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20 pages, 513 KB

Open AccessArticle

Between Lexicon and Grammar: Grammaticalization and Lexicalization in the Diachrony of the Phrasal Preposition por vía de in Spanish

by Cristina Buenafuentes De La Mata

Languages 2026, 11(6), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060114 - 3 Jun 2026

Abstract

Every new phrasal preposition results from a process of grammaticalization, through which elements originally considered lexical acquire grammatical functions. At the same time, their complex status also entails a process of lexicalization, given that these constructions lose their syntactic analyzability. To address this [...] Read more.

Every new phrasal preposition results from a process of grammaticalization, through which elements originally considered lexical acquire grammatical functions. At the same time, their complex status also entails a process of lexicalization, given that these constructions lose their syntactic analyzability. To address this apparent contradiction, the aim of this article is to provide a theoretical account within the theories of grammaticalization and lexicalization. Based on new empirical evidence taken from the historical analysis of the Spanish complex preposition por vía de ‘by way of’, as documented in the Corpus del Diccionario histórico de la lengua española (CDH), this research demonstrates the relationship between grammaticalization and lexicalization. The diachronic data show that the locative noun vía undergoes grammaticalization. This process involves semantic bleaching (locative-perlative, perlative-figurative intermediation, perlative-figurative mediation, cause, purpose; e.g., por vía de Francia ‘by way of France’, por vía de intérprete ‘through an interpreter’, por vía de matrimonio ‘by means of marriage’, por vía de padre ‘on my father’s side’), recategorization, loss of morphological properties, external fixation, and condensation. However, this development is conditioned by lexicalization, as the noun is grammaticalized only when it becomes fixed in combination with the two prepositions (por and de). Nonetheless, the diachronic evidence also shows that the degree of syntactic analyzability varies according to meaning, indicating that analyzability does not necessarily entail semantic compositionality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Romance Historical Syntax: Special Issue on Syntactic Analyzability in Diachrony)

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28 pages, 2797 KB

Open AccessArticle

Global Cues to Spanish Differential Object Marking in Monolingual and Bilingual Child-Directed Speech

by Pablo E. Requena

Languages 2026, 11(6), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060113 - 2 Jun 2026

Abstract

Spanish Differential Object Marking (DOM) is conditioned by well-known local properties of the direct object, but also by clause- and discourse-level factors. In this study, we examine whether these factors are also available as potential learning cues in child-directed speech (CDS). We analyzed [...] Read more.

Spanish Differential Object Marking (DOM) is conditioned by well-known local properties of the direct object, but also by clause- and discourse-level factors. In this study, we examine whether these factors are also available as potential learning cues in child-directed speech (CDS). We analyzed longitudinal naturalistic CDS from two monolingual and three bilingual (heritage) Spanish-learning children, manually extracting transitive clauses and coding DOM presence alongside discourse specificity, verb class, coreferential pronoun (clitic doubling), relative animacy, and DO placement, plus two local cues for comparison. Regression analyses revealed that a wider range of local and global factors conditioned DOM in monolingual than in bilingual CDS. The potential informativeness of these factors as learning cues was quantified using Competition Model measures of availability, reliability, and validity. In monolingual CDS, local cues (+human, pronominal/proper name DOs) were highly reliable, and two global cues (clitic doubling and relative animacy) showed moderate reliability. Whereas discourse specificity and verb class were highly available, they were comparatively unreliable. Validity values were uniformly low; although several global cues matched or exceeded local cues in validity, this pattern largely reflected their greater availability rather than higher reliability. In bilingual CDS, reliability and validity were reduced across nearly all cues, with little differentiation among cues. These findings suggest that Spanish-learning children encounter potentially usable utterance- and discourse-level evidence for DOM in CDS, but that the robustness of this evidence is markedly weaker in bilingual input. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Syntax of Child Language)

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24 pages, 1757 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transgenerational Differences in Turkish Heritage Speakers: The Case of Turkish Definiteness

by Serkan Uygun and Leyla Zidani-Eroğlu

Languages 2026, 11(6), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060112 - 2 Jun 2026

Abstract

In Turkish, definiteness is marked through accusative case marking -(y)I and the presence or absence of the prenominal determiner bir (one). Crucially the latter may function as an indefinite determiner depending on the context. Previous studies have shown that definiteness is a vulnerable [...] Read more.

In Turkish, definiteness is marked through accusative case marking -(y)I and the presence or absence of the prenominal determiner bir (one). Crucially the latter may function as an indefinite determiner depending on the context. Previous studies have shown that definiteness is a vulnerable phenomenon for Turkish heritage speakers, as they have to integrate different language modules (e.g., morphosyntax and discourse/pragmatics). This study tested 49 monolingual Turkish speakers from Türkiye and 32 heritage speakers from the USA via an acceptability judgment task. Twenty-three of the heritage speakers were first-generation, and nine were second-generation heritage speakers. The experimental stimuli were created by manipulating both the grammatical number of the object (singular bir kitap ‘one/a book’ vs. plural kitap-lar ‘books’) and whether the object was preceded by a numeric determiner (bare kitap ‘a book’ vs. non-bare beş kitap ‘five books’) to test the acceptability of the nominal’s correct definiteness marking in a subsequent sentence. The results indicate significant discrepancies between the first- and second-generation heritage speakers, indicating crucial transgenerational variation in the use of the correct form of Turkish definiteness, while the first-generation and monolingual speakers do not differ from each other. These findings suggest that the integration of morphosyntax and discourse/pragmatics in definiteness marking, a particular aspect of linguistic competence within theorizing in generative grammar, does not seem to be fully acquired by second-generation heritage speakers as a result of acquiring Turkish under heritage language conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Migrant to Heritage Languages: Transgenerational Language Change in Diasporic Communities)

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40 pages, 566 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tactile Verbs and the Expression of Chance Events in Latin and Italian

by Flavia Pompeo

Languages 2026, 11(6), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060111 - 2 Jun 2026

Abstract

In studies on the polysemy of tactile verbs, there is a semantic field that has hitherto received scant attention: the expression of “chance events”. In an effort to partially fill this gap and lay the foundations for future research, this paper has two [...] Read more.

In studies on the polysemy of tactile verbs, there is a semantic field that has hitherto received scant attention: the expression of “chance events”. In an effort to partially fill this gap and lay the foundations for future research, this paper has two interrelated aims: (a) to clarify what constitutes a chance event when Latin contingo, obtingo, and, in particular, Italian toccare convey this type of meaning; and (b) to identify the semantic motivation and the conceptual mechanisms that underlie such use. To this end, using a corpus-based, largely qualitative analysis, occurrences of the Latin and Italian verbs will be examined, focusing on their constructions and the semantics of their arguments. Data will be collected from dictionaries, other lexicographical sources, and digital corpora. The theoretical approach adopted is that of Cognitive Linguistics. In conclusion, the analysis will evidence that verbs related to the meaning ‘to touch’, when used to express chance events in Latin and Italian, involve similar constructions that are explicable from a cognitive perspective. Ultimately, it will be suggested that the “bipolarity of touch” and other related characteristics help explain why tactile verbs can express chance events. This is consistent with Fernández Jaén’s 2014 classification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Semantics of Perception Verbs)

20 pages, 1683 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking Clauses: The Preference for Predicate-Centered Utterances in Korean Conversation Following Repair Sequences Triggered by Argument Omission

by Seunggon Jeong and Eun Young Bae

Languages 2026, 11(6), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060110 - 1 Jun 2026

Abstract

Traditional grammatical theories, particularly those rooted in Indo-European languages, conceptualize the clause as a fundamental syntactic unit consisting of a verb and its overt arguments. However, studies of spontaneous conversation across diverse languages reveal that interactants often organize utterances around predicates, omitting explicit [...] Read more.

Traditional grammatical theories, particularly those rooted in Indo-European languages, conceptualize the clause as a fundamental syntactic unit consisting of a verb and its overt arguments. However, studies of spontaneous conversation across diverse languages reveal that interactants often organize utterances around predicates, omitting explicit subjects and objects when referents are recoverable from context. By combining Conversation Analysis with frequency analysis, the present study illustrates that the preference for predicate-centered utterances in Korean conversation is robust, even in sequential environments where interactants have addressed understanding problems arising from argument omission through repair sequences. Specifically, interactants tend to maintain predicate-centered utterances after repair, showing little inclination to shift toward using overt arguments. These findings support the view that predicates serve as the central unit of utterance construction and underscore the need to re-examine the nature of grammar to fully account for the context-sensitive and interactional dynamics of language use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue (A)typical Clauses across Languages)

35 pages, 1610 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Emergence of the Descriptive Perception Verb Construction in Dutch: Syntactic and Semantic Developments

by Marjolein Poortvliet

Languages 2026, 11(6), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060109 - 28 May 2026

Abstract

This article traces the syntactic and semantic development of the Descriptive Perception Verb Construction from Early Middle Dutch to present-day Dutch. The Dutch Descriptive Perception Verb Construction takes the simplified form [SUBJ_STIM V PRED], e.g., Hij klinkt moe ‘He sounds tired’, where [...] Read more.

This article traces the syntactic and semantic development of the Descriptive Perception Verb Construction from Early Middle Dutch to present-day Dutch. The Dutch Descriptive Perception Verb Construction takes the simplified form [SUBJ_STIM V PRED], e.g., Hij klinkt moe ‘He sounds tired’, where the subject is the stimulus of the perceptual event and the verb is followed by a predicative complement, e.g., an adjective. In its verb slot, this construction has one of the five Dutch descriptive perception verbs: eruitzien ‘look’, klinken ‘sound’, voelen ‘feel’, ruiken ‘smell’, and smaken ‘taste’. In this article, I show that while there are two attested initial stages (i.e., the transitive construction and the intransitive construction) with two distinct bridging contexts enabling the emergence of this construction, the endpoint is the same: the constructionalization of the new Descriptive Perception Verb Construction. This new construction allows for the coercion of an implicit proposition, which expresses factivity, subjectivity and whose verb marks direct evidence. I hypothesize that over time the requirement to mark factivity is loosened for all verbs, and the marking of direct evidence is lost for eruitzien and klinken, indicating that these two verbs are further ahead in the semantic development of the Descriptive Perception Verb Construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Semantics of Perception Verbs)

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25 pages, 1119 KB

Open AccessArticle

How a Usage-Based Approach Promotes Conceptual Development and Natural Use of Japanese Passives: Evidence from Concept-Based Language Instruction

by Kyoko Masuda and Amy Snyder Ohta

Languages 2026, 11(6), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11060108 - 25 May 2026

Abstract

L1 transfer is well-attested in SLA; negative transfer is common when learners encounter a typologically distinct language. English-speaking learners often struggle with Japanese passives, which differ significantly from English passives both conceptually and grammatically. While English passives primarily defocus the agent, Japanese passives [...] Read more.

L1 transfer is well-attested in SLA; negative transfer is common when learners encounter a typologically distinct language. English-speaking learners often struggle with Japanese passives, which differ significantly from English passives both conceptually and grammatically. While English passives primarily defocus the agent, Japanese passives serve multiple semantic and discourse functions, often maintaining a focus on (and empathy toward) the experiencer. This small study examines how conceptual understandings drawn from usage-based (UB) analyses influence the acquisition of Japanese passives. Using corpus studies and acquisition research as a foundation, we developed concept-based language instruction (C-BLI) integrating UB-focused concepts. Our analysis of students’ oral languaging, gesture, and story-writing data from an immediate post-test and two delayed (3 weeks and 6 months post-instruction) post-tests show individual differences and demonstrate how a UB-based C-BLI approach facilitated developmental processes in Japanese over time; students improved their grasp of concepts taught via multi-modal materials, including visual materializations of concepts and ocean wave gestures. Conceptual and linguistic development were evidenced via oral languaging and story-writing. The most frequently used passive verb was iu ‘say,’ which has been found to be often passivized in L1 speakers’ production and previous SLA research. Findings contribute to broader discussions of how conceptual restructuring may affect L2 acquisition of complex grammatical constructions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Usage-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition: Crosslinguistic Perspectives)

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20 pages, 370 KB

Open AccessReview

Pragmatic Theorizing in, and Through, Modern Greek: A Roadmap of Past and Ongoing Research

by Stavros Assimakopoulos and Anna Piata

Languages 2026, 11(5), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050107 - 20 May 2026

Abstract

This paper aims to offer a state-of-the-art overview of the ways in which research on Modern Greek has informed—and been informed by—theorizing in the field of pragmatics. In charting this (rather uncharted) territory, our aim is to demonstrate that Modern Greek pragmatics does [...] Read more.

This paper aims to offer a state-of-the-art overview of the ways in which research on Modern Greek has informed—and been informed by—theorizing in the field of pragmatics. In charting this (rather uncharted) territory, our aim is to demonstrate that Modern Greek pragmatics does not only reflect the evolution of pragmatic enquiry from a narrow conceptualization to a much broader one that encompasses interactional, social and cultural specifications, but has also contributed new insights into pragmatic theory that surpass the purview of Modern Greek linguistics. While acknowledging that delimiting the remit of pragmatics is far from evident or even unanimously agreed, our overview envisages to provide the reader with a roadmap of past and ongoing research with a view to highlighting how general pragmatic principles interact with the language- and culture-specific parameters that are available to speakers of Modern Greek. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)

41 pages, 1646 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Acquisition of Syntactic Structures in Typical and Atypical Language Development: Insights from Growing Trees and Syntactic Cartography in a New Sentence Repetition Task

by Elena Casadei and Adriana Belletti

Languages 2026, 11(5), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050106 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

This study presents a newly developed Sentence Repetition Task/SRT as a tool designed to investigate the acquisition of different syntactic structures in children with typical development (TD) and Developmental Language Disorder (DLD). The tool is grounded in the Growing Trees (GT, henceforth) approach, [...] Read more.

This study presents a newly developed Sentence Repetition Task/SRT as a tool designed to investigate the acquisition of different syntactic structures in children with typical development (TD) and Developmental Language Disorder (DLD). The tool is grounded in the Growing Trees (GT, henceforth) approach, which assumes that developmental progression reflects the hierarchical growth of the syntactic tree, as described in cartographic analyses of clause structure. The SRT Protocol was constructed following the three developmental stages identified by GT: VP/TP, lower zone of the Left Periphery (LP henceforth), and higher LP zone. A preliminary pilot version was administered to 27 TD and 28 DLD children, followed by a revised second version with improved item design and broader syntactic coverage, administered to 28 TD and 21 DLD children. Descriptive and inferential analyses demonstrate a clear hierarchy in the acquisition of Italian morphosyntax, fully consistent with the three-stage developmental progression predicted by the model. Children with DLD follow the same path but with delayed acquisition and slower consolidation of certain structures. These findings provide developmentally grounded benchmarks for identifying morphosyntactic delays and show that the SRT Protocol is a reliable tool for profiling early syntactic development. Crucially, the protocol supports diagnosis and clinical practice by helping clinicians ensuring interventions that are both theoretically informed and aligned with syntactic growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Morpho(phono)logy/Syntax Interface)

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28 pages, 925 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzability and Multiverbal Constructions in Diachrony: The Case of Latin i nunc et V_imp

by Laura Cabré Lunas and Esther Artigas Álvarez

Languages 2026, 11(5), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050105 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

This article examines the Latin construction i nunc et V_imp from the perspective of diachronic analyzability. The expression consists of two imperative forms with identical morphological marking—the first a motion verb (V1), the second a lexical verb—linked by the conjunction et. [...] Read more.

This article examines the Latin construction i nunc et V_imp from the perspective of diachronic analyzability. The expression consists of two imperative forms with identical morphological marking—the first a motion verb (V1), the second a lexical verb—linked by the conjunction et. Rather than encoding a literal directive sequence, the construction conveys a rhetorical exhortative value that systematically guides discourse interpretation in a direction different from that suggested by its surface form. Although attested from the Imperial period onward, the construction is analyzed against the background of serial imperatives with a motion verb in initial position and verbal pseudocoordination, patterns documented not only in Archaic Latin but also in other historical Indo-European languages. On the basis of an exhaustive corpus, the study assesses the contribution of each constituent in order to account for the construction’s global value. The analysis shows that i nunc et V_imp displays an uneven degree of analyzability: while its components remain formally and syntactically transparent, its semantic and pragmatic analyzability is reduced, as the elements do not contribute compositionally to propositional content but function as a pragmatically unitized block. Overall, the article highlights the central role of analyzability in diachronic change, including processes of unitization and constructional de/recategorization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Romance Historical Syntax: Special Issue on Syntactic Analyzability in Diachrony)

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37 pages, 2428 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tone in Mabia Languages: Structure and Processes

by Alexander Angsongna, Samuel Alhassan Issah, Hasiyatu Abubakari, Darius Adjong, Abraham Kwesi Bisilki, Samuel Awinkene Atintono and Adams Bodomo

Languages 2026, 11(5), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050104 - 14 May 2026

Abstract

The Mabia languages belong to the Niger–Congo family and are spoken primarily across the savannah and Sahelian regions of West Africa, including northern Ghana, Ivory Coast, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali. Tone plays a crucial role in these languages, shaping [...] Read more.

The Mabia languages belong to the Niger–Congo family and are spoken primarily across the savannah and Sahelian regions of West Africa, including northern Ghana, Ivory Coast, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali. Tone plays a crucial role in these languages, shaping both lexical meaning and grammatical structure. This study is a synthesis or an overview of previously described facts about the tonal phenomena in six Mabia languages, Dagaare, Dagbani, Gurenɛ, Kusaal, Likpakpaln, and Buli—highlighting their tonal inventories, structures, and distinctive tonal processes. Dagaare and Dagbani exhibit a two-tone system (high and low), with an additional down-stepped high tone. Kusaal, Likpakpaln, and Buli employ a three-tone system (high, mid, and low), while the tonal status of Gurenɛ remains contested: some scholars describe it as a two-tone language, whereas others provide evidence for a three-tone system. The mid tone, though relatively less productive, appears to represent a later innovation within the group. The mid tone performs both lexical and grammatical functions. Notable tonal phenomena across these languages include tonal polarity, low tone spreading, and restrictions on contour tones, with Buli exhibiting particularly productive low tone spread. In all six languages, tone plays both lexical and grammatical functions. This paper explores these features and offers basic theoretical explanations for their occurrence. Overall, tone is a defining characteristic of the Mabia languages, intricately shaping their phonological and morphological structures. Full article

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17 pages, 337 KB

Open AccessArticle

General Extenders and Syntactic Analyzability: Sp. y todo eso vs. y todo

by Margarita N. Borreguero Zuloaga

Languages 2026, 11(5), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050103 - 14 May 2026

Abstract

This study examines the historical and functional divergence between two Spanish general extenders, y todo eso and y todo, in order to determine whether the loss of syntactic analyzability can serve as a criterion for distinguishing stages of grammaticalization and identifying pragmatic [...] Read more.

This study examines the historical and functional divergence between two Spanish general extenders, y todo eso and y todo, in order to determine whether the loss of syntactic analyzability can serve as a criterion for distinguishing stages of grammaticalization and identifying pragmatic shifts. Drawing on extensive diachronic and synchronic corpus data, the analysis compares the formal evolution, semantic properties and pragmatic functions of both constructions. The results show that y todo eso follows a prototypical grammaticalization path marked by a progressive reduction in its internal structure, the weakening of referential meaning, and increasing freedom from syntactic constraints, while preserving analyzability through alternation with the simpler form y eso. In contrast, y todo displays an earlier and more advanced process of grammaticalization, dating back to medieval Spanish, in which the construction undergoes semantic bleaching, loss of additive value, and reanalysis as a scalar focus marker. These findings support the view that y todo no longer functions as a general extender in contemporary Spanish, whereas y todo eso retains this status, illustrating how syntactic analyzability correlates with shifts between pragmatic categories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Romance Historical Syntax: Special Issue on Syntactic Analyzability in Diachrony)

34 pages, 4114 KB

Open AccessArticle

Austriacisms and Their Co-Variants—Short-Term Diachrony in the 21st Century

by Alexandra N. Lenz, Andreas Baumann, Wolfgang Koppensteiner, Claudia Mattes, Theresa Ziegler and Amelie Dorn

Languages 2026, 11(5), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050102 - 13 May 2026

Abstract

The focus of our contribution is on lexical Austriacisms, i.e., lexical features of the Austrian standard language. Whereas in previous studies, only a small set of Austriacisms has been examined, with food terms being particularly popular, this contribution considers 76 lexical variables with [...] Read more.

The focus of our contribution is on lexical Austriacisms, i.e., lexical features of the Austrian standard language. Whereas in previous studies, only a small set of Austriacisms has been examined, with food terms being particularly popular, this contribution considers 76 lexical variables with 205 variants (Austriacisms and their co-variants), which are examined through complex variationist corpus analyses. The data is provided by the Austrian Media Corpus (amc), which represents the language use of the Austrian print media landscape in the 21st century. The analyses are both (short-term) diachronic and synchronic, taking into account the variation in vivo. Irrespective of the frequency-based “starting point” of a variant at the beginning of the 21st century, its relative frequency remains at comparable levels in the course of the observation period. Contrary to the threat scenarios of previous studies, our corpus analyses indicate the relative stability of the majority of Austriacisms over the 23 years studied (2001–2023). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Variationist Linguistics on German—Focus on Lexis and Pragmatics)

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24 pages, 1028 KB

Open AccessArticle

L1 Attrition in Instructed Settings: Evidence from L1 Spanish–L2 English Bilinguals

by Elena García-Guerrero and Cristóbal Lozano

Languages 2026, 11(5), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050101 - 13 May 2026

Abstract

This study investigates first language attrition in the interpretation and processing of relative clause attachment ambiguities among instructed late sequential L1 Spanish–L2 English bilinguals. Traditionally, L1 attrition has been associated with limited L1 use and exposure, along with extensive naturalistic immersion. This study [...] Read more.

This study investigates first language attrition in the interpretation and processing of relative clause attachment ambiguities among instructed late sequential L1 Spanish–L2 English bilinguals. Traditionally, L1 attrition has been associated with limited L1 use and exposure, along with extensive naturalistic immersion. This study questions these conditions as prerequisites of attrition, examining bilinguals who live in an L1 environment but are extensively exposed to their second language in an instructed, classroom-based university setting. Bilinguals were compared with two native control groups of Spanish and English monolinguals. Results from a picture selection task reveal L1 attrition effects in instructed bilinguals, as they rely less frequently on their L1-preferred disambiguation strategy, i.e., high attachment, when resolving ambiguous relative clauses, particularly in comparison to Spanish monolinguals. Instructed bilinguals also exhibit higher processing when processing ambiguous sentences. Additionally, the study explores whether language dominance modulates attrition effects. We consider the implications of these findings for our understanding of grammatical attrition across different input contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Determining the Scope, Nature and Causes of Attrition in Adult L1 Grammars)

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15 pages, 2260 KB

Open AccessArticle

Insights on the Realization of Nominal Evaluative Morphology in the Modern Greek Dialect of Lesbos

by Dimitra Melissaropoulou

Languages 2026, 11(5), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050100 - 13 May 2026

Abstract

This paper investigates evaluative morphology in the modern dialect of Lesbos, focusing on the morphological strategies used for nominal evaluation, the range of meanings they express, and the characteristics that distinguish Modern Lesbian from other varieties. Special attention is given to borrowing and [...] Read more.

This paper investigates evaluative morphology in the modern dialect of Lesbos, focusing on the morphological strategies used for nominal evaluation, the range of meanings they express, and the characteristics that distinguish Modern Lesbian from other varieties. Special attention is given to borrowing and the integration of markers serving evaluative functions in the dialect. Dialectal data are drawn from available primary and secondary written sources. The analysis shows that Modern Greek dialects, Lesbian in particular, which have largely escaped the effects of diglossia and standardization, constitute an especially valuable resource for linguistic research, as they reveal prototypical tendencies of linguistic systems. These tendencies include the preference for specific gender values as defaults in the expression of diminution and augmentation, the overwhelming productivity of specific markers, closely linked to the local dialectal identity, the symmetrical distribution of suffixes and prefixoids in the realization of positive and negative evaluative meanings, and the creative adaptation of borrowed evaluative elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Modern Dialect of Lesbos: Selected Topics)

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34 pages, 5861 KB

Open AccessArticle

BabyDS: Visually Grounded Grammar Induction with Online Curriculum Learning

by Arash Ashrafzadeh, Julian Hough and Arash Eshghi

Languages 2026, 11(5), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050099 - 12 May 2026

Abstract

Recent research in grounded language learning has seen remarkable success due to advances in large vision and language models (VLMs). However, these models (i) are extremely costly to train and update; (ii) struggle with generalisation; and (iii) do not support continual learning. [...] Read more.

Recent research in grounded language learning has seen remarkable success due to advances in large vision and language models (VLMs). However, these models (i) are extremely costly to train and update; (ii) struggle with generalisation; and (iii) do not support continual learning. In this paper, we introduce baby-ds integrating the Dynamic Syntax (DS) framework with automated planning within the multimodal BabyAI platform as a testbed. We provide methods whereby DS lexicons are induced continually from teacher demonstrations within BabyAI. We study (i–iii) by experimenting with the compositional complexity of natural language instructions in the data to compare data efficiency, generalisation, and continual learning properties of baby-ds with a simple neural model. The results show that the baby-ds model: (i) needs much less data than the neural model to reach threshold performance; (ii) generalises much faster to more complex instructions; and (iii) is a more effective continual learner. We argue that it is the attendant linguistic bias within DS and the rich inferential power of TTR that enables (i–iii), highlighting the importance of further research on hybrid grammar–neural approaches. Finally, we discuss several important limitations of baby-ds and sketch a path forward for further DS research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Dynamic Syntax)

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29 pages, 3908 KB

Open AccessArticle

Australian Indian English: Contact-Induced Adaptation in the Perception of Vowel Categories

by Olga Maxwell, Elinor Payne, Debbie Loakes and Mitko Sabev

Languages 2026, 11(5), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050098 - 11 May 2026

Abstract

Increased global mobility has intensified contact between regional English varieties, creating new opportunities for large-scale second dialect acquisition. Australia, with its rapidly growing population due to migration, offers a particularly dynamic context for exploring such contact. This study investigates how first-generation Indian migrants [...] Read more.

Increased global mobility has intensified contact between regional English varieties, creating new opportunities for large-scale second dialect acquisition. Australia, with its rapidly growing population due to migration, offers a particularly dynamic context for exploring such contact. This study investigates how first-generation Indian migrants in the Australian city of Melbourne perceive Australian English vowels in the lexical items dress and trap, a contrast chosen because of sound changes that are well-documented for this location. Listeners completed a vowel categorization task involving target words in non-lateral and lateral contexts. To assess contact-induced adaptation, their responses were compared with those of Australian English speakers in Australia and those of Indian English speakers in India. The results reveal that perceptual adaptation among first-generation Indian migrants in Australia is context-dependent. In the non‑lateral coda context, migrant Indian English listeners (in Australia) showed intermediate responses, between those of Australian English listeners (in Australia) and Indian English listeners (in India), indicative of a relatively ‘linear’ adaptation towards Australian English. Responses to stimuli in the lateral coda context, however, revealed a more complex picture. Australian English listeners (in Australia) and Indian English listeners (in India) responded more closely to one another than migrant Indian English listeners (in Australia), with the latter instead exhibiting a substantial degree of perceptual confusion toward the endpoint of the continuum for hell–Hal and, to a lesser extent, for shell–shall and pell–pal. These findings suggest that in the perceptual adaptation to a second dialect, the acquisition of a wider pool of phonetic variants is mediated by the acquisition of structural knowledge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Australian English)

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15 pages, 344 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vocabulary, Morpho-Syntactic Skills, and Home Literacy Activities as Predictors of Reading Comprehension in Greek–English Bilingual Children: A Semi-Longitudinal Study

by Theodora Papastefanou and Theodoros Marinis

Languages 2026, 11(5), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050097 - 11 May 2026

Abstract

The present study aimed to investigate the performance of bilingual/biliterate children on expressive vocabulary and morpho-syntactic skills and the extent to which home literacy activities (HLA) contribute to primary school Greek–English bilingual children’s performance on reading comprehension. Forty children attending Years 1 and [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to investigate the performance of bilingual/biliterate children on expressive vocabulary and morpho-syntactic skills and the extent to which home literacy activities (HLA) contribute to primary school Greek–English bilingual children’s performance on reading comprehension. Forty children attending Years 1 and 3 at an English primary school in the UK were assessed in language and decoding skills. After one school year, they were assessed in oral language skills, decoding, and reading comprehension in Years 2 and 4. The children performed better on all tasks at Time 2 than at Time 1, and the older children performed better than the younger ones. Their performance was better in the English tasks than in the Greek tasks. Greek morpho-syntactic skills and HLA were significant predictors of Greek reading comprehension, suggesting that children may use their morpho-syntactic knowledge to support their reading comprehension in their heritage language. Moreover, heritage language exposure through HLA can benefit literacy of the heritage language. Full article

20 pages, 673 KB

Open AccessReview

Using L2 Properties in Native Grammars: What Constitutes Evidence for Representational Change?

by Liz Smeets

Languages 2026, 11(5), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11050096 - 9 May 2026

Abstract

A major question in L1 attrition research is whether cross-linguistic influence from a speaker’s second language onto their first constitutes only a temporary, superficial effect or whether it can also lead to a structural change, often discussed as a distinction between effects on [...] Read more.

A major question in L1 attrition research is whether cross-linguistic influence from a speaker’s second language onto their first constitutes only a temporary, superficial effect or whether it can also lead to a structural change, often discussed as a distinction between effects on language processing as opposed to changes to the mental representation of grammatical properties. Some have argued that L1 grammars of adult L2 speakers are entirely impervious to change, while others stated that some of the available findings can be interpreted as grammatical representations themselves being vulnerable. This paper contributes to the question of how we can distinguish between these two types of attrition. I argue that it is challenging to use behavioral differences across tasks as well as experimental results showing optionality between L1 and L2 options to distinguish between a superficial and a structural change. Instead, situations where properties of an attriter’s L1 grammar converge on the L2 constitute the clearest case of structural change as these cannot be explained as temporary effects of L2 influence. Using data from an earlier study on attrition found in Romanian native speakers living in Italy, I furthermore challenge the claim that L2 convergence only occurs in rare situations where attriters lose contact with the L1. To better understand the contexts in which attrition at the level of representation may be possible, I suggest that future studies focus on (1) a variety of linguistic properties where the L1 allows a grammatical construction or interpretation also in situations where it is not used in the L2, (2) properties where options from both the L1 and the L2 are less likely to co-exist in an attritred grammar and (3) consistently include analyses of individual response patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Determining the Scope, Nature and Causes of Attrition in Adult L1 Grammars)

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