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Translanguaging for Heritage Language Transmission

Journal Description

Languages

Languages is an international, multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed, open access journal on interdisciplinary studies of languages published monthly online by MDPI. The European Society for Transcultural and Interdisciplinary Dialogue (ESTIDIA) is affiliated with Languages and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), ERIH Plus, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Linguistics) / CiteScore - Q1 (Language and Linguistics)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 56.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 10.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 0.9 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-471X

Latest Articles

39 pages, 7137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Verb Clusters in Mennonite Low German: The Impact of Auxiliary Verb and Clause Type

by Göz Kaufmann

Languages 2025, 10(5), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050095 (registering DOI) - 29 Apr 2025

Although verb clusters in Continental West Germanic varieties are a well-researched topic, their derivation and the possible functions of their variants are still not yet fully understood. Both issues are discussed in the present paper, which is based on the translations of 46 [...] Read more.

Although verb clusters in Continental West Germanic varieties are a well-researched topic, their derivation and the possible functions of their variants are still not yet fully understood. Both issues are discussed in the present paper, which is based on the translations of 46 English, Spanish, or Portuguese stimulus sentences by 321 North and South American speakers of Mennonite Low German. In order to analyze the variation in clause-final two-verb clusters, we focus on three structural factors, namely (i) the auxiliary verb, (ii) the structural link between the auxiliary verb and the main verb, and (iii) the type of the subordinate clause in which the cluster occurs. Regarding the first and the second factor, we will employ the cartographic approach in order to explain the impact of different auxiliary verbs. Regarding the third factor, it is somewhat surprising that the potential effect of the subordinate clause on the distribution of different cluster variants has received little attention in the research literature. Clause type will be shown to have such an effect and, therefore, we will assume that the speakers of MLG use different variants deliberately to indicate different degrees of clausal integration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dialectal Dynamics)

16 pages, 315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inter-Generational Language Socialization Practices of German-Speaking Migrants in the North of Finland

by Sabine Grasz

Languages 2025, 10(5), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050094 (registering DOI) - 29 Apr 2025

This paper presents findings from an interview study of practices of home language socialization and maintenance of German among German-speaking migrants in northern Finland. The focus of the analysis was on the importance of the minority language German in families, the role of [...] Read more.

This paper presents findings from an interview study of practices of home language socialization and maintenance of German among German-speaking migrants in northern Finland. The focus of the analysis was on the importance of the minority language German in families, the role of the regional varieties of German, different ways of socializing children with German, and informal and formal means of German language development and instruction reported by nine German-speaking parents and two bilingual teenagers in semi-structured interviews. Thematic analyses of the data showed that there are different beliefs and practices about home language acquisition and maintenance and language socialization in the family, but also similar challenges. The place of residence did indeed play an important role, as home language instruction was rarely offered, and contact with other German-speaking or multilingual families was often very limited. Some children therefore attend German-as-a-foreign-language classes at school, which was perceived as a challenge by some of the interviewees. Nevertheless, inclusive solutions could help multilingual children, even in rural regions, maintain and develop their home language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Linguistic Practices in Heritage Language Acquisition)

21 pages, 459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive and Linguistic Influences on EFL Real Word and Pseudoword Spelling: Predictors and Error Analysis

by Heike Mlakar, Joanna Hirst-Plein and Martin J. Koch

Languages 2025, 10(5), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050093 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2025

The present study aimed to enhance the understanding of the spelling processes used by young German-speaking learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Specifically, we sought to (1) compare the children’s accuracy in spelling English real words versus pseudowords to elucidate the [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to enhance the understanding of the spelling processes used by young German-speaking learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Specifically, we sought to (1) compare the children’s accuracy in spelling English real words versus pseudowords to elucidate the role of lexical and sublexical knowledge, and (2) determine which cognitive (phonological awareness, phonological short-term memory, working memory, nonverbal intelligence) and linguistic skills (English receptive grammar and vocabulary) underlie learners’ spelling abilities and misspellings (phonological and orthographic). We followed participants (N = 101) for two years, from the beginning of grade 3 to the end of grade 4. Cognitive skills and linguistic abilities were determined using standardized assessment procedures. Our results indicate that the learners in our study demonstrated greater accuracy in spelling English real words compared to pseudowords. English grammar knowledge significantly predicted real word and pseudoword spelling accuracy, as well as the number of phonological errors, which was the predominant error category. English vocabulary knowledge was a predictor for real word spelling, while nonverbal intelligence predicted pseudoword spelling accuracy. Phonological short-term memory positively predicted the number of orthographic errors (phonologically plausible misspellings but lacking orthographic conventions). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognition in Second Language Writing)

33 pages, 3118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preschoolers Mark Focus Types Through Multimodal Prominence: Further Evidence for the Precursor Role of Gestures

by Sara Coego, Núria Esteve-Gibert and Pilar Prieto

Languages 2025, 10(5), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050092 (registering DOI) - 26 Apr 2025

The present cross-sectional study assessed the role of multimodal cues in marking focus types during early childhood, focusing on prosodic prominence, gesture presence, and gestural prominence. A total of 116 Catalan-speaking three-, four- and five-year-olds participated in a semi-controlled interactive task eliciting words [...] Read more.

The present cross-sectional study assessed the role of multimodal cues in marking focus types during early childhood, focusing on prosodic prominence, gesture presence, and gestural prominence. A total of 116 Catalan-speaking three-, four- and five-year-olds participated in a semi-controlled interactive task eliciting words in three focus conditions: information, contrastive, and corrective. The data were coded manually using holistic assessments for all three measures. The results indicated, first, that children’s prosodic and gestural behavior was key in marking corrective focus. A significant tendency to use more gestures and increase both prosodic and gestural prominence was found in the corrective focus condition across the three age groups. Second, a developmental difference emerged in the acquisition of contrastive focus. Three-year-olds relied solely on gesture presence to encode contrastive focus, being unable to differentiate it prosodically from information focus. In turn, four- and five-year-olds used both gestures and prosody, with contrastive focus not only receiving more gestures than information focus but also increased prosodic prominence. This finding shows that gesture presence is a precursor to prosodic prominence in marking contrastive focus in Catalan, thus supporting the idea that gesture production can bootstrap the expression of focus type distinctions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)

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29 pages, 532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aspect Architecture in Bulgarian: Morphology and Semantics

by Hagen Pitsch

Languages 2025, 10(5), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050091 - 24 Apr 2025

The present paper addresses the aspectual categories of modern Bulgarian: viewpoint aspect (imperfective vs. perfective), temporal aspect (imperfect vs. aorist), and perfect aspect. More precisely, it concerns their morphological encoding, hierarchical relation, semantic contributions, and interaction. Within a compositional interval-relational framework, the study [...] Read more.

The present paper addresses the aspectual categories of modern Bulgarian: viewpoint aspect (imperfective vs. perfective), temporal aspect (imperfect vs. aorist), and perfect aspect. More precisely, it concerns their morphological encoding, hierarchical relation, semantic contributions, and interaction. Within a compositional interval-relational framework, the study puts forward a synthesis of existing accounts so as to capture the Bulgarian aspect system as a whole. Among other things, it reveals that ‘aorist’ is a largely illusional grammatical entity, and demonstrates how an interval-relational analysis of the perfect can solve some puzzles associated with the so-called evidential moods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb: Analogies in Different Languages and Other Grammatical Domains)

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24 pages, 17983 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inheritance and Contact in the Development of Lateral Obstruents in Nguni Languages (S40)

by Nina van der Vlugt and Hilde Gunnink

Languages 2025, 10(5), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050090 - 24 Apr 2025

This study investigates the development of the lateral fricatives and affricates, to which we jointly refer as ‘lateral obstruents’, in Nguni (S40) languages of Southern Africa. These lateral obstruents, which include /ɬ, ⁿɬ, ɮ, ⁿɮ, k͡ʟ̝̊/, are rare in the Bantu language family, [...] Read more.

This study investigates the development of the lateral fricatives and affricates, to which we jointly refer as ‘lateral obstruents’, in Nguni (S40) languages of Southern Africa. These lateral obstruents, which include /ɬ, ⁿɬ, ɮ, ⁿɮ, k͡ʟ̝̊/, are rare in the Bantu language family, and are not reconstructed for Proto-Bantu. Lateral obstruents are also rare cross-linguistically. They do occur, however, in four sub-branches of Southern Bantu: Shona, Sotho-Tswana, Nguni, and Tsonga. In this paper, we study how Southern Bantu could have acquired such a large inventory of cross-linguistically rare phonemes by investigating their development in Nguni languages, a large but closely related cluster of languages in which lateral obstruents are very frequent. We analyze published data from nine Nguni languages, including languages for which the only available descriptions are dated or of limited scope, in which case we carefully assess the data and their analysis. On the basis of this large database, we show which lateral obstruents are used in Nguni, and the vocabulary in which they occur. Applying the Comparative Method, we show that alveolar lateral obstruents can be reconstructed to Proto-Nguni, where they are the regular reflex of Proto-Bantu palatals *c and *j. The velar lateral affricate, in contrast, cannot be reconstructed to Proto-Nguni, and finds its origin in loanwords, for example, from Khoe languages, where it is used as a click replacement strategy. As a result, we conclude that both inheritance and contact played a role in the development of lateral obstruents in Nguni, likely combined in the case of alveolar lateral obstruents. In order to better understand the contact history, we evaluate existing hypothesized contact scenarios to account for the presence of lateral obstruents in Southern Bantu or Nguni. Given that alveolar lateral obstruents result from a regular sound change, contact does not seem to be as prominent in the development of lateral obstruents as has been proposed before in the literature. This study lays the groundwork for future research into lateral obstruents in Southern Bantu. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Diachrony and Typology of Bantu Languages)

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18 pages, 333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Discursive Strategies in the Spoken Narratives of Multilingual Sepitori and Sesotho Speakers

by Ramona Kunene Nicolas and Nonhlanhla Ntuli

Languages 2025, 10(5), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050089 - 24 Apr 2025

In linguistically diverse and multilingual South African communities, it is common to use non-standard language varieties (NSLVs), often called mixed languages, as lingua franca. These NSLVs are primarily spoken in black townships throughout South Africa. Previous studies show that the discursive production of [...] Read more.

In linguistically diverse and multilingual South African communities, it is common to use non-standard language varieties (NSLVs), often called mixed languages, as lingua franca. These NSLVs are primarily spoken in black townships throughout South Africa. Previous studies show that the discursive production of oral narratives impacts the development and use of higher-order language processing, as they require the knowledge, language skills and abilities to produce coherent discourse. The main focus of the existing literature in oral narrative is mostly on standard languages. In this study, we explore how speakers of Sepitori, a non-standard language variety (NSLV), produce an oral narrative compared to Sesotho, a standard language. The current study investigates the oral narrative production of a total number of 20 participants who are adult speakers of Sesotho and Sepitori (ten from each language). The Sesotho speakers were bilingual speakers of English and Sesotho. The Sepitori speakers were multilingual speakers of English, Sesotho, Zulu and other languages spoken in the Mamelodi township. This study used a mixed methodology of quantitative and qualitative analysis. Narratives were annotated for language complexity in the macro- and microstructure elements: the length and type of clause, pragmatic acts, referential lexical choices and code-switched words. Sepitori speakers produced narratives characterised by interactive clauses unrelated to the narrative level and with a greater range of lexical referents, showcasing more individual linguistic variation. Sesotho speakers produced a more sequential oral narrative in line with story schema with fewer interjections to the researcher. In an increasingly linguistically heterogeneous South Africa, more research is required to gain insights into how multilingual individuals develop and refine their narrative skills, emphasising the much-needed focus on NSLV from a psycholinguistic perspective, which may ultimately inform tools of assessment for multilingual children and adults in social, clinical and academic contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Use, Processing and Acquisition in Multilingual Contexts)

39 pages, 541 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Manner Modification from a Cross-Dependency Perspective

by Norbert Corver

Languages 2025, 10(5), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050088 - 23 Apr 2025

This article aims to increase our understanding of the syntax of manner modification by examining it from the perspective of the syntax of anaphoric dependencies. It is proposed that the two grammatical dependencies share certain abstract formal properties and are governed by the [...] Read more.

This article aims to increase our understanding of the syntax of manner modification by examining it from the perspective of the syntax of anaphoric dependencies. It is proposed that the two grammatical dependencies share certain abstract formal properties and are governed by the same type of principle governing the computational system of human language. Building on the so-called IDI constraint (Inability to Distinguish Indistinguishables), it is proposed that the Computational system of Human Language (C_HL) is unable to distinguish two predicates—for example, a verbal predicate and an adjectival one—if they are in a local domain. Specifically, an adjectival predicate (e.g., quick) cannot merge directly with a verbal predicate (e.g., walk). The C_HL can only deal with two predicates if their linguistic environment allows them to be distinguished as different occurrences. This formal distinctness can be achieved by means of various licensing strategies, including so-called protection, which is a formal strategy that turns the modifier (e.g., quick) into a more complex syntactic object (e.g., quick+-ly). It is shown that the various morpho-syntactic implementations of the protection strategy are quite similar for Rreflexivization and for Manner Modification: (grammaticalized) body nouns, doubling pronouns, and adpositional material can be used for making the dependent element (i.e., the anaphor; the manner modifier) more complex. It is further proposed that superficially bare manner modifiers (e.g., fast) are actually complex syntactic objects, where the complexity comes from the (hidden) presence of a silent element. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mind Your Manner Adverbials!)

25 pages, 394 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Identity for Social Justice: Insights from Multilingual Speakers of English in Malaysia and Singapore

by Yong Ern Amy Leow, Meng Huat Chau and Baramee Kheovichai

Languages 2025, 10(5), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050087 - 23 Apr 2025

While it has been pointed out that identity is complex, unfixed and intersectional in nature, many studies tend to be restricted by their very conceptualisation of identity, which projects a sense of purism and essentialism rooted in Global North epistemologies. In this article, [...] Read more.

While it has been pointed out that identity is complex, unfixed and intersectional in nature, many studies tend to be restricted by their very conceptualisation of identity, which projects a sense of purism and essentialism rooted in Global North epistemologies. In this article, we consider the concept of (diasporic) identity and discuss how labels and categories of identity often prescribed to a community can and should be deconstructed for social justice purposes. We demonstrate this by examining the translanguaging practices of six Malaysian and Singaporean speakers of English in relation to their identity perception and construction. Although these multilingual speakers seemed to regard their use of multiple languages as fixed and bounded, they all showed, to varying degrees, a flexible languaging approach. The findings also suggested a defiance of expected categories of identity defined by the Global North, such as racialised language use and diasporic identity. We suggest that these prescriptive named categories are not useful in describing identities and question the labels and categories used to construct ‘identity’. We conclude by arguing for an ‘oceanic’ approach to identity, one that emphasises the fluidity, interconnectedness and boundless potential of identity to challenge oppressive structures and contribute to a more just and equitable world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Discourse and Identity in the Diverse and Evolving Varieties of Southeast Asian Englishes)

17 pages, 1503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Language Experience on Speech Perception: Heritage Spanish Speaker Perception of Contrastive and Allophonic Consonants

by Amanda Boomershine and Keith Johnson

Languages 2025, 10(5), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050086 - 23 Apr 2025

It is well known that a listener’s native phonological background has an impact on how speech sounds are perceived. Native speakers can distinguish sounds that serve a contrastive function in their language better than sounds that are not contrastive. However, the role of [...] Read more.

It is well known that a listener’s native phonological background has an impact on how speech sounds are perceived. Native speakers can distinguish sounds that serve a contrastive function in their language better than sounds that are not contrastive. However, the role of allophony in speech perception is understudied, especially among heritage speakers. This paper highlights a study that directly tests the influence of the allophonic/phonemic distinction on perception by Spanish heritage speakers, comparing their results to those of late bilingual and monolingual speakers of Spanish and English in the US. Building on an earlier study, the unique contribution of this paper is a study of the perceptual pattern shown by heritage speakers of Spanish and a comparison of bilingual and monolingual speakers of English and Spanish. The participants completed a similarity rating task with stimuli containing VCV sequences with the intervocalic consonants [d], [ð], and [ɾ]. The heritage speakers, who are early sequential bilinguals of Spanish and English, showed a perceptual pattern that is more like monolingual Spanish listeners than monolingual English listeners, but still intermediate between the two monolingual groups. Specifically, they perceived [d]/[ɾ] like the L1 Spanish participants, treating them as very different sounds. They perceived the pair [d]/[ð], which is contrastive in English but allophonic in Spanish, like the L1 Spanish participants, as fairly similar sounds. Finally, heritage speakers perceived [ɾ]/[ð], contrastive in both languages, as very different sounds, identical to all other participant groups. The results underscore both the importance of surface oppositions, suggesting the need to reconsider the traditional definition of contrast, as well as the importance of considering level and age of exposure to the second language when studying the perception of sounds by bilingual speakers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phonetics and Phonology of Ibero-Romance Languages)

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18 pages, 1892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Breaking Down Greek Nominal Stems: Theme and Nominalizer Exponents

by Giorgos Markopoulos

Languages 2025, 10(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040085 - 17 Apr 2025

This article focuses on the right edge of nominal stems in Greek and aims to show that stem-final segments should be analyzed as distinct morphological constituents. Two types of such constituents are identified. On the one hand, stem endings such as -a(ð) [...] Read more.

This article focuses on the right edge of nominal stems in Greek and aims to show that stem-final segments should be analyzed as distinct morphological constituents. Two types of such constituents are identified. On the one hand, stem endings such as -a(ð), -i(ð), and -a(t) have a predictable distribution, as they are found in nouns with specific morphosyntactic properties and stress patterns. On the other hand, stem endings like -o, -a, and -i cannot function as predictors of the morphosyntactic status of the noun, although they may convey information about its stress position. The distinction between the two constituent categories is captured through an analysis couched within Distributed Morphology. Specifically, it is proposed that stem endings of the first category function as nominalizer exponents, while those of the second category serve as exponents of a Theme node, which is inserted post-syntactically and bears no grammatical features. The allomorphic variation exhibited by these exponents is accounted for by means of a phonological analysis based on Gradient Harmonic Grammar. The proposed approach is shown to capture empirical generalizations that have been overlooked in traditional grammatical descriptions and theoretical analyses based on multiple stem allomorphs. Full article

17 pages, 1277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pragmatic Perception of Insult-Related Vocabulary in Spanish as L1 and L2: A Sociolinguistic Approach

by Raúl Fernández Jódar

Languages 2025, 10(4), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040084 - 16 Apr 2025

This study examines the perception of insult-related vocabulary in Spanish among native speakers (L1) and Polish learners of Spanish as a foreign language (L2). Insults are analyzed as versatile speech acts fulfilling pragmatic functions such as impoliteness, affiliation, and emphasis. Adopting a contrastive [...] Read more.

This study examines the perception of insult-related vocabulary in Spanish among native speakers (L1) and Polish learners of Spanish as a foreign language (L2). Insults are analyzed as versatile speech acts fulfilling pragmatic functions such as impoliteness, affiliation, and emphasis. Adopting a contrastive approach, this research evaluates perceptions of colloquialism and emotional intensity across three groups: learners without prior stays in Spanish-speaking countries, learners with prior stays, and L1 speakers. Data were collected through surveys assessing knowledge, recognition, and perception of selected insults related to intellect and sexuality. The findings reveal that insults associated with sexuality exhibit the highest perceived offensive load across all groups, while those linked to behavior and intellect are rated as less aggressive. Polish learners of Spanish, particularly those without cultural immersion, tend to overestimate the offensiveness of insults compared to L1 speakers. However, learners with prior stays align more closely with L1 perceptions, underscoring the impact of cultural exposure. The results highlight the pivotal role of context and interlanguage in shaping learners’ interpretations of offensive vocabulary. They also establish a foundation for further exploration into the acquisition and pragmatic use of colloquial and emotionally charged language in L2 learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Linguistic Boundaries: From the Acquisition of Languages to Multilingual Practices)

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20 pages, 1566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Speaker Accent and Listener Background on FL Learners’ Perceptions of Regional Italian Varieties

by Katherine Yaw and Tania Ferronato

Languages 2025, 10(4), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040083 - 15 Apr 2025

In today’s globalized world, foreign language (FL) communication is characterized by the presence of regional variations that can impact L2 learners’ speech perception in their target language. While it is essential for FL programs to prepare their students for real-world language variation, research [...] Read more.

In today’s globalized world, foreign language (FL) communication is characterized by the presence of regional variations that can impact L2 learners’ speech perception in their target language. While it is essential for FL programs to prepare their students for real-world language variation, research on learner perception of spoken regional varieties remains scarce, especially for less commonly taught languages, such as Italian. To address this, this study used a quantitative approach to explore to what extent listeners’ background factors (i.e., accent familiarity, contact with Italian speakers, heritage learner status, L1) and speaker accent impact FL learners’ perceptions of (1) intelligibility, (2) comprehensibility, and (3) acceptability of regionally accented Italian speech. A total of forty-seven FL learners of Italian listened to the speech of six Italian native speakers with different regional accents (two each from Northern, Central, and Southern Italy), rated them for comprehensibility and acceptability, and transcribed utterances for intelligibility. Mixed-effects models revealed statistically significant effects of speaker accent and listener L1 background on all three perceptual constructs. Additionally, greater contact corresponded with higher comprehensibility, while heritage learners rated speech as less acceptable for educational contexts. Listeners’ overall positive perception of regionally accented speech encourages the introduction of authentic spoken varieties in the FL classroom. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue L2 Speech Perception and Production in the Globalized World)

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20 pages, 2909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Acoustic Properties of Vowels in Foreigner-Directed Speech: Insights from Speech Directed at Foreign Domestic Helpers

by Azza Al-Kendi

Languages 2025, 10(4), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040082 - 14 Apr 2025

This study examines the acoustic properties of vowels in foreigner-directed speech (FDS) in interactions between female Omani-Arabic-speaking employers and their foreign domestic helpers (FDHs). Particularly, it investigates whether Arabic corner vowels /i:/, /a:/, and /u:/ undergo acoustic adaptations in FDS. The study also [...] Read more.

This study examines the acoustic properties of vowels in foreigner-directed speech (FDS) in interactions between female Omani-Arabic-speaking employers and their foreign domestic helpers (FDHs). Particularly, it investigates whether Arabic corner vowels /i:/, /a:/, and /u:/ undergo acoustic adaptations in FDS. The study also explores the influence of foreign interlocutors’ psycholinguistic characteristics, such as degree of foreign accent, religion, and length of residence (LoR), on the extent of these adaptations. Data were collected from 22 Omani-Arabic-speaking women interacting with their 22 FDHs and with a native speaker (NS) confederate using a spot-the-difference task. Acoustic measures including vowel space area, formant frequency measures (F1 and F2), fundamental frequency (f0), intensity, and duration were compared across speech directed at FDHs and the NS. The results revealed that FDS exhibited greater vowel space expansion, higher F1, and increased pitch (f0) and intensity compared to speech directed at the NS confederate. However, FDS did not significantly affect F2 values. Unexpectedly, vowel duration in FDS was shorter than in speech directed at the NS. Furthermore, the psycholinguistic factors of foreign interlocutors had no significant effect on vowel space expansion in FDS. These findings provide evidence that FDS is characterized by heightened prosodic and acoustic features, potentially contributing to clearer speech. Additionally, the study highlights that NSs employ FDS when interacting with foreigners perceived to have a foreign accent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue An Acoustic Analysis of Vowels)

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4 pages, 171 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Vocabulary Studies in L1 and L2 Development: The Interface Between Theory and Practice

by Jon Clenton, Gavin Brooks and Batia Laufer

Languages 2025, 10(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040081 - 10 Apr 2025

The field of vocabulary studies in first language (L1) and second language (L2) development has seen remarkable growth in recent years, with researchers and practitioners alike recognizing the critical role that lexical knowledge plays in language proficiency [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vocabulary Studies in L1 and L2 Development: The Interface between Theory and Practice)

20 pages, 747 KiB

Open AccessReview

Quantifying Experience with Accented Speech to Study Monolingual and Bilingual School-Aged Children’s Speech Processing

by Adriana Hanulíková and Helena Levy

Languages 2025, 10(4), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040080 - 9 Apr 2025

Children around the world often grow up with multiple language varieties and are exposed to regional and second-language accents. This linguistic heterogeneity presents both benefits and challenges for cognitive and language development. Recognizing the importance of input variability in theories of language processing, [...] Read more.

Children around the world often grow up with multiple language varieties and are exposed to regional and second-language accents. This linguistic heterogeneity presents both benefits and challenges for cognitive and language development. Recognizing the importance of input variability in theories of language processing, researchers are now using more nuanced assessments of language experience that go beyond simple ‘monolingual’ versus ‘bilingual’ categories. These assessment methods capture the gradient nature of language exposure and use. This article provides a narrative review of recent research on the role of different accents and languages in children’s environments. It emphasizes the importance of applying gradient assessments of accent variation to both bilingual and monolingual populations. In doing so, a more comprehensive understanding of speech processing in heterogeneous contexts among school-aged children can be achieved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends and Future Directions in Bilingual Language Acquisition)

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18 pages, 294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Latvian Vocative and Other Case Forms in Direct Address Constructions

by Andra Kalnača and Ilze Lokmane

Languages 2025, 10(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040079 - 9 Apr 2025

This article is devoted to the study of syntactic and pragmatic functions of the vocative and direct address constructions. Since the direct address in Latvian, in addition to the vocative, also permits the nominative and accusative, this article examines the relationships and conditions [...] Read more.

This article is devoted to the study of syntactic and pragmatic functions of the vocative and direct address constructions. Since the direct address in Latvian, in addition to the vocative, also permits the nominative and accusative, this article examines the relationships and conditions of use of these three cases depending on the noun declension. In Latvian, the vocative (and nominative and accusative used in the function of direct address) is also variously agreed with its attached nominal (noun, adjective, declinable participle) or pronoun, so in order to better understand the syntax and pragmatics of the direct address in Latvian, this article covers this issue as well. The analysis of the data shows that there are five possible pragmatic functions of direct address in Latvian. The choice of these functions is operated, taking into account the place (of the address) in the clause or text, the lexemes used, and various extra-linguistic factors. Full article

21 pages, 2829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aspectual Variation in Negated Past Tense Contexts Across Slavic

by Dorota Klimek-Jankowska, Alberto Frasson and Piotr Gulgowski

Languages 2025, 10(4), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040078 - 8 Apr 2025

This study examines variation in the use and interpretation of the perfective (pfv) aspect in negated past tense contexts across East Slavic and selected West and Southwest Slavic languages. Unlike West and Southwest Slavic, where the pfv + neg in past [...] Read more.

This study examines variation in the use and interpretation of the perfective (pfv) aspect in negated past tense contexts across East Slavic and selected West and Southwest Slavic languages. Unlike West and Southwest Slavic, where the pfv + neg in past tense contexts allows for an interpretation denying the existence of the event at any past time, East Slavic uniquely interprets the pfv aspect in these contexts as indicating that the agent either planned but failed to realize the event or initiated it but failed to complete it. We account for this by assuming that negation operates either high (¬TP), as sentential negation, or low (¬vP), over the event domain. In East Slavic, the interaction of the pfv aspect with the past tense prevents high negation and enforces low negation, resulting in inhibited event reading. This reading implies that the event was expected or initiated but ultimately unrealized. We argue that the semantics of the pfv aspect in East Slavic parallels the semantics of specific indefinites in the nominal domain. The aspect head introduces a temporal variable t, which, via a choice function, restricts the domain of existential quantification over t to a singleton set, presupposing the existence of t, which cannot be canceled by high negation. Consequently, in negated pfv past tense contexts in East Slavic, negation scopes over the event domain giving rise to special interpretative constraints in past tense perfective contexts with negation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb: Analogies in Different Languages and Other Grammatical Domains)

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24 pages, 335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Syntactic Variation and Sociocultural Identity in Southeast Asian Englishes: A Study of Subjectless Nonfinite Clauses in Philippine and Singaporean English

by Teri An Joy Magpale and Ramsey Ferrer

Languages 2025, 10(4), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040077 - 4 Apr 2025

This study explores syntactic variation and sociocultural identity in subjectless nonfinite clauses within Philippine English (PhE) and Singaporean English (SgE), focusing on to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions. Using data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), it [...] Read more.

This study explores syntactic variation and sociocultural identity in subjectless nonfinite clauses within Philippine English (PhE) and Singaporean English (SgE), focusing on to-infinitive and -ing gerund constructions. Using data from the International Corpus of English for the Philippines (ICE-PHI) and Singapore (ICE-SIN), it examines the distribution of these constructions across spoken and written registers to uncover their sociocultural underpinnings. The findings reveal a shared preference for to-infinitive constructions in both varieties, reflecting their role in expressing intention and purpose. PhE’s adherence to prescriptive norms stems from colonial history and formal education, while SgE’s multilingual and pragmatic linguistic ecology fosters greater syntactic flexibility, exemplified by the innovative want + -ing construction absent in PhE. Although gerunds are less frequent overall, they consistently occur with verbs like enjoy in both varieties, signaling habitual or ongoing actions. Sociolinguistic distinctions also emerge in constructions like [Negator] + try + Nonfinite Clause, where PhE employs elaborative commentary aligned with its expressive narrative tendencies, contrasting with SgE’s concise, context-driven usage. By investigating this underexplored syntactic phenomenon, the study demonstrates how localized Englishes adapt grammatical structures to reflect sociocultural priorities, advancing the understanding of World Englishes and their sociolinguistic diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Discourse and Identity in the Diverse and Evolving Varieties of Southeast Asian Englishes)

1 pages, 206 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Lefort (2024). Altaic Elements in the Chinese Variety of Tangwang: True and False Direct Loans. Languages, 9(9), 293

by Julie Pauline Marie Lefort

Languages 2025, 10(4), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040076 - 3 Apr 2025

The author has requested to make the following corrections to their original publication [...] Full article

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