examines morphosyntactic agreement in gender and number within the spontaneous spoken discourse of Spanish-speaking adults with Williams syndrome (WS), compared to that of typically developing (TD) speakers. Data were collected through natural speech transcriptions from both WS and TD groups. The
[...] Read more.
This paper examines morphosyntactic agreement in gender and number within the spontaneous spoken discourse of Spanish-speaking adults with Williams syndrome (WS), compared to that of typically developing (TD) speakers. Data were collected through natural speech transcriptions from both WS and TD groups. The analysis was conducted using Netlang 1.0.0—a piece of corpus annotation software—based on Dependency Grammar, to capture agreement patterns among determiners, nouns, and adjectives. The findings reveal that WS speakers’ gender and number agreement patterns are closely aligned with those observed in TD speakers, with only minor variations, such as a slight tendency toward unmarked gender forms among TD participants. Additionally, error rates are low in both groups, suggesting that observed discrepancies might be due to individual variation rather than condition-specific deficits, even though the statistical power of the study is limited. These results contribute to the ongoing debate on language abilities in WS, indicating that individuals with WS produce morphosyntactic agreement similarly to individuals with TD. Further research with larger datasets is recommended to validate these results, as individual variability within the WS group underscores the need for a more nuanced approach to analysis.
Full article

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
On Similative Reduplication in Vietnamese
by
Tue Trinh
Languages 2025, 10(7), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070150 - 24 Jun 2025
Abstract
Vietnamese has a productive reduplication strategy where the reduplicant appears to the right of the base and is segmentally identical to the base except that its last rime is iếc (pronounced [ɪək]). In this note, I attempt to account for some observations about
[...] Read more.
Vietnamese has a productive reduplication strategy where the reduplicant appears to the right of the base and is segmentally identical to the base except that its last rime is iếc (pronounced [ɪək]). In this note, I attempt to account for some observations about iếc, including the fact that it gives rise to ignorance inferences and is incompatible with classifiers. I propose that the semantics of iếc parallel the pragmatics of disjunctions and that the notion of similarity underlying the interpretation of iếc is contextual while that underlying the interpretation of classifiers is grammatical. The proposal makes use of some tools of predicate logic and formal semantics.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics)
Open AccessArticle
On the Categorial Status of Adverbs
by
Sascha Alexeyenko
Languages 2025, 10(7), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070149 - 24 Jun 2025
Abstract
This paper is concerned with the question of what adverbs in English are as a category. It argues that English adverbs are not positional variants of a single category together with adjectives but also do not constitute a separate lexical category on their
[...] Read more.
This paper is concerned with the question of what adverbs in English are as a category. It argues that English adverbs are not positional variants of a single category together with adjectives but also do not constitute a separate lexical category on their own, as is commonly assumed. Instead, this paper advocates the position that adverbs can and should be assimilated with PPs and offers a comprehensive presentation of this view. In particular, it provides evidence that the morpheme -ly is not a suffix but a nominal root, which forms the basis of the analysis of adverbs as PPs. Furthermore, it shows that the PP analysis of adverbs is able to account for a variety of facts, including those that have been previously used as arguments for alternative analyses. Finally, this paper demonstrates that the PP analysis allows for a straightforward compositional semantics, using manner and degree adverbs as case studies, and provides an outlook into the cross-linguistic situation in the domain of adverbs from the perspective of their morphological structure.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mind Your Manner Adverbials!)
Open AccessArticle
English-Learning Infants’ Developing Sensitivity to Intonation Contours
by
Megha Sundara and Sónia Frota
Languages 2025, 10(7), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070148 - 20 Jun 2025
Abstract
In four experiments, we investigated when and how English-learning infants perceive intonation contours that signal prosodic units. Using visual habituation, we probed infants’ ability to discriminate disyllabic sequences with a fall versus a rise in pitch on the final syllable, a salient cue
[...] Read more.
In four experiments, we investigated when and how English-learning infants perceive intonation contours that signal prosodic units. Using visual habituation, we probed infants’ ability to discriminate disyllabic sequences with a fall versus a rise in pitch on the final syllable, a salient cue used to distinguish statements from questions. First, we showed that at 8 months, English-learning infants can distinguish statement falls from question rises, as has been reported previously for their European Portuguese-learning peers who have extensive experience with minimal pairs that differ just in pitch rises and falls. Next, we conducted three experiments involving 4-month-olds to determine the developmental roots of how English-learning infants begin to tune into these intonation contours. In Experiment 2, we showed that unlike 8-month-olds, monolingual English-learning 4-month-olds are unable to distinguish statement and question intonation when they are presented with segmentally varied disyllabic sequences. Monolingual English-learning 4-month-olds only partially succeeded even when tested without segmental variability and a sensitive testing procedure (Experiment 3). When tested with stimuli that had been resynthesized to remove correlated duration cues as well, 4-month-olds demonstrated only partial success (Experiment 4). We discuss our results in the context of extant developmental research on how infants tune into linguistically relevant pitch cues in their first year of life.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
Distributional Learning and Language Activation: Evidence from L3 Spanish Perception Among L1 Korean–L2 English Speakers
by
Jeong Mun and Alfonso Morales-Front
Languages 2025, 10(6), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060147 - 19 Jun 2025
Abstract
This study investigates L3 Spanish perception patterns among L1 Korean–L2 English bilinguals with varying L3 proficiency levels, aiming to test the applicability of traditional L2 perceptual models in multilingual contexts. We conducted two experiments: a cross-linguistic discrimination task and a cross-language identification task.
[...] Read more.
This study investigates L3 Spanish perception patterns among L1 Korean–L2 English bilinguals with varying L3 proficiency levels, aiming to test the applicability of traditional L2 perceptual models in multilingual contexts. We conducted two experiments: a cross-linguistic discrimination task and a cross-language identification task. Results revealed unexpected outcomes unique to multilingual contexts. Participants had difficulty reliably discriminating between cross-linguistic categories and showed little improvement over time. Similarly, they did not demonstrate progress in categorizing sounds specific to each language. The absence of a clear correlation between proficiency levels and the ability to discriminate and categorize sounds suggests that input distribution and language-specific activation may play more critical roles in L3 perception, consistent with the distributional learning approach. We argue that phoneme distributions from all three languages likely occupy a shared perceptual space. When a specific language is activated, the relevant phoneme distributions become dominant, while others are suppressed. This selective activation, while not crucial in traditional L1 and L2 studies, is critical in L3 contexts, like the one examined here, where managing multiple phonemic systems complicates discrimination and categorization. These findings underscore the need for theoretical adjustments in multilingual phonetic acquisition models and highlight the complexities of language processing in multilingual settings.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Investigation of L3 Speech Perception)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Open AccessArticle
The Sino-Vietnamese Negative Prefixes bất, vô, phi and Their Coexistence with Sentential Negators: A Synchronic and Diachronic Analysis
by
Giorgio Francesco Arcodia and Trang Phan
Languages 2025, 10(6), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10060146 - 17 Jun 2025
Abstract
This paper presents a comprehensive synchronic and diachronic analysis of the Sino-Vietnamese negative prefixes bất (Chinese 不 bù), vô (無 wú), and phi (非 fēi), examining their historical development and modern usage in Vietnamese, with a comparative perspective on their
[...] Read more.
This paper presents a comprehensive synchronic and diachronic analysis of the Sino-Vietnamese negative prefixes bất (Chinese 不 bù), vô (無 wú), and phi (非 fēi), examining their historical development and modern usage in Vietnamese, with a comparative perspective on their Chinese equivalents. By investigating the interaction between these prefixes and Vietnamese sentential negators—such as the native chẳng and the Chinese-derived không—the study explores the evolution of negation in Vietnamese over several centuries. The research draws on a corpus of three bilingual Classical Chinese–Vietnamese translations of Confucius’s Analects from the 17th, 19th, and 21st centuries, two written in traditional Nôm script and one in the modern Quốc ngữ alphabet. This corpus provides valuable insights into linguistic shifts driven by language contact in Vietnam. The findings reveal that in the 17th century, the Sino-Vietnamese prefixes bất, vô, and phi were largely absent, with native chẳng dominating. By the 19th century, chẳng persisted, but không emerged as a sentential negator, and bất appeared, both reflecting Chinese forms and demonstrating innovative uses. In the 21st century, không became the dominant negator, with bất and vô seeing increased usage, reflecting broader trends of linguistic modernization. This study situates these changes within the broader context of 20th-century East Asian literacy expansion, where Japan played a pivotal role in disseminating modernized Chinese-based vocabulary. By examining the selective adaptation and integration of Sino-Vietnamese elements, this paper contributes to a deeper understanding of language contact, syntactic influence, and lexical innovation in the evolving Vietnamese lexicon.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics)
►▼
Show Figures

Figure 1
Highly Accessed Articles
Latest Books
E-Mail Alert
News
Topics

Conferences
Special Issues
Special Issue in
Languages
From Migrant to Heritage Languages: Transgenerational Language Change in Diasporic Communities
Guest Editors: Vladislava Warditz, Bernd Heine, Paul WidmerDeadline: 15 July 2025
Special Issue in
Languages
Determining the Scope, Nature and Causes of Attrition in Adult L1 Grammars
Guest Editors: Lewis Baker, Laura Domínguez, Glyn HicksDeadline: 1 August 2025
Special Issue in
Languages
The Development of Dynamic Syntax
Guest Editors: Christine Howes, Stergios ChatzikyriakidisDeadline: 20 August 2025
Special Issue in
Languages
East Asian Perspectives on the Acquisition of Argument Structure
Guest Editors: Jidong Chen, Yasuhiro ShiraiDeadline: 31 August 2025