Languages

34 pages, 3234 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

L1 Attrition vis-à-vis L2 Acquisition: Lexicon, Syntax–Pragmatics Interface, and Prosody in L1-English L2-Italian Late Bilinguals

by Mattia Zingaretti, Vasiliki Chondrogianni, D. Robert Ladd and Antonella Sorace

Languages 2025, 10(9), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090224 - 4 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1378

Abstract

Late bilingual speakers immersed in a second language (L2) environment often experience the non-pathological attrition of their first language (L1), exhibiting selective and reversible changes in L1 processing and production. While attrition research has largely focused on long-term residents in anglophone countries, examining [...] Read more.

Late bilingual speakers immersed in a second language (L2) environment often experience the non-pathological attrition of their first language (L1), exhibiting selective and reversible changes in L1 processing and production. While attrition research has largely focused on long-term residents in anglophone countries, examining changes primarily within a single L1 domain, the present study employs a novel experimental design to investigate L1 attrition, alongside L2 acquisition, across three domains (i.e., the lexicon, syntax–pragmatics interface, and prosody) in two groups of L1-English L2-Italian late bilinguals: long-term residents in Italy vs. university students in the UK. A total of 112 participants completed online tasks assessing lexical retrieval, anaphora resolution, and sentence stress patterns in both languages. First, both bilingual groups showed comparable levels of semantic interference in lexical retrieval. Second, at the syntax–pragmatics interface, only residents in Italy showed signs of L1 attrition in real-time processing of anaphora, while resolution preferences were similar between groups; in the L2, both bilingual groups demonstrated target-like preferences, despite some slowdown in processing. Third, while both groups showed some evidence of target-like L2 prosody, with residents in Italy matching L1-Italian sentence stress patterns closely, prosodic attrition was only reported for residents in Italy in exploratory analyses. Overall, this study supports the notion of L1 attrition as a natural consequence of bilingualism—one that is domain- and experience-dependent, unfolds along a continuum, and involves a complex (and possibly inverse) relationship between L1 and L2 performance that warrants further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Determining the Scope, Nature and Causes of Attrition in Adult L1 Grammars)

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35 pages, 2588 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Determiners in the Processing of Gender Agreement Morphology by Heritage Speakers of Spanish

by Danny Melendez, Jill Jegerski and Silvina Andrea Montrul

Languages 2025, 10(9), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10090202 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 832

Abstract

This eye-tracking study examined how heritage speakers of Spanish process gender agreement morphology at a distance, focusing on the activation of the gender feature during sentence processing. Previous work is conceptually replicated and further extended by assessing (1) whether reduced sensitivity to gender [...] Read more.

This eye-tracking study examined how heritage speakers of Spanish process gender agreement morphology at a distance, focusing on the activation of the gender feature during sentence processing. Previous work is conceptually replicated and further extended by assessing (1) whether reduced sensitivity to gender agreement mismatches when another word intervenes between the head noun and its modifying adjective stems from weakened gender feature activation, (2) whether a gender-marked determiner enhances this activation, and (3) whether Age of Onset of Bilingualism (AOB) plays a role in this activation. Fifty-three English-dominant heritage speakers of Spanish and a comparison group of 32 Spanish-dominant monolingually raised speakers read sentences with and without gender agreement mismatches while their eye movements were monitored. Sentences contained mismatches in adjectives modified by the intensifier “muy” under two conditions: a No Cue condition (e.g., árboles muy altos/*altas) and a Cue condition with a gender-marked determiner (e.g., unos árboles muy altos/*altas). Statistical modeling of the eye-tracking data suggests similar effects for both groups in the No Cue condition, but AOB and proficiency modulated sensitivity for heritage speakers with a later AOB (4–6). Gender cues on the determiner (Cue condition) impacted the time course of agreement processing for all groups, the total time spent reading mismatches for all heritage speakers as a function of proficiency, and the rereading time for heritage speakers with a later AOB (4–9). We consider the role of Age of Onset of Bilingualism (AOB) and proficiency in morphosyntactic processing, feature retrieval, and cue facilitation in heritage language processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Processing in Spanish Heritage Speakers)

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25 pages, 2054 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Perception and Interpretation of Contrastive Pitch Accent During Spoken Language Processing in Autistic Children

by Pumpki Lei Su, Duane G. Watson, Stephen Camarata and James Bodfish

Languages 2025, 10(7), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10070161 - 28 Jun 2025

Viewed by 915

Abstract

Although prosodic differences in autistic individuals have been widely documented, little is known about their ability to perceive and interpret specific prosodic features, such as contrastive pitch accent—a prosodic signal that places emphasis and helps listeners distinguish between competing referents in discourse. This [...] Read more.

Although prosodic differences in autistic individuals have been widely documented, little is known about their ability to perceive and interpret specific prosodic features, such as contrastive pitch accent—a prosodic signal that places emphasis and helps listeners distinguish between competing referents in discourse. This study addresses that gap by investigating the extent to which autistic children can (1) perceive contrastive pitch accent (i.e., discriminate contrastive pitch accent differences in speech); (2) interpret contrastive pitch accent (i.e., use prosodic cues to guide real-time language comprehension); and (3) the extent to which their ability to interpret contrastive pitch accent is associated with broader language and social communication skills, including receptive prosody, pragmatic language, social communication, and autism severity. Twenty-four autistic children and 24 neurotypical children aged 8 to 14 completed an AX same–different task and a visual-world paradigm task to assess their ability to perceive and interpret contrastive pitch accent. Autistic children demonstrated the ability to perceive and interpret contrastive pitch accent, as evidenced by comparable discrimination ability to neurotypical peers on the AX task and real-time revision of visual attention based on prosodic cues in the visual-world paradigm. However, autistic children showed significantly slower reaction time during the AX task, and a subgroup of autistic children with language impairment showed significantly slower processing of contrastive pitch accent during the visual-world paradigm task. Additionally, speed of contrastive pitch accent processing was significantly associated with pragmatic language skills and autism symptom severity in autistic children. Overall, these findings suggest that while autistic children as a group are able to discriminate prosodic forms and interpret the pragmatic function of contrastive pitch accent during spoken language comprehension, differences in prosody processing in autistic children may be reflected not in accuracy, but in speed of processing measures and in specific subgroups defined by language ability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)

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6 pages, 198 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReply

Response to Open Peer Commentaries of Hulstijn’s (2024) Update of BLC Theory

by Jan Hulstijn

Languages 2025, 10(5), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050111 - 12 May 2025

Viewed by 1186

Abstract

In this article, I respond to six peer commentaries of my essay in Languages 2024, containing an update of BLC Theory. I address the following issues: embedding BLC Theory in more than one metatheory; the match between the theory and usage-based models; the [...] Read more.

In this article, I respond to six peer commentaries of my essay in Languages 2024, containing an update of BLC Theory. I address the following issues: embedding BLC Theory in more than one metatheory; the match between the theory and usage-based models; the importance of processing pressures; the distinction between BLC and ELC; the study of heritage languages; the roles of cognitive factors in L1 and L2 attainment. Full article

6 pages, 207 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommentary

On “Local Theory” Neutrality with Respect to “Meta-Theories” and Data from a Diversity of “Native Speakers”, Including Heritage Speaker Bilinguals: Commentary on Hulstijn (2024)

by Jason Rothman, Fatih Bayram, Jiuzhou Hao and Patrick Rebuschat

Languages 2025, 10(5), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050098 - 30 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 635

Abstract

This commentary critically engages with Hulstijn’s revised Basic Language Cognition (BLC) Theory, which aims to enhance explanatory power and falsifiability regarding individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency across native and non-native speakers. While commending BLC Theory’s emphasis on separating oral and written language [...] Read more.

This commentary critically engages with Hulstijn’s revised Basic Language Cognition (BLC) Theory, which aims to enhance explanatory power and falsifiability regarding individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency across native and non-native speakers. While commending BLC Theory’s emphasis on separating oral and written language cognition, we raise two key concerns. First, we question the theory’s exclusive alignment with usage-based approaches, arguing that its core constructs are, in principle, compatible with multiple meta-theoretical frameworks, including generative ones. As such, BLC Theory should remain neutral to maximize its cross-paradigmatic utility. Second, we address the theory’s treatment of heritage speaker bilinguals (HSs), particularly the implication that they may not typically acquire BLC. We contend that this position overlooks robust empirical evidence demonstrating that HSs develop systematic, rule-governed grammars influenced by their individual input and usage conditions. Moreover, we highlight how IDs among HSs can provide a valuable testing ground for BLC Theory, particularly regarding the role of input and literacy. We conclude that embracing theory neutrality and integrating diverse speaker data—especially from heritage bilinguals—can enhance BLC Theory’s generalizability, empirical relevance, and theoretical utility across language acquisition research. Full article

33 pages, 3118 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Preschoolers Mark Focus Types Through Multimodal Prominence: Further Evidence for the Precursor Role of Gestures

by Sara Coego, Núria Esteve-Gibert and Pilar Prieto

Languages 2025, 10(5), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050092 - 26 Apr 2025

Viewed by 1034

Abstract

The present cross-sectional study assessed the role of multimodal cues in marking focus types during early childhood, focusing on prosodic prominence, gesture presence, and gestural prominence. A total of 116 Catalan-speaking three-, four- and five-year-olds participated in a semi-controlled interactive task eliciting words [...] Read more.

The present cross-sectional study assessed the role of multimodal cues in marking focus types during early childhood, focusing on prosodic prominence, gesture presence, and gestural prominence. A total of 116 Catalan-speaking three-, four- and five-year-olds participated in a semi-controlled interactive task eliciting words in three focus conditions: information, contrastive, and corrective. The data were coded manually using holistic assessments for all three measures. The results indicated, first, that children’s prosodic and gestural behavior was key in marking corrective focus. A significant tendency to use more gestures and increase both prosodic and gestural prominence was found in the corrective focus condition across the three age groups. Second, a developmental difference emerged in the acquisition of contrastive focus. Three-year-olds relied solely on gesture presence to encode contrastive focus, being unable to differentiate it prosodically from information focus. In turn, four- and five-year-olds used both gestures and prosody, with contrastive focus not only receiving more gestures than information focus but also increased prosodic prominence. This finding shows that gesture presence is a precursor to prosodic prominence in marking contrastive focus in Catalan, thus supporting the idea that gesture production can bootstrap the expression of focus type distinctions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)

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17 pages, 1503 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Influence of Language Experience on Speech Perception: Heritage Spanish Speaker Perception of Contrastive and Allophonic Consonants

by Amanda Boomershine and Keith Johnson

Languages 2025, 10(5), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10050086 - 23 Apr 2025

Viewed by 1081

Abstract

It is well known that a listener’s native phonological background has an impact on how speech sounds are perceived. Native speakers can distinguish sounds that serve a contrastive function in their language better than sounds that are not contrastive. However, the role of [...] Read more.

It is well known that a listener’s native phonological background has an impact on how speech sounds are perceived. Native speakers can distinguish sounds that serve a contrastive function in their language better than sounds that are not contrastive. However, the role of allophony in speech perception is understudied, especially among heritage speakers. This paper highlights a study that directly tests the influence of the allophonic/phonemic distinction on perception by Spanish heritage speakers, comparing their results to those of late bilingual and monolingual speakers of Spanish and English in the US. Building on an earlier study, the unique contribution of this paper is a study of the perceptual pattern shown by heritage speakers of Spanish and a comparison of bilingual and monolingual speakers of English and Spanish. The participants completed a similarity rating task with stimuli containing VCV sequences with the intervocalic consonants [d], [ð], and [ɾ]. The heritage speakers, who are early sequential bilinguals of Spanish and English, showed a perceptual pattern that is more like monolingual Spanish listeners than monolingual English listeners, but still intermediate between the two monolingual groups. Specifically, they perceived [d]/[ɾ] like the L1 Spanish participants, treating them as very different sounds. They perceived the pair [d]/[ð], which is contrastive in English but allophonic in Spanish, like the L1 Spanish participants, as fairly similar sounds. Finally, heritage speakers perceived [ɾ]/[ð], contrastive in both languages, as very different sounds, identical to all other participant groups. The results underscore both the importance of surface oppositions, suggesting the need to reconsider the traditional definition of contrast, as well as the importance of considering level and age of exposure to the second language when studying the perception of sounds by bilingual speakers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phonetics and Phonology of Ibero-Romance Languages)

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6 pages, 195 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceCommentary

Rethinking Language Proficiency: Commentary on Hulstijn (2024)

by Lourdes Ortega and Shu-Ling Wu

Languages 2025, 10(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040058 - 24 Mar 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1017

Abstract

We enjoyed reading Jan Hustijn’s update of his Basic Language Cognition (BLC) theory in the pages of Languages (Hulstijn, 2024), and we are honored to provide a commentary here. Researchers, language learners, and educators hold varying definitions and understandings of language proficiency. Innovative [...] Read more.

We enjoyed reading Jan Hustijn’s update of his Basic Language Cognition (BLC) theory in the pages of Languages (Hulstijn, 2024), and we are honored to provide a commentary here. Researchers, language learners, and educators hold varying definitions and understandings of language proficiency. Innovative work that helps researchers in the field rethink proficiency is therefore of utmost importance. Hulstijn’s BLC theory offers a clear, well-motivated, and comprehensive framework for investigating what language proficiency may be, what ceilings there may be in what can be attained, and what causes there may be for attainment differences. Hulstijn tells us that BLC rests on a metatheory (i.e., a foundation of assumptions) of language and language learning grounded in two areas familiar to most scholars in second language acquisition (SLA): usage-based linguistics and complex systems. He offers BLC as a theory, that is, a tool to empirically investigate the causation and development of a phenomenon, in this case, proficiency, through a well-articulated research program. In this commentary, we highlight some aspects of the updated BLC theory that we find most useful. Following the Popperian spirit embraced by Hulstijn, we also introduce some critical probes subjects for refinements that may benefit BLC theory in the future. Full article

19 pages, 4897 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceTutorial

Applying Mixed-Effects Models in Research on Second Language Acquisition: A Tutorial for Beginners

by Marc Brysbaert

Languages 2025, 10(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10020020 - 23 Jan 2025

Viewed by 7456

Abstract

Mixed-effects models have become indispensable tools for analyzing data in second language acquisition (SLA) research. This tutorial offers a step-by-step guide to conducting mixed-effects analyses for simple designs using the gamlj package in jamovi, a user-friendly, free statistical software. We begin by discussing [...] Read more.

Mixed-effects models have become indispensable tools for analyzing data in second language acquisition (SLA) research. This tutorial offers a step-by-step guide to conducting mixed-effects analyses for simple designs using the gamlj package in jamovi, a user-friendly, free statistical software. We begin by discussing the advantages of mixed-effects modeling over traditional methods, particularly for SLA data, and the rationale for focusing on simple designs. Subsequently, we introduce the gamlj package, highlighting its intuitive interface and error-prevention features. To illustrate the application of the package, we employ toy datasets that can be easily replicated and used with other statistical software. By providing a clear and accessible approach, this tutorial empowers SLA researchers to effectively analyze their data and draw meaningful conclusions. Full article

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21 pages, 818 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Comparative Analysis of Language Skills and Parent–Child Interactions in Monolingual and Bilingual Children Born Preterm

by Kimberly Crespo, Emma Libersky, Julie Poehlmann and Margarita Kaushanskaya

Languages 2024, 9(12), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9120361 - 26 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2387

Abstract

Children born preterm are at an elevated risk of language delays compared to children born full-term. However, there is a dearth of research investigating language outcomes in premature children exposed to more than one language. There is also limited empirical evidence linking the [...] Read more.

Children born preterm are at an elevated risk of language delays compared to children born full-term. However, there is a dearth of research investigating language outcomes in premature children exposed to more than one language. There is also limited empirical evidence linking the quantity and quality of parent input and language outcomes in premature children and the strength of these relationships in bilingual contexts remains unknown. Therefore, the current study examined language skills, parent input, conversational turns, and their associations at 16 months to 36 months in monolingual and bilingual children born preterm. Nine English-speaking monolingual parent–child dyads, and nine Spanish–English bilingual parent–child dyads participated in parent–child interactions that occurred over time in play-based contexts. Results revealed that preterm monolingual and bilingual children exhibited similar language abilities at all time points assessed. While both monolingual and bilingual dyads engaged in a comparable number of conversational turns at 16 m, monolingual mothers produced more words than bilingual mothers during play. Significant associations were observed between children’s vocabulary skills and their ability to combine words within and across most time points. Notably, relationships between parental input, conversational turns, and language skills were limited to a significant association between conversational turns at 16 m and vocabulary skills at 24 m. Together, findings indicate that bilingual children born preterm acquire language on the same timeline as monolingual children born preterm. While it is crucial that the current work be replicated in larger samples of children born preterm, the current work is the first to compare relationships between children’s language outcomes and the quantity and quality of parental input in monolingual and bilingual contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Language Input Effects in Atypical Language Development)

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22 pages, 2401 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Corpus-Based Study of Spatial Frames of References in Early Child Mandarin Chinese

by Dandan Wu, Sheila Degotardi, Hui Li and Nga Yui Tong

Languages 2024, 9(10), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9100318 - 30 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1597

Abstract

This study examines the developmental pattern of spatial frames of reference (FoRs) in Chinese preschoolers using the naturalistic data elicited from the Beijing Early Childhood Mandarin Corpus. Altogether, 2837 static spatial sentences were identified from the corpus, and 785 of them used [...] Read more.

This study examines the developmental pattern of spatial frames of reference (FoRs) in Chinese preschoolers using the naturalistic data elicited from the Beijing Early Childhood Mandarin Corpus. Altogether, 2837 static spatial sentences were identified from the corpus, and 785 of them used FoRs; thus, they were analysed using the seven-class FoRs coding system developed from the literature review. The results indicated that: (1) six classes were produced by the Beijing preschoolers, including the direct reference (DR), geomorphic reference (GR), landmark-based reference (LBR), object-centred reference (OCR), relative reference (RR), and people-centred reference (PCR). But, the absolute reference (AR) frequently used by Beijing adults was not produced by the preschoolers; (2) significant age differences were found in the utterances with reference and demonstrative sentences and were also identified in the production of OCR, PCR, and RR; (3) there were no significant gender or gender x age effects in the production of FoRs, except for the no-frame sentences; and (4) there was a stable and consistent pattern of FoRs allocation by age, and the most frequently used was OCR. All these findings indicate interactions among language, culture, and cognition. Full article

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18 pages, 442 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mothers’ Education, Family Language Policy, and Hebrew Plural Formation among Bilingual and Monolingual Children

by Julia Reznick and Sharon Armon-Lotem

Languages 2024, 9(9), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9090300 - 13 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1980

Abstract

The present study examines the role of maternal years of education and family language policy (FLP) in monolingual and bilingual children’s acquisition of Hebrew plural morphology. The case of the Hebrew plural system is especially interesting when examining the influence of the above [...] Read more.

The present study examines the role of maternal years of education and family language policy (FLP) in monolingual and bilingual children’s acquisition of Hebrew plural morphology. The case of the Hebrew plural system is especially interesting when examining the influence of the above factors on morphological performance, given that it demands both a mastery of morphological rules (characterized by a high degree of transparency in Hebrew) and a lexicon-based mastery of exceptions. Participants were 146 children, 74 bilinguals (heritage language: Russian; societal language: Hebrew) and 72 Hebrew monolinguals, aged 5–8 (kindergarten, first grade, and second grade), from the same schools and neighborhoods. A Hebrew pluralization, sentence completion task that included 99 items from two categories: fully regular words whose plural forms are based on a morphological rule and non-regular words whose plural forms (also) require lexical and/or morpho-lexical knowledge. The parents of the bilingual children filled out a questionnaire with questions on background variables (e.g., maternal education) and language practice in both languages by different family members and language use at home. The findings indicated that maternal education contributes differently and distinctly to the linguistic performance of children from different linguistic backgrounds. For monolingual children, an increase in the number of years of maternal education is associated with an increase in the likelihood of success in the lexical and morpho-lexical aspects of Hebrew. By contrast, for bilingual children, no significant contribution of maternal education to children’s performance was found. For bilingual participants, their performance in the lexical and morpho-lexical aspects of the Hebrew plural system was consistently influenced by FLP across all school settings—increased use of Russian at home was associated with a lower likelihood of success in the societal language. FLP characteristics were not found to be related to maternal education. These findings have clinical implications for both assessment and intervention processes when working with bilingual children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Methods for Exploring the Role of Input in Child Bilingual Development)

18 pages, 3241 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Once I Caught a Fish Alive: Numerical Phrases in Child and Adult Heritage Russian

by Natalia Meir and Maria Polinsky

Languages 2024, 9(8), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9080261 - 28 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1336

Abstract

This paper investigates the production of numerically-quantified phrases (NQPs) by monolingual and bilingual speakers of Russian, with Hebrew as the dominant language for the latter group. Russian NQPs exhibit a complex system of noun forms, distinguishing between singular (odin gorod ‘one city’), [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the production of numerically-quantified phrases (NQPs) by monolingual and bilingual speakers of Russian, with Hebrew as the dominant language for the latter group. Russian NQPs exhibit a complex system of noun forms, distinguishing between singular (odin gorod ‘one city’), paucal (dva goroda ‘two cities’), and plural (pjat’ gorodov ‘five cities’); the endings of paucal and plural nouns vary depending on nominal declension class, which in turn correlates with gender. Adult and child bilinguals dominant in Hebrew (n = 37 and n = 27, respectively) were compared to monolingual Russian-speaking controls (n = 21 and n = 20, respectively). Production data were collected using a numeral-noun elicitation task, which involved eliciting 24 numerical phrases manipulated for gender (masculine, feminine) and number (paucal, plural). Compared to the monolingual controls, the bilinguals showed lower accuracy, with oversuppliance of nominative plural endings and overtly marked genitive plural endings. These non-target responses indicate the reliance on default forms and phonetically salient inflections, confirming that these factors influence non-target attainment in bilingual (heritage) grammars. The amount of exposure to Russian (as measured by age of bilingualism onset and proficiency) influenced performance significantly, underscoring the role of input in shaping bilingual grammars. The production of NQPs by Hebrew-dominant Russian speakers was similar to that by English-dominant Russian speakers as reported in previous studies, which may appear surprising given that Hebrew is characterized by richer morphology than English, and that may play a role in the maintenance of morphology in the weaker language. We offer some considerations for this lack of effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Russian Bilingualism across the Lifespan)

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15 pages, 1693 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of Manner of Articulation and Syllable Affiliation on Tongue Configuration for Catalan Stop–Liquid and Liquid–Stop Sequences: An Ultrasound Study

by Daniel Recasens

Languages 2024, 9(7), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9070233 - 27 Jun 2024

Viewed by 3131

Abstract

The present study reports tongue configuration data recorded with ultrasound for two sets of consonant sequences uttered by five native Catalan speakers. Articulatory data for the onset cluster pairs [kl]-[ɣl] and [kɾ]-[ɣɾ], and also for [l#k]-[l#ɣ] and [r#k]-[r#ɣ], analyzed in the first part [...] Read more.

The present study reports tongue configuration data recorded with ultrasound for two sets of consonant sequences uttered by five native Catalan speakers. Articulatory data for the onset cluster pairs [kl]-[ɣl] and [kɾ]-[ɣɾ], and also for [l#k]-[l#ɣ] and [r#k]-[r#ɣ], analyzed in the first part of the investigation revealed that, as a general rule, the (shorter) velar approximant is less constricted than the (longer) voiceless velar stop at the velar and palatal zones while exhibiting a more retracted tongue body at the pharynx. These manner of articulation-dependent differences may extend into the preceding liquid. Data for [k#l]-[kl] and [k#r]-[kɾ] dealt with in the second part of the study show that the velar is articulated with more tongue body retraction for [k#l] vs. [kl] and for [k#r] vs. [kɾ], and with a higher tongue dorsum for [k#l] vs. [kl] and the reverse for [k#r] vs. [kɾ]. Therefore, clusters are produced with a more extreme lingual configuration across a word boundary than in syllable-onset position, which at least in part may be predicted by segmental factors for the [k#r]-[kɾ] pair. These articulatory data are compared with duration data for all sequence pairs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phonetics and Phonology of Ibero-Romance Languages)

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11 pages, 348 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceEssay

Predictions of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Native and Non-Native Languages: An Update of BLC Theory

by Jan Hulstijn

Languages 2024, 9(5), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9050173 - 10 May 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 10088

Abstract

BLC Theory proposes that individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency (in both native and non-native speakers) can poorly be mapped on a single proficiency scale. Instead, IDs can best be understood and studied in terms of two fundamentally different dimensions: (1) the cognition [...] Read more.

BLC Theory proposes that individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency (in both native and non-native speakers) can poorly be mapped on a single proficiency scale. Instead, IDs can best be understood and studied in terms of two fundamentally different dimensions: (1) the cognition of oral language (receptive and productive speech processing) and (2) the cognition of the written language (reading and writing). This paper presents an update of BLC Theory placed under a non-nativist, usage-based, neural-network metatheory of language as a complex system. The paper includes predictions for the absence or presence of IDs in the oral and written domains, separately for native and non-native speakers. The theory predicts that while cognitive factors such as executive functions, non-verbal memory, and intelligence positively affect the acquisition of reading and writing skills in both native and non-native speakers, they do not play a significant role in the acquisition of speech processing in either native or non-native speakers. Contrary to folk wisdom, one does not need to be particularly intelligent to learn to understand and produce speech in a non-native language. Attention is given to typological differences between children’s home language(s) and the standard language(s) of literacy. Full article

14 pages, 621 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Re-Thinking the Principles of (Vocabulary) Learning and Their Applications

by Paul Nation

Languages 2024, 9(5), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9050160 - 26 Apr 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 10224

Abstract

Making vocabulary stick in your memory involves dedicating attention to what needs to be learned. There are three main factors involved (focus, quantity, and quality) which can be expressed as six principles (focus, accuracy, repetition, time-on-task, elaboration, and analysis). When we include motivation [...] Read more.

Making vocabulary stick in your memory involves dedicating attention to what needs to be learned. There are three main factors involved (focus, quantity, and quality) which can be expressed as six principles (focus, accuracy, repetition, time-on-task, elaboration, and analysis). When we include motivation in this description, then there are two more principles (motivation and self-efficacy). These principles apply to both incidental and deliberate learning, and apply to a wide range of learning focuses beyond vocabulary. These principles are well supported by research evidence. We can use the principles for re-examining teaching and learning, Technique Feature Analysis, understanding research, developing autonomy in learning, guiding curriculum design, and determining future research needs. The factors and principles provide a simple and clear view of what is needed for learning to occur from the viewpoint of attention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vocabulary Studies in L1 and L2 Development: The Interface between Theory and Practice)

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50 pages, 2417 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

A Systematic Review of Eye-Tracking Technology in Second Language Research

by Xin Hu and Vahid Aryadoust

Languages 2024, 9(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040141 - 12 Apr 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8403

Abstract

Eye-tracking has become increasingly popular in second language (L2) research. In this study, we systematically reviewed 111 eye-tracking studies published in 17 L2 journals to explore the application and replicability of eye-tracking technology in L2 research. The results revealed eight areas of application [...] Read more.

Eye-tracking has become increasingly popular in second language (L2) research. In this study, we systematically reviewed 111 eye-tracking studies published in 17 L2 journals to explore the application and replicability of eye-tracking technology in L2 research. The results revealed eight areas of application of eye-tracking in L2 research, among which grammar and vocabulary were the most frequently examined lines of inquiry. We also identified three types of cognitive mechanisms investigated in L2 eye-tracking studies: attention, higher cognitive processes, and cognitive load. Attention was predominantly measured via fixation temporal indices, while higher cognitive processes were frequently measured by using fixation count and fixation temporal measures. In addition, the measures adopted to assess cognitive load mainly depended on the task type. Finally, with respect to the replicability of the studies, transparent reporting practices were evaluated based on 33 features of replicable studies. We found that more than 95% of the reviewed studies reported less than 70% of the information essential for future replication studies. We suggest that the reporting of the information critical to conducting replicable L2 eye-tracking research needs improvement in transparency and completeness. The implications of this study are discussed. Full article

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26 pages, 512 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Age Variables in Family Language Policy

by Karen Rose, Sharon Armon-Lotem and Carmit Altman

Languages 2024, 9(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9040139 - 12 Apr 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4219

Abstract

Family language policy (FLP) provides a critical framework to explain the planning of language use in the home. It constitutes a dynamic construct that sheds light on variations in the language acquisition of bilingual children, potentially explaining the shifts that may occur in [...] Read more.

Family language policy (FLP) provides a critical framework to explain the planning of language use in the home. It constitutes a dynamic construct that sheds light on variations in the language acquisition of bilingual children, potentially explaining the shifts that may occur in language dominance and preference. The environment and life experiences are thought to shape FLP, yet little is known about the function of age. This study examines the association of FLP with children’s chronological age and the age they become bilingual. Data were collected via questionnaires from parents and their bilingual children (n = 82) aged 5.08–14.08 (M = 8.98, SD = 3.27) speaking English (heritage language) and Hebrew (societal language). Correlations and logistic regressions indicate a relationship between FLP and dimensions of age. Findings reveal that age may have repercussions for parent language beliefs, patterns of language use within the home, and the adoption of language promotion strategies. Younger children and children with a later age of onset of bilingualism are associated with families who lean towards a pro-heritage language FLP. Considering dimensions of age enhances our understanding of FLP and may offer a greater insight into how languages are supported in the bilingual home. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Methods for Exploring the Role of Input in Child Bilingual Development)

19 pages, 5769 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Utterance-Final Voice Quality in American English and Mexican Spanish Bilinguals

by Claudia Duarte-Borquez, Maxine Van Doren and Marc Garellek

Languages 2024, 9(3), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9030070 - 21 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4215

Abstract

We investigate utterance-final voice quality in bilinguals of English and Spanish, two languages which differ in the type of non-modal voice usually encountered at ends of utterances: American English often has phrase-final creak, whereas in Mexican Spanish, phrase-final voiced sounds are breathy or [...] Read more.

We investigate utterance-final voice quality in bilinguals of English and Spanish, two languages which differ in the type of non-modal voice usually encountered at ends of utterances: American English often has phrase-final creak, whereas in Mexican Spanish, phrase-final voiced sounds are breathy or even devoiced. Twenty-one bilinguals from the San Diego-Tijuana border region were recorded (with electroglottography and audio) reading passages in English and Spanish. Ends of utterances were coded for their visual voice quality as “modal” (having no aspiration noise or voicing irregularity), “breathy” (having aspiration noise), “creaky” (having voicing irregularity), or “breathy-creaky” (having both aspiration noise and voicing irregularity). In utterance-final position, speakers showed more frequent use of both modal and creaky voice when speaking in English, and more frequent use of breathy and breathy-creaky voice when speaking in Spanish. We find no role of language dominance on the rates of these four voice qualities. The electroglottographic and acoustic analyses show that all voice qualities, even utterance-final creak, are produced with increased glottal spreading; the combination of distinct noise measures and amplitude of voicing can distinguish breathy, creaky, and breathy-creaky voice qualities from one another, and from modal voice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Prosody in Shared Linguistic Spaces of the Spanish-Speaking World)

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21 pages, 1360 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

by Daniel Williams, Turgut Ağabeyoğlu, Adamantios Gafos and Paola Escudero

Languages 2024, 9(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020062 - 14 Feb 2024

Viewed by 3046

Abstract

When encountering an unfamiliar accent, a hypothesized perceptual challenge is associating its phonetic realizations with the intended phonemic categories. Greater accumulated exposure to the language might afford richer representations of phonetic variants, thereby increasing the chance of detecting unfamiliar accent speakers’ intended phonemes. [...] Read more.

When encountering an unfamiliar accent, a hypothesized perceptual challenge is associating its phonetic realizations with the intended phonemic categories. Greater accumulated exposure to the language might afford richer representations of phonetic variants, thereby increasing the chance of detecting unfamiliar accent speakers’ intended phonemes. The present study examined the extent to which the detection of vowel phonemes spoken in an unfamiliar regional accent of English is facilitated or hindered depending on their acoustic similarity to vowels produced in a familiar accent. Monolinguals, experienced bilinguals and native German second-language (L2) learners completed a phoneme detection task. Based on duration and formant trajectory information, unfamiliar accent speakers’ vowels were classed as acoustically “similar” or “dissimilar” to counterpart phonemes in the familiar accent. All three participant groups were substantially less sensitive to the phonemic identities of “dissimilar” compared to “similar” vowels. Unlike monolinguals and bilinguals, L2 learners showed a response shift for “dissimilar” vowels, reflecting a cautious approach to these items. Monolinguals displayed somewhat heightened sensitivity compared to bilinguals, suggesting that greater accumulated exposure aided phoneme detection for both “similar” and “dissimilar” vowels. Overall, acoustic similarity predicted the relative success of detecting vowel phonemes in cross-dialectal speech perception across groups with varied linguistic backgrounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue An Acoustic Analysis of Vowels)

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15 pages, 1317 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Monitoring Engagement in the Foreign Language Classroom: Learners’ Perspectives

by Bradford J. Lee, Hayo Reinders and Euan Bonner

Languages 2024, 9(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020053 - 31 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3507

Abstract

Over the last three years, we have engaged in the development of a web-based mobile application called Classmoto that uses the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) to measure cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement in near real-time, with minimal disruption to the teaching and learning [...] Read more.

Over the last three years, we have engaged in the development of a web-based mobile application called Classmoto that uses the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) to measure cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement in near real-time, with minimal disruption to the teaching and learning experience. The current study implemented Classmoto in an intact university language class in a Japanese university for an entire semester. We focused on learners’ experiences of using the app for two purposes: (1) to determine its face validity, and (2) to identify any constraints on and benefits from its practical application in an authentic pedagogic context, from the learners’ perspective. The results show that the instrument was able to measure the three sub-domains of engagement, as designed. In addition, participants praised the ESM for (a) giving them an opportunity for self-reflection, and (b) enabling the instructor to react to the students’ feedback instantaneously, with no negative feedback reported. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redefining Second Language Acquisition: Multimodal Theory and Practice)

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22 pages, 478 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Processing of Multiword Units by Learners of English: Evidence from Pause Placement in Writing Process Data

by Gaëtanelle Gilquin

Languages 2024, 9(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020051 - 30 Jan 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2942

Abstract

Different methods and sources of information have been proposed in the literature to study the processing of language and, in particular, instances of formulaic language such as multiword units. This article explores the possibility of using pause placement in writing process data to [...] Read more.

Different methods and sources of information have been proposed in the literature to study the processing of language and, in particular, instances of formulaic language such as multiword units. This article explores the possibility of using pause placement in writing process data to determine the likelihood that a multiword unit is processed as a whole in the mind. The data are texts produced by learners of English and corresponding keylog files from the Process Corpus of English in Education (PROCEED). N-grams are selected on the basis of the finished texts and retrieved from the keylogging data. The pause placement patterns of these n-grams are coded and serve as a basis to compute the Pause Placement and Processing (PPP) score. This score relies on the assumption that n-grams which are delineated but not interrupted by pauses (hence taking the form of ‘bursts of writing’) are more likely to be processed holistically. The PPP score points to structurally complete n-grams such as in fact and first of all as being more likely to be processed holistically than structurally incomplete n-grams such as that we and to the. While the results are plausible and can be further substantiated by characteristics of specific n-grams, it is acknowledged that additional effects might also be at work to explain the results obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adult and Child Sentence Processing When Reading or Writing)

30 pages, 2427 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Language Experience in the Acquisition of Spanish Gender Agreement: A Study with Nonce Nouns

by Silvina Montrul, Sara Ann Mason and Andrew Armstrong

Languages 2024, 9(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9020045 - 26 Jan 2024

Viewed by 3223

Abstract

Why is learning the gender of nouns so difficult for some bilinguals? We test the hypothesis that different language learning backgrounds or life experience with Spanish determine how learners follow different morphosyntactic cues for gender assignment in Spanish by testing learners with early [...] Read more.

Why is learning the gender of nouns so difficult for some bilinguals? We test the hypothesis that different language learning backgrounds or life experience with Spanish determine how learners follow different morphosyntactic cues for gender assignment in Spanish by testing learners with early and late language experience in an experiment with invented nouns. A total of 44 monolingually raised native speakers, 44 heritage speakers, and 44 L2 learners of Spanish were trained to learn 24 nonce words in Spanish presented in four input conditions that manipulated the number and type of cues to gender marking (determiner, word marker, adjective). After the learning sessions, the participants completed a word naming task, an elicited production task, and a debriefing questionnaire. The L2 learners were different than native speakers and heritage speakers in learning nonce nouns. They used morphosyntactic cues differently, relying on adjectives as their most-used strategy to assign gender, unlike native speakers and heritage speakers who used all cues. Our findings confirm processing differences between L2 learners and heritage speakers and suggest language learning background determines how learners discover reliable morphosyntactic cues to the gender of nouns in the input. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Approaches to the Acquisition of Heritage Spanish)

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20 pages, 1052 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Impact of Non-Native Language Input on Bilingual Children’s Language Skills

by Milijana Buac and Margarita Kaushanskaya

Languages 2023, 8(4), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040277 - 23 Nov 2023

Viewed by 5374

Abstract

We assessed the impact of non-native language input on Spanish–English bilingual preschool-age children’s language skills. Most participants (96%) had language skills within the average range. We examined whether the number of native English speakers, the number of non-native English speakers, the strength of [...] Read more.

We assessed the impact of non-native language input on Spanish–English bilingual preschool-age children’s language skills. Most participants (96%) had language skills within the average range. We examined whether the number of native English speakers, the number of non-native English speakers, the strength of foreign accent in English, intelligibility (percent intelligible utterances), syntax/morphology (mean length of utterance in morphemes), and grammatical errors were related to children’s overall language skills. The results revealed that the number of native English speakers and intelligibility in English positively predicted children’s language skills while the number of non-native English speakers and the strength of foreign accent in English negatively predicted children’s language skills. None of the grammatical measures predicted children’s language skills. These findings indicate that non-native input can be associated with less robust language skills, but non-native input is not in fact detrimental to language development for neurotypical preschool-age children given their within-average language scores. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Trends and Future Directions in Bilingual Language Acquisition)

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16 pages, 1603 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exploring the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Facilitating Assessment of Writing Performance in Second Language Learning

by Zilu Jiang, Zexin Xu, Zilong Pan, Jingwen He and Kui Xie

Languages 2023, 8(4), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8040247 - 23 Oct 2023

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6897

Abstract

This study examined the robustness and efficiency of four large language models (LLMs), GPT-4, GPT-3.5, iFLYTEK and Baidu Cloud, in assessing the writing accuracy of the Chinese language. Writing samples were collected from students in an online high school Chinese language learning program [...] Read more.

This study examined the robustness and efficiency of four large language models (LLMs), GPT-4, GPT-3.5, iFLYTEK and Baidu Cloud, in assessing the writing accuracy of the Chinese language. Writing samples were collected from students in an online high school Chinese language learning program in the US. The official APIs of the LLMs were utilized to conduct analyses at both the T-unit and sentence levels. Performance metrics were employed to evaluate the LLMs’ performance. The LLM results were compared to human rating results. Content analysis was conducted to categorize error types and highlight the discrepancies between human and LLM ratings. Additionally, the efficiency of each model was evaluated. The results indicate that GPT models and iFLYTEK achieved similar accuracy scores, with GPT-4 excelling in precision. These findings provide insights into the potential of LLMs in supporting the assessment of writing accuracy for language learners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using ChatGPT in Language Learning)

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24 pages, 4623 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Singing Songs Facilitates L2 Pronunciation and Vocabulary Learning: A Study with Chinese Adolescent ESL Learners

by Yuan Zhang, Florence Baills and Pilar Prieto

Languages 2023, 8(3), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8030219 - 18 Sep 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 11818

Abstract

The present study assesses the effect of a three-session classroom-based training program involving singing songs with familiar melodies on second-language pronunciation and vocabulary learning. Ninety-five adolescent Chinese ESL learners (M = 14.04 years) were assigned to one of two groups. Participants learned [...] Read more.

The present study assesses the effect of a three-session classroom-based training program involving singing songs with familiar melodies on second-language pronunciation and vocabulary learning. Ninety-five adolescent Chinese ESL learners (M = 14.04 years) were assigned to one of two groups. Participants learned the lyrics in English of three songs whose melodies were familiar to them either by singing or reciting the lyrics, following a native English singer/instructor. Before and after training, participants performed two vocabulary tasks (picture-naming and word meaning recall tasks) and two pronunciation tasks (word and sentence oral-reading tasks). The results revealed that although both groups showed gains in vocabulary and pronunciation after training, the singing group outperformed the speech group. These findings support the value of using songs with familiar melodies to teach second languages at the early stages of learning in an ESL classroom context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redefining Second Language Acquisition: Multimodal Theory and Practice)

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20 pages, 2352 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Investigating Adaptation to And-Coordination in English: An ERP Study

by Edith Kaan

Languages 2023, 8(3), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8030207 - 2 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2332

Abstract

According to certain approaches to adaptation, readers and listeners quickly adjust their processing of sentences to match properties of recently encountered sentences. The present preregistered study used ERP (event-related brain potentials) to investigate how and when readers change their processing in response to [...] Read more.

According to certain approaches to adaptation, readers and listeners quickly adjust their processing of sentences to match properties of recently encountered sentences. The present preregistered study used ERP (event-related brain potentials) to investigate how and when readers change their processing in response to recent exposure to sentences of a particular structure. We presented English speakers (n = 36) with three virtual blocks of English sentences with and-coordination ambiguities. In the first and third block, the ambiguity was always resolved towards a noun phrase (NP-) coordination; in the second block, the structure was always a clausal (S-) coordination. We manipulated the plausibility of the critical noun after the conjunct. N400 and P600 plausibility effects were probed to see to what extent the reader preferred an NP- coordination or expected the sentence to continue differently. Our results suggest that readers change their processing as a function of recent exposure but that they do not immediately adapt to the target structure. Furthermore, we observed substantial individual variation in the type and change in response over the course of the study. The idea that structural adaptation is immediate and a direct reflection of the properties of the recent context therefore needs to be fine-tuned. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Syntactic Adaptation)

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22 pages, 1699 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

I Don’t Think You like Me: Examining Metaperceptions of Interpersonal Liking in Second Language Academic Interaction

by Pavel Trofimovich, Rachael Lindberg, Anamaria Bodea, Thao-Nguyen Nina Le, Chaoqun Zheng and Kim McDonough

Languages 2023, 8(3), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8030200 - 29 Aug 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4481

Abstract

People often think about how they are perceived by others, but their perceptions (described as metaperceptions) are frequently off-target. Speakers communicating in their first language demonstrate a robust phenomenon, called the liking gap, where they consistently underestimate how much they are liked by [...] Read more.

People often think about how they are perceived by others, but their perceptions (described as metaperceptions) are frequently off-target. Speakers communicating in their first language demonstrate a robust phenomenon, called the liking gap, where they consistently underestimate how much they are liked by their interlocutors. We extended this research to second language (L2) speakers to determine whether they demonstrate a similar negative bias and if it predicts willingness to engage in future interactions. We paired 76 English L2 university students with a previously unacquainted student to carry out a 10 min academic discussion task in English. After the conversation, students rated each other’s interpersonal liking, speaking skill, and interactional behavior, provided their metaperceptions for their partner’s ratings of the same dimensions, and assessed their willingness to engage in future interaction. We found a reliable interpersonal liking gap for all speakers, along with speaking skill and interaction behavior gaps for female speakers only. Only the female speakers (irrespective of their partner’s gender) seemed to factor metaperceptions into their willingness to engage in future communication. We discuss the implications of these initial findings and call for further work into the role of metaperception in L2 communication. Full article

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18 pages, 3268 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Embracing the Disrupted Language Teaching and Learning Field: Analyzing YouTube Content Creation Related to ChatGPT

by Belle Li, Xiaojing Kou and Curtis J. Bonk

Languages 2023, 8(3), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8030197 - 22 Aug 2023

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 12021

Abstract

Since late 2022, dozens of YouTube channels focusing on a diverse array of topics related to language learning with generative AI tools such as ChatGPT have rapidly emerged. This study explores the implementations and perspectives of YouTube content creators who now constitute an [...] Read more.

Since late 2022, dozens of YouTube channels focusing on a diverse array of topics related to language learning with generative AI tools such as ChatGPT have rapidly emerged. This study explores the implementations and perspectives of YouTube content creators who now constitute an increasingly important segment of the ecosystem of language teaching and learning. A mixed methods netnographic approach was employed, combining qualitative and quantitative techniques. A total of 140 videos were identified and analyzed, and an in-depth content analysis was conducted to uncover underlying themes. Four main categories of creators were identified: educators, learners, technology professionals, and e-learning providers. Educators, especially English and Japanese teachers, were the majority, followed by learners and technology field professionals. This study highlights the benefits, drawbacks, and concerns associated with the integration of AI tools in language learning. By examining this rapidly evolving phenomenon, the study contributes towards an understanding of the role and impact of generative AI tools in language education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Using ChatGPT in Language Learning)

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14 pages, 352 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Culturally Specific Messaging and the Explanation of Contact in Impacted Bilinguals

by Ricardo Otheguy

Languages 2023, 8(3), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8030185 - 3 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1694

Abstract

A sketch is offered of a framework that would abandon the familiar notion of a language and the accompanying question of whether it has changed under contact. The framework would focus instead on speakers and on the linguistic consequences of people contact. Speakers [...] Read more.

A sketch is offered of a framework that would abandon the familiar notion of a language and the accompanying question of whether it has changed under contact. The framework would focus instead on speakers and on the linguistic consequences of people contact. Speakers in contact settings are not failing or deviating from a language’s norm while attempting to say the same things that are said in non-contact settings; rather, they are succeeding at saying different things. New arrivals face vast differences in the conceptualization of referents between their home precursor setting and the new encounter setting. These differences in conceptualization give rise to large numbers of changes in what speakers say. In most cases, these new things they say are just that, new speech or new messaging with no change in the grammar. But in a minority of cases, the new messaging does have linguistic, that is, grammatical consequences. Changes in the grammars of people in contact thus result not only, and perhaps not primarily, from formal copying or modeling but are responses to new conceptualizations prevailing in the new environment. The distinction between expressions reflecting only new conceptualizations, and those reflecting new conceptualizations and new grammar carries theoretical implications for the way linguists think about the grammars of bilinguals. And it carries applied implications for the way educators think about the linguistic performance of bilingual students, especially in social settings where they are minoritized. Data are drawn from the speech of Latin Americans and their descendants in New York City and other U.S. locales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promoting Cross-Cultural Communication in Digital and Non-digital Environments: Language and Intercultural Interaction)

13 pages, 2958 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Beyond Teaching Languages for Communication—Humanistic Perspectives and Practices

by Michael Byram, Melina Porto and Leticia Yulita

Languages 2023, 8(3), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8030166 - 11 Jul 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3968

Abstract

Our purpose is to trace and explain theoretical and practical developments in foreign/world language teaching over the last decade or more. Language teaching in its modern form, from the Reform Movement of the late 19th century, has focused upon the need for learners [...] Read more.

Our purpose is to trace and explain theoretical and practical developments in foreign/world language teaching over the last decade or more. Language teaching in its modern form, from the Reform Movement of the late 19th century, has focused upon the need for learners to learn or acquire a foreign language in order to use it for communication. Other purposes involve language learning as an intellectual exercise, the development of a language faculty, and opening (young) people’s eyes to new worlds by introducing them to other countries. Here, we argue that these purposes are reasonable and enriching, but only if they are combined. We suggest that, by taking a humanistic perspective, language teaching can go beyond communication as a dominant purpose. This humanistic perspective is realised through two complementary developments. One is to emphasise that learners are members of various communities, including their local community, their national community, and a world community. The second is to pay attention to the fact that learners bring to the classroom their concerns and fears, especially in times of crisis. Language teachers, who are not only instructors in skills but educators of the whole person, should respond to their learners’ needs both as denizens of their society and as unique individuals. We first explain the theoretical framework and how it has evolved and then describe two experimental projects, one which focuses on the societal needs and one which adds to this a response to the affective needs of learners. We finally discuss how a recent controversy might be addressed in the language teaching class. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promoting Cross-Cultural Communication in Digital and Non-digital Environments: Language and Intercultural Interaction)

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18 pages, 1155 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Standardization of the Gender Assignment and Agreement Assessment in the Greek Language: Preliminary Evidence from Bilingual Greek—Albanian School Age Children

by Alexandra Prentza, Maria Kaltsa, Dionysios Tafiadis and Ianthi Maria Tsimpli

Languages 2023, 8(2), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8020136 - 26 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2095

Abstract

(1) Background: Given the scarcity of data on the psychometric evaluation of measures used with typically developing Greek-speaking bilinguals, this study aims to present preliminary evidence for the standardization and the psychometric evaluation of a gender assignment and agreement assessment designed for the [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Given the scarcity of data on the psychometric evaluation of measures used with typically developing Greek-speaking bilinguals, this study aims to present preliminary evidence for the standardization and the psychometric evaluation of a gender assignment and agreement assessment designed for the Greek language (henceforth, GAAGL Assessment) employing real and pseudo-words. This is the first study to standardize the GAAGL Assessment and to explore its discriminatory ability with typical populations. (2) Methods: The assessment was designed as part of the BALED project which targeted language skills in bilingual children for whom one language is Greek. For the psychometric evaluation and the exploration of the test’s discriminatory ability we ran a Cronbach’s alpha analysis and a Youden Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) analysis across the domains and sub scores of the test. Our sample consisted of 53 typically developing Greek monolingual children and 57 age-matched Greek–Albanian-speaking bilinguals. (3) Results: The results showed: (a) a high internal consistency for the GAAGL Assessment across its four main tasks and (b) excellent discriminatory ability, since statistically significant positive discrimination was detected between monolingual and bilingual children in the tasks and scores of the GAAGL Assessment. Full article

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28 pages, 6831 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

How Do Foreign Language Learners Process L2 Emotion Words in Silent Reading? An Eye-Tracking Study

by Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs, Suhad Sonbul and Jeanette Altarriba

Languages 2023, 8(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8020125 - 4 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3286

Abstract

The current study aimed to examine the processing of emotion words in L2 silent reading. We conducted two experiments in which Arab learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) read short English sentences in which target words were embedded. The participants’ eye [...] Read more.

The current study aimed to examine the processing of emotion words in L2 silent reading. We conducted two experiments in which Arab learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) read short English sentences in which target words were embedded. The participants’ eye movements were recorded and analyzed. The results of Experiment 1, which compared the processing of emotionally positive versus neutral words by 44 participants, did not reveal any significant effect for word type. The results only showed a few instances of significant interactions between word type and word frequency (i.e., positive words were read faster than neutral words only in the case of high-frequency words) and arousal (i.e., positive words were recognized faster than neutral words only when the target words were low in arousal). The results of Experiment 2, which compared the processing of emotionally negative versus neutral words by 43 participants, only established one effect of word type on the skipping rate which was also modulated by length (i.e., negative words were less likely to be skipped, particularly shorter ones). Moreover, arousal interacted with word type (i.e., only the negative words with low arousal were read faster than neutral words in two eye-movement measures). Full article

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22 pages, 491 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Age, Experience and Language and Literacy Skills in English-Arabic Speaking Syrian Refugees

by Alexandra Gottardo, Redab Al-Janaideh, Johanne Paradis, Adriana Soto-Corominas, Xi Chen and Norah Amin

Languages 2023, 8(2), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8020101 - 3 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3698

Abstract

Although age of acquisition (AoA) is frequently used when examining the endpoint of second language (L2) learning, it is rarely used to examine the initial phases of L2 acquisition. The present study provided a unique look at the role of AoA in early [...] Read more.

Although age of acquisition (AoA) is frequently used when examining the endpoint of second language (L2) learning, it is rarely used to examine the initial phases of L2 acquisition. The present study provided a unique look at the role of AoA in early language and literacy acquisition in the L2 by a priori selecting two groups of Arabic-English speakers based on their ages, 6–8-year-olds (N = 43) and 9–13-year-olds (N = 53). These Syrian refugees were matched on English experience, having immigrated to Canada and having learned English for two years or less. Raw scores on language and literacy measures were compared across groups. The older group had higher scores on all first language (L1) variables. The groups did not differ on most L2 variables except for English word reading. Additionally, L1 and L2 variables were examined in relation to English word and pseudoword reading with different patterns of relations found for the two groups. For the younger group, phonological awareness and vocabulary were related to reading, while for the older group phonological awareness and morphological awareness were key predictors. These finding points to the unique relations among age, age of acquisition, L1 skills, and L2 language and literacy skills. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Reading Acquisition in Languages with Different Writing Systems)

13 pages, 1140 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sampling and Generalizability in Lx Research: A Second-Order Synthesis

by Luke Plonsky

Languages 2023, 8(1), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010075 - 6 Mar 2023

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 6307

Abstract

As in many other social sciences, second/additional language (Lx) researchers are often interested in generalizing their findings beyond the samples they collect data from. However, very little is known about the range of learner backgrounds and settings found in Lx research. Moreover, the [...] Read more.

As in many other social sciences, second/additional language (Lx) researchers are often interested in generalizing their findings beyond the samples they collect data from. However, very little is known about the range of learner backgrounds and settings found in Lx research. Moreover, the few papers that have addressed the range of settings and demographics sampled in Lx research paint a disappointing picture). The current study examines the extent to which concerns expressed over this issue are merited and worthy of further attention. Toward that end, sample-related features such as L1, Lx/target language, age, proficiency, and educational setting (or lack thereof) were extracted from a sample of 308 systematic reviews of Lx research. The data from this “meta-synthetic” sample are then used to estimate the extent to which Lx research has sampled—and might or might not be able to generalize to—different populations and contexts including those pertinent to migrant populations, the focus of this special issue. The results reveal an incredibly disproportionate interest in participants with English as a first or target language and as well as university students in a narrow range of countries. The findings are used to call out the applied linguistics community on this gross oversight while also seeking to inform future research and contribute to the ongoing methodological reform movement in applied linguistics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition in Different Migration Contexts)

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19 pages, 854 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Syntactic Awareness and Reading Comprehension in Emergent Bilingual Children

by Diana Burchell, Kathleen Hipfner-Boucher, S. Hélène Deacon, Poh Wee Koh and Xi Chen

Languages 2023, 8(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010062 - 23 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5937

Abstract

The present study investigated the role of syntactic awareness in reading comprehension among English–French bilinguals learning French as an additional language in Canadian French immersion programs. We examined the direct effect of French syntactic awareness on French reading comprehension as well as the [...] Read more.

The present study investigated the role of syntactic awareness in reading comprehension among English–French bilinguals learning French as an additional language in Canadian French immersion programs. We examined the direct effect of French syntactic awareness on French reading comprehension as well as the indirect effects mediated through French word reading and French vocabulary. We further examined the extent to which English syntactic awareness contributed to French reading comprehension through cross-language transfer, again considering both the direct effect and the indirect effects through French word reading and French vocabulary. Mediation analyses indicated that, within French, the relationship between French syntactic awareness and French reading comprehension was fully mediated by both French word reading and French vocabulary. In contrast, English syntactic awareness contributed directly to French reading comprehension. Finally, French word reading partially mediated the relationship between English syntactic awareness and French reading comprehension. Our study suggests that children who learn French as an additional language rely on word reading and vocabulary, in addition to French syntactic awareness, to comprehend French texts. Given that English is French immersion children’s stronger language, they use English syntactic awareness to support French reading comprehension both directly and indirectly through French word reading. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Reading Acquisition in Languages with Different Writing Systems)

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19 pages, 8752 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Bibliometric Analysis of Peer Assessment in Online Language Courses

by Yupeng Lin and Zhonggen Yu

Languages 2023, 8(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010047 - 3 Feb 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4397

Abstract

As a popular strategy in collaborative learning, peer assessment has attracted keen interest in academic studies on online language learning contexts. The growing body of studies and findings necessitates the analysis of current publication trends and citation networks, given that studies in technology-enhanced [...] Read more.

As a popular strategy in collaborative learning, peer assessment has attracted keen interest in academic studies on online language learning contexts. The growing body of studies and findings necessitates the analysis of current publication trends and citation networks, given that studies in technology-enhanced language learning are increasingly active. Through a bibliometric analysis involving visualization and citation network analyses, this study finds that peer assessment in online language courses has received much attention since the COVID-19 outbreak. It remains a popular research topic with a preference for studies on online writing courses, and demonstrates international and interdisciplinary research trends. Recent studies have led peer assessment in online language courses to more specific research topics, such as critical factors for improving students’ engagement and feedback quality, unique advantages in providing online peer assessment, and designs to enhance peer assessment quality. This study also provides critical aspects about how to effectively integrate educational technologies into peer assessment in online language courses. The findings in this study will encourage future studies on peer assessment in online learning, language teaching methods, and the application of educational technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Language Testing and Assessment)

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18 pages, 1826 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

How Good Does This Sound? Examining Listeners’ Second Language Proficiency and Their Perception of Category Goodness in Their Native Language

by Charlie Nagle, Melissa M. Baese-Berk, Carissa Diantoro and Haeun Kim

Languages 2023, 8(1), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010043 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3033

Abstract

Language learners often transfer the sounds and prosody of their native language into their second language, but this influence can also flow in the opposite direction, with the second language influencing the first. Among other variables, language proficiency is known to affect the [...] Read more.

Language learners often transfer the sounds and prosody of their native language into their second language, but this influence can also flow in the opposite direction, with the second language influencing the first. Among other variables, language proficiency is known to affect the degree and directionality of cross-linguistic influence. However, little is known about how second language learning affects listeners’ perception of their native language. To begin addressing this gap, we examined the relationship between learners’ second language proficiency and their category goodness ratings in their native language. Thirty-nine English-speaking learners of Spanish listened to English words that began with voiced and voiceless stop consonants and were asked to rate how well the word represented the intended word on a 5-point scale. To create a voicing continuum, we manipulated the voice onset time of the word-initial stop in each target item from 125 ms of prevoicing to 100 ms of aspiration, in 25 ms steps. Proficiency did not affect the perception of voiced targets, but both proficiency and L2 stop production affected the perception of voiceless targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Native Speech Perception in the Context of Multilingualism and Language Learning)

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18 pages, 1157 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Measuring the Relationship between Bilingual Exposure and Social Attentional Preferences in Autistic Children

by Rachael Davis, Hugh Rabagliati, Lewis Montgomery, Antonella Sorace and Sue Fletcher-Watson

Languages 2023, 8(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010027 - 16 Jan 2023

Viewed by 3982

Abstract

Background: Autistic children show reduced attentional preferences to social stimuli early in development, and these differences have consequences on a range of social domains. One factor that could influence development in those processes is bilingualism. Parents and practitioners frequently voice unfounded concerns that [...] Read more.

Background: Autistic children show reduced attentional preferences to social stimuli early in development, and these differences have consequences on a range of social domains. One factor that could influence development in those processes is bilingualism. Parents and practitioners frequently voice unfounded concerns that bilingualism could cause delays in autistic children, yet there is little evidence to dispute this idea. While there are studies focusing on the impact of bilingualism on cognition in autistic children, no research has focused on the relationship between bilingualism and social attention. Aims: This study therefore investigated the impact of bilingual exposure on social attention in autistic (n = 33) and neurotypical children (n = 42) aged 6–13 years. Rather than a monolingual/bilingual comparison, participants had varying degrees of bilingual exposure, and exposure was treated as a continuous variable. Participants completed an eye-tracking task measuring visual attention to interacting versus non-interacting human figures. Results: Bilingual exposure did not affect dwell time to interacting or non-interacting figures for the neurotypical or autistic groups. However, there was a three-way interaction between diagnosis, figure type and vocabulary scores on dwell time. Conclusions: Higher vocabulary scores in neurotypical participants was associated with significantly less dwell time to non-interacting stimuli. This is the first study to assess the effects of bilingualism on social attention; here, concerns of bilingualism are not upheld. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism in Developmental Disorders)

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