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Geosciences
Volume 9
Issue 11
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Geosciences, Volume 9, Issue 11 (November 2019) – 31 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): In this paper, we describe fossilized microorganisms found in open and sealed pore spaces in pillow lavas from the Troodos Ophiolite (91 Ma) in Cyprus. A fungal interpretation is inferred upon the microorganisms based on characteristic morphological features. The fungi lived while the rocks were part of the oceanic crust prior to the emplacement of the crust onto land. The living conditions of the fungi were reconstructed through investigation of mineralogy, fluid inclusions, and the fossils themselves. The fossils acted as nuclei for mineral growth like zeolites, as seen in the cover image. View this paper
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17 pages, 4790 KB  
Article
The Use of a Grid Structure for Reconstructing and Forecasting the Value of Real Estate in Selected Measurement Epochs
by Małgorzata Gerus-Gościewska, Dariusz Gościewski and Agnieszka Szczepańska
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110485 - 18 Nov 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2272
Abstract
The absence of sufficiently long time series of data relating to real estate prices in a selected location prevents accurate analyses and the development of precise forecasts that play an important role in a market economy. New methods and solutions are being sought [...] Read more.
The absence of sufficiently long time series of data relating to real estate prices in a selected location prevents accurate analyses and the development of precise forecasts that play an important role in a market economy. New methods and solutions are being sought to address this problem. This paper proposes an original method for reconstructing, forecasting and archiving data relating to real estate value. The proposed method involves a GRID (regular square nets) structure and it relies on the prices quoted in successive years (epochs) of measurement in a selected object. Irregularly distributed measurement data (real estate prices) acquired in successive years are transformed into a regular GRID structure to develop digital surface models that describe the distribution of data. The nodes of the GRID structure are described with the coefficients of an approximating polynomial to reconstruct and forecast real estate value in a specific location at any point in time. A GRID structure supports a comparison of changes in real estate value over time in a given node or group of nodes selected from successive measurement epochs. Individual coefficients of an approximating polynomial are generated, allocated to selected nodes, and automatically adapted to local changes in value. As a result, the observed changes can be described in a given period of time. Source data covering multiple epochs are replaced with a single file containing coefficients of approximating polynomials to reduce the size of the stored datasets and facilitate data management. Full article
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15 pages, 11596 KB  
Article
Application of SAR Interferometry Using ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 Data as Precise Method to Identify Degraded Peatland Areas Related to Forest Fire
by Joko Widodo, Albertus Sulaiman, Awaluddin Awaluddin, Agung Riyadi, Mohammad Nasucha, Daniele Perissin and Josaphat Tetuko Sri Sumantyo
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110484 - 16 Nov 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5269
Abstract
Deforestation in peatland areas such as Kalimantan, Indonesia has been going on for decades. The deforestation has indirectly increased peatlands to become degraded and flammable. The Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometry approach for identification of degraded peatlands can be performed using ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 [...] Read more.
Deforestation in peatland areas such as Kalimantan, Indonesia has been going on for decades. The deforestation has indirectly increased peatlands to become degraded and flammable. The Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometry approach for identification of degraded peatlands can be performed using ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 data by converting land deformation data generated from SAR interferometry analysis into water table (WT) depth data using Wosten models. Peatlands with WT depth conditions of more than 40 cm are classified as degraded peatlands which are flammable. By using fire data from previous studies, this research confirms that identification of degraded peatlands using SAR interferometry approach by ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 is more reliable with high precision related to forest fires, with a precision level of 88% compared to 5% precision level using the WT depth monitoring system that has been installed in Central Kalimantan. The highest wavelength of ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 (L-Band) data can resolve the limitation due to temporal and volumetric decorrelation, compared to C-Band and X-Band satellite data. The combination methods of SAR interferometry approach and the real-time WT depth monitoring system to identify degraded peatlands can be more efficient, faster, and accurate. The advantage of this research result shows that SAR interferometry analysis can reach blank spot areas that are not covered by the observation station of WT depth monitoring system. It also gives a benefit as a guide to select precise locations of observation stations related to degraded peatland and forest fire. Full article
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25 pages, 17471 KB  
Article
Sediment Supply and Hydrogeological Hazard in the Quebrada de Humahuaca (Province of Jujuy, Northwestern Argentina)—Rio Huasamayo and Tilcara Area
by Emilio Poggetti, Corrado Cencetti, Pierluigi De Rosa, Andrea Fredduzzi and Felipe Raphael Rivelli
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110483 - 16 Nov 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5197
Abstract
This paper describes the hydrogeological hazard in a reach of Quebrada de Humahuaca, (Upper Valley of Rio Grande de Jujuy, in the Argentine Andes), elected a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2003. Along the Quebrada, the Rio Huasamayo, flowing into the Rio [...] Read more.
This paper describes the hydrogeological hazard in a reach of Quebrada de Humahuaca, (Upper Valley of Rio Grande de Jujuy, in the Argentine Andes), elected a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2003. Along the Quebrada, the Rio Huasamayo, flowing into the Rio Grande, formed a large alluvial fan where the village of Tilcara was built. The final reach of Rio Huasamayo is an artificial channel, embanked by unconsolidated material removed from the riverbed. The village is located in an area at a lower elevation with respect to the riverbed, still in aggradation; so it is affected by an evident hydrogeological hazard. The main cause of the riverbed aggradation is the enormous sediment supply from the slopes of the Rio Huasamayo basin. The aim of the paper is to estimate the soil loss on the slopes and the consequent sediment supply to the main stream, identifying the areas of the basin mostly affected by erosion processes that cause the aggradation of the Rio Huasamayo riverbed. In this case, due to the lack of hydrometeorological stations (monitoring rainfalls, temperature, flow rates, etc.), soil loss and sediment supply to the main stream cannot be estimated through the application of commonly used models in the literature (e.g., USLE, RUSLE, USPED). Here the Gavrilovic method (EPM) was applied in combination with the data of the CORINE Project, allowing the estimation of the volume of material exiting from the catchment. So the main supplying areas (sub-basins of the Rio Huasamayo) can be identified where focused interventions for the control of solid transport could be realized, to mitigate the process of riverbed aggradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards)
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23 pages, 1208 KB  
Article
Socio-Economic Impacts of Cyclone Aila on Migrant and Non-Migrant Households in the Southwestern Coastal Areas of Bangladesh
by Rizwana Subhani and Mokbul Morshed Ahmad
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110482 - 16 Nov 2019
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 13011
Abstract
In 2009, the tropical cyclonic storm Aila hit 11 southwestern coastal districts in Bangladesh, which triggered migration. Many studies were conducted on the impact of Aila on southwestern coastal communities; however, no comparative study was done on migrant and non-migrant households. Therefore, this [...] Read more.
In 2009, the tropical cyclonic storm Aila hit 11 southwestern coastal districts in Bangladesh, which triggered migration. Many studies were conducted on the impact of Aila on southwestern coastal communities; however, no comparative study was done on migrant and non-migrant households. Therefore, this article set out to assess the impact of cyclone Aila on the socio-economic conditions of migrant and non-migrant households. The households that could not cope with the impact, resulting in at least one household member having to migrate to seek an alternative source of income, were considered migrant households. On the other hand, non-migrant households were considered as those where no one migrated. The unit of analysis was the households. The research was conducted in the Koyra and Shymnagar sub-districts of Khulna and Satkhira, respectively. Mixed-method analysis was carried out using quantitative data collected from 270 households through a survey and qualitative data through 2 focus group discussions, 12 key informant interviews, and informal discussions. Data were analyzed through a comparative analysis of the migrant and non-migrant households. The findings showed that migrant households were better equipped to recover from losses in terms of income, housing, food consumption, and loan repayments than non-migrant households. It can be argued that the options of migration or shifting livelihood are better strategies for households when dealing with climatic events. Furthermore, the outcome of this research could contribute to the growing body of knowledge in an area where there are evident gaps. The findings could support policymakers and researchers to understand the impacts of similar climatic events, as well as the necessary policy interventions to deal with similar kinds of climatic events in the future. The study could be useful for developing and refining policies to recover from losses as a result of the same types of climatic events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards)
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14 pages, 1718 KB  
Article
Evaluation of the Gas Content in Archived Shale Samples: A Carbon Isotope Study
by Buzek Frantisek, Gerslova Eva, Gersl Milan, Cejkova Bohuslava, Jackova Ivana and Lnenickova Zdena
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110481 - 15 Nov 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2893
Abstract
We examined 14 archived samples of shale for the chemical and 13C isotopic composition of residual gases produced as part of rock-crushing operations at a hammer mill. Results were compared with data on maturity from Rock-Eval pyrolysis and vitrinite reflectance measurements. The [...] Read more.
We examined 14 archived samples of shale for the chemical and 13C isotopic composition of residual gases produced as part of rock-crushing operations at a hammer mill. Results were compared with data on maturity from Rock-Eval pyrolysis and vitrinite reflectance measurements. The samples originated from three different formations (Mikulov Marls, Ostrava Formation, and Liteň Formation) located in the Czech Republic. For comparison, we examined a gas-prone shale sample from the Polish Silurian. We used changes in the chemical and isotopic composition of released gases to evaluate the isotope fractionation during gas loss and retroactively calculated the initial content of gas in the shale samples. The gas content estimates (in L of gas per ton of rock) correspond with the maturity parameters of the shales. Calculated isotope fractionation for the gas release was −3‰ for both methane and ethane. The archived samples primarily lost methane (up to 90%), with subsequent changes in the content of ethane and higher hydrocarbon levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stable Isotope Systematics of Coalbed Gas and Shale Gas during Desorption and Production)
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25 pages, 5168 KB  
Article
Spatio-Temporal Relationships between Fumarolic Activity, Hydrothermal Fluid Circulation and Geophysical Signals at an Arc Volcano in Degassing Unrest: La Soufrière of Guadeloupe (French West Indies)
by Giancarlo Tamburello, Séverine Moune, Patrick Allard, Swetha Venugopal, Vincent Robert, Marina Rosas-Carbajal, Sébastien Deroussi, Gaëtan-Thierry Kitou, Tristan Didier, Jean-Christophe Komorowski, François Beauducel, Jean-Bernard De Chabalier, Arnaud Le Marchand, Anne Le Friant, Magali Bonifacie, Céline Dessert and Roberto Moretti
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110480 - 15 Nov 2019
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 4782
Abstract
Over the past two decades, La Soufrière volcano in Guadeloupe has displayed a growing degassing unrest whose actual source mechanism still remains unclear. Based on new measurements of the chemistry and mass flux of fumarolic gas emissions from the volcano, here we reveal [...] Read more.
Over the past two decades, La Soufrière volcano in Guadeloupe has displayed a growing degassing unrest whose actual source mechanism still remains unclear. Based on new measurements of the chemistry and mass flux of fumarolic gas emissions from the volcano, here we reveal spatio-temporal variations in the degassing features that closely relate to the 3D underground circulation of fumarolic fluids, as imaged by electrical resistivity tomography, and to geodetic-seismic signals recorded over the past two decades. Discrete monthly surveys of gas plumes from the various vents on La Soufrière lava dome, performed with portable MultiGAS analyzers, reveal important differences in the chemical proportions and fluxes of H2O, CO2, H2S, SO2 and H2, which depend on the vent location with respect to the underground circulation of fluids. In particular, the main central vents, though directly connected to the volcano conduit and preferentially surveyed in past decades, display much higher CO2/SO2 and H2S/SO2 ratios than peripheral gas emissions, reflecting greater SO2 scrubbing in the boiling hydrothermal water at 80–100 m depth. Gas fluxes demonstrate an increased bulk degassing of the volcano over the past 10 years, but also a recent spatial shift in fumarolic degassing intensity from the center of the lava dome towards its SE–NE sector and the Breislack fracture. Such a spatial shift is in agreement with both extensometric and seismic evidence of fault widening in this sector due to slow gravitational sliding of the southern dome sector. Our study thus provides an improved framework to monitor and interpret the evolution of gas emissions from La Soufrière in the future and to better forecast hazards from this dangerous andesitic volcano. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring and Modeling the Magma-Hydrothermal Regime)
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26 pages, 7455 KB  
Article
A Novel Approach to Isolation and Screening of Calcifying Bacteria for Biotechnological Applications
by Paola Cacchio and Maddalena Del Gallo
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110479 - 14 Nov 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5552
Abstract
Bacterial calcium-carbonate precipitation (BCP) has been studied for multiple applications such as remediation, consolidation, and cementation. Isolation and screening of strong calcifying bacteria is the main task of BCP-technique. In this paper, we studied CaCO3 precipitation by different bacteria isolated from a [...] Read more.
Bacterial calcium-carbonate precipitation (BCP) has been studied for multiple applications such as remediation, consolidation, and cementation. Isolation and screening of strong calcifying bacteria is the main task of BCP-technique. In this paper, we studied CaCO3 precipitation by different bacteria isolated from a rhizospheric soil in both solid and liquid media. It has been found, through culture-depending studies, that bacteria belonging to Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, and Alphaproteobacteria are the dominant bacteria involved in CaCO3 precipitation in this environment. Pure and mixed cultures of selected strains were applied for sand biocementation experiments. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analyses of the biotreated samples revealed the biological nature of the cementation and the effectiveness of the biodeposition treatment by mixed cultures. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed that all the calcifying strains selected for sand biocementation precipitated CaCO3, mostly in the form of calcite. In this study, Biolog® EcoPlate is evaluated as a useful method for a more targeted choice of the sampling site with the purpose of obtaining interesting candidates for BCP applications. Furthermore, ImageJ software was investigated, for the first time to our knowledge, as a potential method to screen high CaCO3 producer strains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tracking the Deep Biosphere through Time)
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20 pages, 2861 KB  
Article
On-Site Water and Wind Erosion Experiments Reveal Relative Impact on Total Soil Erosion
by Miriam Marzen, Thomas Iserloh, Wolfgang Fister, Manuel Seeger, Jesus Rodrigo-Comino and Johannes B. Ries
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110478 - 14 Nov 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7627
Abstract
The relative impact of water and wind on total erosion was investigated by means of an experimental-empirical study. Wind erosion and water erosion were measured at five different sites: (1) Mediterranean fallow, (2) Mediterranean orchard, (3) wheat field, (4) vineyard and (5) sand [...] Read more.
The relative impact of water and wind on total erosion was investigated by means of an experimental-empirical study. Wind erosion and water erosion were measured at five different sites: (1) Mediterranean fallow, (2) Mediterranean orchard, (3) wheat field, (4) vineyard and (5) sand substrate. Mean erosion rates ranged from 1.55 to 618 g·m−2·h−1 for wind and from 0.09 to 133.90 g·m−2·h−1 for rain eroded material over all tested sites. Percentages (%) of eroded sediment for wind and rain, respectively, were found to be 2:98 on Mediterranean fallow, 11:89 on Mediterranean orchard, 3:97 on wheat field, 98:2 on vineyard and 99:1 on sand substrate. For the special case of soil surface crust destroyed by goat trampling, the measured values emphasize a strong potential impact of herding on total soil erosion. All sites produced erosion by wind and rain, and relations show that both erosive forces may have an impact on total soil erosion depending on site characteristics. The results indicate a strong need to focus on both wind and water erosion particularly concerning soils and substrates in vulnerable environments. Measured rates show a general potential erosion depending on recent developments of land use and climate change and may raise awareness of scientist, farmers and decision makers about potential impact of both erosive forces. Knowledge about exact relationship is key for an adapted land use management, which has great potential to mitigate degradation processes related to climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Capture the Process! Dynamic Approaches in Geomorphology, Hydrology and Soil Physics)
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28 pages, 7760 KB  
Article
The Influence of Magmatic Intrusions on Diagenetic Processes and Stress Accumulation
by Magnhild Sydnes, Willy Fjeldskaar, Ivar Grunnaleite, Ingrid Fjeldskaar Løtveit and Rolf Mjelde
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110477 - 13 Nov 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4456
Abstract
Diagenetic changes in sedimentary basins may alter hydrocarbon reservoir quality with respect to porosity and permeability. Basins with magmatic intrusions have specific thermal histories that at time of emplacement and in the aftermath have the ability to enhance diagenetic processes. Through diagenesis the [...] Read more.
Diagenetic changes in sedimentary basins may alter hydrocarbon reservoir quality with respect to porosity and permeability. Basins with magmatic intrusions have specific thermal histories that at time of emplacement and in the aftermath have the ability to enhance diagenetic processes. Through diagenesis the thermal conductivity of rocks may change significantly, and the transformations are able to create hydrocarbon traps. The present numerical study quantified the effect of magmatic intrusions on the transitions of opal A to opal CT to quartz, smectite to illite and quartz diagenesis. We also studied how these chemical alterations and the sills themselves have affected the way the subsurface responds to stresses. The modeling shows that the area in the vicinity of magmatic sills has enhanced porosity loss caused by diagenesis compared to remote areas not intruded. Particularly areas located between clusters of sills are prone to increased diagenetic changes. Furthermore, areas influenced by diagenesis have, due to altered physical properties, increased stress accumulations, which might lead to opening of fractures and activation/reactivation of faults, thus influencing the permeability and possible hydrocarbon migration in the subsurface. This study emphasizes the influence magmatic intrusions may have on the reservoir quality and illustrates how magmatic intrusions and diagenetic changes and their thermal and stress consequences can be included in basin models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Advances in Basin Modeling: Suggestions from Current Observations, Analyses, and Simulations)
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11 pages, 7116 KB  
Review
Morphogenesis of New Straits and Islands Originated in the European Arctic Since the 1980s
by Wieslaw Ziaja and Krzysztof Ostafin
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110476 - 12 Nov 2019
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3924
Abstract
Several new islands and many islets have appeared in the European Arctic since the end of the 20th century due to glacial recession under climate warming. The specificity of the formation of each individual strait and island is shown in the paper (apart [...] Read more.
Several new islands and many islets have appeared in the European Arctic since the end of the 20th century due to glacial recession under climate warming. The specificity of the formation of each individual strait and island is shown in the paper (apart from its location and timing of its origin). Analysis of available maps and satellite images of all three European Arctic archipelagos, from different times since 1909–1910, was the main research method. There are three pathways of the morphogenesis of the new islands: (1) simultaneous recession of glaciers from both sides of a depression in bedrock being a potential strait (typical in Franz Josef Land), (2) uncovering a rocky hill (which protrudes from a depression in bedrock) from under a receding glacier, (3) recession of one glacier which had reached a rocky fragment of a coastline (e.g., headland or peninsula), being a potential new island, during a maximum extent of this glacier during the Little Ice Age (in the beginning of the 20th century). Additional straits and islands are currently at the stage of formation and will continue to form in the European Arctic in the case of further warming or stabilization of the current climate conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Glaciers and Ice Caps)
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11 pages, 5525 KB  
Article
Asymmetric Craters on the Dwarf Planet Ceres—Results of Second Extended Mission Data Analysis
by Katrin Krohn, Ralf Jaumann, Kai Wickhusen, Katharina A. Otto, Elke Kersten, Katrin Stephan, Roland J. Wagner, Carol A. Raymond and Christopher T. Russell
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110475 - 12 Nov 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3955
Abstract
After almost three years of successful operation on Ceres, the Dawn spacecraft entered its last orbits around the dwarf planet and obtained a set of high-resolution images of 3 to 5 m/pixel. These images reveal a variety of morphologic features, including a set [...] Read more.
After almost three years of successful operation on Ceres, the Dawn spacecraft entered its last orbits around the dwarf planet and obtained a set of high-resolution images of 3 to 5 m/pixel. These images reveal a variety of morphologic features, including a set of asymmetric crater morphologies as observed earlier in the mission on the asteroid Vesta. We identified 269 craters, which are located between 60° N to 60° S latitude and 197° E to 265° E longitude, and investigated their morphological characteristics using a digital terrain model (DTM). These craters range in diameter from 0.30 to 4.2 km, and exhibit a sharp crater rim on the uphill side and a smooth one on the downhill side. We found that all asymmetric craters are formed on a sloping surface with the majority appearing at slope angles between 5 and 20 degrees. This implies that, as observed on Vesta, the topography is the main cause for these asymmetries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interiors of Icy Ocean Worlds)
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15 pages, 5332 KB  
Article
Tilting and Flexural Stresses in Basins Due to Glaciations—An Example from the Barents Sea
by Ingrid F. Løtveit, Willy Fjeldskaar and Magnhild Sydnes
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110474 - 11 Nov 2019
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4426
Abstract
Many of the Earth’s sedimentary basins are affected by glaciations. Repeated glaciations over millions of years may have had a significant effect on the physical conditions in sedimentary basins and on basin structuring. This paper presents some of the major effects that ice [...] Read more.
Many of the Earth’s sedimentary basins are affected by glaciations. Repeated glaciations over millions of years may have had a significant effect on the physical conditions in sedimentary basins and on basin structuring. This paper presents some of the major effects that ice sheets might have on sedimentary basins, and includes examples of quantifications of their significance. Among the most important effects are movements of the solid Earth caused by glacial loading and unloading, and the related flexural stresses. The driving factor of these movements is isostasy. Most of the production licenses on the Norwegian Continental Shelf are located inside the margin of the former Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) ice sheet. Isostatic modeling shows that sedimentary basins near the former ice margin can be tilted as much as 3 m/km which might significantly alter pathways of hydrocarbon migration. In an example from the SW Barents Sea we show that flexural stresses related to the isostatic uplift after LGM deglaciation can produce stress changes large enough to result in increased fracture-related permeability in the sedimentary basin, and lead to potential spillage of hydrocarbons out of potential reservoirs. The results demonstrate that future basin modeling should consider including the loading effect of glaciations when dealing with petroleum potential in former glaciated areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Advances in Basin Modeling: Suggestions from Current Observations, Analyses, and Simulations)
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25 pages, 15012 KB  
Article
The Role of Shear Wave Velocity and Non-Linearity of Soil in the Seismic Response of a Coupled Tunnel-Soil-Above Ground Building System
by Glenda Abate, Salvatore Grasso and Maria Rossella Massimino
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110473 - 9 Nov 2019
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4088
Abstract
The presence of tunnels close to aboveground structures may modify the response of these structures, while the contrary is also true, the presence of aboveground structures may modify the dynamic response of tunnels. In this context, the dynamic properties of the soil through [...] Read more.
The presence of tunnels close to aboveground structures may modify the response of these structures, while the contrary is also true, the presence of aboveground structures may modify the dynamic response of tunnels. In this context, the dynamic properties of the soil through which the aboveground and underground structures are “connected” could play an important role. The paper reports dynamic FEM (Finite Element Method) analyses of a coupled tunnel-soil-above ground structure system (TSS system), which differ in regards to the soil shear wave velocity and in turns for the damping ratio, in order to investigate the role of these parameters in the full-coupled TSS system response. The analyses were performed using three different seismic inputs. Moreover, the soil non-linearity was taken into account adopting two different constitutive models: i) an equivalent linear visco-elastic model, characterized by degraded soil shear moduli and damping ratios, according to suggestions given by EC8 in 2003; and ii) a visco-elasto-plastic constitutive model, characterized by isotropic and kinematic hardening and a non-associated flow rule. The seismic response of the system was investigated in the time and frequency domains, in terms of: acceleration ratios; amplification ratios and response spectra; and bending moments in the tunnel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Sequence in Mediterranean Region)
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16 pages, 2205 KB  
Article
Potential of Vineyard Landscapes for Sustainable Tourism
by Ángel Raúl Ruiz Pulpón and María del Carmen Cañizares Ruiz
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110472 - 8 Nov 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4041
Abstract
According to the World Tourism Organization, sustainable tourism fosters the conservation of natural resources, respects the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities and ensures the maintenance of economic activities in the long term. With reference to these three areas, this article examines how vineyard [...] Read more.
According to the World Tourism Organization, sustainable tourism fosters the conservation of natural resources, respects the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities and ensures the maintenance of economic activities in the long term. With reference to these three areas, this article examines how vineyard landscapes, seen as one of the many resources of wine tourism, represent a potential for promoting forms of sustainable tourism, which be understood as tourism that assumes a balance between the environmental, economic and social determining factors behind a region. For this purpose, different theoretical and thematic approaches are used to highlight the importance of key issues, such as the status of the vineyard landscape as part of the conservation of natural resources in general and the elements linked to tangible and intangible heritage as part of the social authenticity of these landscapes. The results show how the strong cultural nature of vineyard landscapes, which are rich in heritage and aesthetics, guarantees their sustainability for tourist activity, provided that appropriate planning criteria are used. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Tourism,Geography and Spatial Planning)
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20 pages, 8863 KB  
Article
Snow Avalanche Impact Measurements at the Seehore Test Site in Aosta Valley (NW Italian Alps)
by Margherita Maggioni, Monica Barbero, Fabrizio Barpi, Mauro Borri-Brunetto, Valerio De Biagi, Michele Freppaz, Barbara Frigo, Oronzo Pallara and Bernardino Chiaia
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110471 - 7 Nov 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4273
Abstract
In full-scale snow avalanche test sites, structures such as pylons, plates, or dams have been used to measure impact forces and pressures from avalanches. Impact pressures are of extreme importance when dealing with issues such as hazard mapping and the design of buildings [...] Read more.
In full-scale snow avalanche test sites, structures such as pylons, plates, or dams have been used to measure impact forces and pressures from avalanches. Impact pressures are of extreme importance when dealing with issues such as hazard mapping and the design of buildings exposed to avalanches. In this paper, we present the force measurements recorded for five selected avalanches that occurred at the Seehore test site in Aosta Valley (NW Italian Alps). The five avalanches were small to medium-sized and cover a wide range in terms of snow characteristics and flow dynamics. Our aim was to analyze the force and pressure measurements with respect to the avalanche characteristics. We measured pressures in the range of 2 to 30 kPa. Though without exhaustive measurements of the avalanche flows, we found indications of different flow regimes. For example, we could appreciate some differences in the vertical profile of the pressures recorded for wet dense avalanches and powder ones. Being aware of the fact that more complete measurements are necessary to fully describe the avalanche flows, we think that the data of the five avalanches triggered at the Seehore test site might add some useful information to the ongoing scientific discussion on avalanche flow regimes and impact pressure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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16 pages, 2282 KB  
Article
Hydrostratigraphy and Hydraulic Characterisation of Shallow Coastal Aquifers, Niger Delta Basin: A Strategy for Groundwater Resource Management
by Ibrahim Hassan, Robert M. Kalin, Christopher J. White and Jamiu A. Aladejana
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110470 - 7 Nov 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7011
Abstract
The groundwater from shallow coastal aquifers in Nigeria has been reported to be under intense stress resulting from both natural and anthropogenic impacts ranging from saltwater intrusion, effluent-related contamination and pollution to oil spillage, gas flaring, municipal, industries and agriculture. Here we characterised [...] Read more.
The groundwater from shallow coastal aquifers in Nigeria has been reported to be under intense stress resulting from both natural and anthropogenic impacts ranging from saltwater intrusion, effluent-related contamination and pollution to oil spillage, gas flaring, municipal, industries and agriculture. Here we characterised the hydrostratigraphy and hydraulic characteristics of the shallow coastal aquifers of the Niger Delta basin and assessed the resilience of groundwater to both natural and anthropogenic impacts. Fifty-two borehole logs were analysed from which lithological sections were used to generate cross-sections along with four profiles. The system was more complex than previously reported: a unit of silty sand was observed in the western part of the basin that thins out leaving the eastern part of the basin as an unconfined aquifer underlain by multiple thin beds of the sand aquifer. A layered sand aquifer occurs in the northern parts of the basin, which holds freshwater in this area, and is interbedded by clay layers which serve as aquitards. The relatively higher hydraulic conductivity of the Benin Formation units compared to those of the Deltaic Formation leave it with weaker climate change resilience and more vulnerable to pollution and contamination. While groundwater remains the dominant source of fresh water in the northern part of the basin, a strategic approach is needed to access potable water from the southern part where contaminated surface water appears to directly interact with groundwater of the uppermost unconfined aquifer. Management of waste and effluent related to oil spillage, municipal, industries and agricultural in this area should be engineered to protect the groundwater resources of this aquifer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)
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22 pages, 4386 KB  
Article
An Assessment of Stress States in Passive Margin Sediments: Iterative Hydro-Mechanical Simulations on Basin Models and Implications for Rock Failure Predictions
by Antoine Bouziat, Nicolas Guy, Jérémy Frey, Daniele Colombo, Priscille Colin, Marie-Christine Cacas-Stentz and Tristan Cornu
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110469 - 6 Nov 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4269
Abstract
Capturing the past and present hydro-mechanical behavior of passive margin sediments raises noticeable interest, notably in geo-hazard risk assessment and hydrocarbon exploration. In this work, we aim at assessing the stress states undergone by these sedimentary deposits through geological time. To do so, [...] Read more.
Capturing the past and present hydro-mechanical behavior of passive margin sediments raises noticeable interest, notably in geo-hazard risk assessment and hydrocarbon exploration. In this work, we aim at assessing the stress states undergone by these sedimentary deposits through geological time. To do so, we use an iterative coupling between a basin simulator and a finite element mechanical solver. This method conciliates a computation of the full stress tensors with a dynamic and geologically detailed modelling of the sedimentation. It is carried out on a dedicated set of 2D synthetic basin models, designed to be representative of siliciclastic deposition in passive margins and integrating variations in their geological history. Contrary to common assumptions in operational basin modelling studies, our results imply that passive margin sedimentary wedges are multidimensional mechanical systems, which endure significant non-vertical stress without external tectonic input. Our results also highlight the variability of the stress states through space and time, with a strong control from the geometry and lithological heterogeneities of the deposits. Lastly, we used the simulation results to predict a location and timing for the development of weakness zones in the sedimentary stacks, as privileged areas for rock failure. The outcome underlines the influence of the basal tilt angle, with a slight tilt impacting the wedges stability to a similar extent as a substantial increase in sedimentation rate. Altogether, this study emphasizes the need for careful consideration of non-vertical stresses in basin simulations, including in passive tectonic contexts. It also suggests that the iterative coupling method employed is a promising way to match industrial needs in this regard. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Advances in Basin Modeling: Suggestions from Current Observations, Analyses, and Simulations)
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3 pages, 142 KB  
Editorial
Permafrost Landscapes: Classification and Mapping
by Alexander N. Fedorov
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110468 - 6 Nov 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3079
Abstract
Permafrost landscapes occupy 25% of the world’s land area. The formation, dynamics, and evolution of these landscapes are greatly controlled by permafrost processes and thus require special approaches to classification and mapping. Alases, pingoes, edoma, thermokarst mounds, stone streams, low-centre polygonal tundra, and [...] Read more.
Permafrost landscapes occupy 25% of the world’s land area. The formation, dynamics, and evolution of these landscapes are greatly controlled by permafrost processes and thus require special approaches to classification and mapping. Alases, pingoes, edoma, thermokarst mounds, stone streams, low-centre polygonal tundra, and other surface features are associated with the presence of permafrost. Permafrost degradation and greenhouse gas emission due to global climate warming are among the major potential dangers facing the world. Improvements in knowledge about permafrost landscapes are therefore increasingly important. This special issue, titled “Permafrost Landscapes: Classification and Mapping”, presents articles on classification, mapping, monitoring, and stability assessment of permafrost landscapes, providing an overview of current work in the most important areas of cold regions research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Permafrost Landscapes: Classification and Mapping)
29 pages, 4581 KB  
Review
Coupled Zircon-Rutile U-Pb Chronology: LA ICP-MS Dating, Geological Significance and Applications to Sediment Provenance in the Eastern Himalayan-Indo-Burman Region
by Laura Bracciali
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110467 - 5 Nov 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7961
Abstract
U-Pb dating by LA ICP-MS is one of the most popular and successful isotopic techniques available to the Earth Sciences to constrain timing and rates of geological processes thanks to its high spatial resolution, good precision (absolute U/Pb age resolution of ca. 2%, [...] Read more.
U-Pb dating by LA ICP-MS is one of the most popular and successful isotopic techniques available to the Earth Sciences to constrain timing and rates of geological processes thanks to its high spatial resolution, good precision (absolute U/Pb age resolution of ca. 2%, 2s), rapidity and relative affordability. The significant and continuous improvement of instrumentation and approaches has opened new fields of applications by extending the range of minerals that can be dated by this method. Following the development and distribution to the community of good quality reference materials in the last decade, rutile U-Pb thermochronology (with a precision only slightly worse than zircon) has become a commonly used method to track cooling of deep-seated rocks. Its sensitivity to mid- to low-crustal temperatures (~450 °C to 650 °C) is ideal to constrain exhumation in active and ancient orogens as well as thermal evolution of slow-cooled terranes. Recrystallization and secondary growth during metamorphism and the presence of grain boundary fluids can also affect the U-Pb isotopic system in rutile. A growing body of research focusing on U-Pb dating of rutile by LA ICP-MS is greatly improving our understanding of the behavior of this mineral with regards to retention of radiogenic Pb. This is key to fully exploit its potential as a tracker of geological processes. The latest developments in this field are reviewed in this contribution. The combined application of U-Pb zircon and rutile chronology in provenance studies, particularly when complemented by lower-T thermochronometry data, allows the isotopic characterization of the sources across a wide range of temperatures. The benefits of applying detrital zircon-rutile U-Pb chronology as a coupled provenance proxy are presented here, with a focus on the Eastern Himalayan-Indo-Burman region, where a growing number of successful studies employs such an approach to help constrain river drainage and basin evolution and to infer feedback relationships between erosion, tectonics and climate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue LA-ICP-MS Geochronology: From Petrology to Provenance and Sedimentation)
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20 pages, 5516 KB  
Article
Assessment of Radon Concentration and Impact on Human Health in a Region Dominated by Abandoned Gold Mine Tailings Dams: A Case from the West Rand Region, South Africa
by Paballo Moshupya, Tamiru Abiye, Hassina Mouri, Mannie Levin, Marius Strauss and Rian Strydom
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110466 - 31 Oct 2019
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7610
Abstract
Radon gas has long been identified as a human carcinogen. The purpose of this study was to understand the occurrence of radon gas in the West Rand region, located west of the city of Johannesburg, South Africa, and to investigate its potential health [...] Read more.
Radon gas has long been identified as a human carcinogen. The purpose of this study was to understand the occurrence of radon gas in the West Rand region, located west of the city of Johannesburg, South Africa, and to investigate its potential health effects. In this study, the sampling of rocks, tailings, and construction materials was carried out for geochemical analyses. For characterisation of radon, 60 radon monitors (RGMs) were installed in indoor and outdoor environments. The results showed that mine tailings contain high uranium levels, with a maximum of 149.76 ppm and a mean value of 48.87 ppm. The radon levels in the area ranged between 32 Bq/m3 and 1069 Bq/m3 and thus, exceed the typical outdoor radon levels of about 10 Bq/m3. Significantly high values were obtained from gold tailings dams. In indoor environments, radon concentration ranged up to a maximum of 174 Bq/m3, which is above the recommended value of 100 Bq/m3. The effective doses calculated from the obtained radon levels showed a maximum of 16 mSv/y, which is above the recommended value of 1 mSv/y proposed for public exposure. The estimated doses have an enormous potential to pose high lung cancer risks to the populations residing nearby tailings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perspectives on Environment and Human Health)
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23 pages, 9727 KB  
Article
Multiscale Modeling of Glacial Loading by a 3D Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical Approach Including Erosion and Isostasy
by Daniele Cerroni, Mattia Penati, Giovanni Porta, Edie Miglio, Paolo Zunino and Paolo Ruffo
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110465 - 30 Oct 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3309
Abstract
We present a computational framework that allows investigating the Thermo-Hydro- Mechanical response of a representative part of a sedimentary basin during a glaciation cycle. We tackle the complexity of the problem, arising by the mutual interaction among several phenomena, by means of a [...] Read more.
We present a computational framework that allows investigating the Thermo-Hydro- Mechanical response of a representative part of a sedimentary basin during a glaciation cycle. We tackle the complexity of the problem, arising by the mutual interaction among several phenomena, by means of a multi-physics, multi-scale model with respect to both space and time. Our contribution addresses both the generation of the computational grid and the algorithm for the numerical solution of the problem. In particular we present a multi-scale approach accounting for the global deformation field of the lithosphere coupled with the Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical feedback of the ice load on a representative part of the domain at a finer scale. In the fine scale model we also include the erosion possibly caused by the ice melting. This methodology allows investigating the evolution of the sedimentary basin as a response to glaciation cycle at a fine scale, taking also into account the large spatial scale movement of the lithosphere due to isostasy. The numerical experiments are based on the analysis of simple scenario, and show the emergence of effects due to the multi-physics nature of the problem that are barely captured by simpler approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Advances in Basin Modeling: Suggestions from Current Observations, Analyses, and Simulations)
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14 pages, 979 KB  
Article
Using Cilioplankton as an Indicator of the Ecological Condition of Aquatic Ecosystems
by Tatiana Kondrateva, Tatiana Nikonenkova and Nadezhda Stepanova
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110464 - 30 Oct 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2675
Abstract
We assess the quality of surface water in water bodies located in the Middle Volga region (Russian Federation). The water quality is assessed using 19 chemical compounds and cilioplankton indicators, such as the total number of species, the abundance of each species, and, [...] Read more.
We assess the quality of surface water in water bodies located in the Middle Volga region (Russian Federation). The water quality is assessed using 19 chemical compounds and cilioplankton indicators, such as the total number of species, the abundance of each species, and, based on both of them, the saprobity index and the Shannon–Weaver diversity index (H). We classify the water quality from polluted to extremely dirty by using abiotic indicators, and from conditionally clean to dirty by means of biotic indicators. Using the logistic regression method, we are able to predict the water quality (clean or dirty) in correspondence with the species diversity index (H) and to clarify how the quality of the water is related to its physicochemical properties. The seven most significant chemical predictors of both natural origin (mineralization, hydro carbonates, and chlorides) and natural-anthropogenic origin (organic substances (according to BOD5), nitrates, total petroleum hydrocarbons, iron), identified during the stepwise selection procedure, have a substantial influence on the outcome of the model. Qualitative and quantitative indicators of development of ciliates, as well as indices calculated on their basis, allow assessing with a very high level of accuracy the water quality and the condition of aquatic ecosystems in general. The Shannon index calculated for the number of ciliates can be successfully used for ranking water bodies as “clean/dirty”. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biogeochemical Functioning of Large Fluvial or Lacustrine Hydrosystems: Impacts of Human Activities)
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16 pages, 1725 KB  
Article
Endolithic Microbial Habitats Hosted in Carbonate Nodules Currently Forming within Sediment at a High Methane Flux Site in the Sea of Japan
by Katsunori Yanagawa, Fumito Shiraishi, Yusuke Tanigawa, Toshinari Maeda, Nurul Asyifah Mustapha, Satoko Owari, Hitoshi Tomaru, Ryo Matsumoto and Akihiro Kano
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110463 - 30 Oct 2019
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3832
Abstract
Concretionary carbonates in deep-sea methane seep fields are formed as a result of microbial methane degradation, called anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM). Recently, active microorganisms, including anaerobic methanotrophic archaea, were discovered from methane seep-associated carbonate outcroppings on the seafloor. However sedimentary buried carbonate [...] Read more.
Concretionary carbonates in deep-sea methane seep fields are formed as a result of microbial methane degradation, called anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM). Recently, active microorganisms, including anaerobic methanotrophic archaea, were discovered from methane seep-associated carbonate outcroppings on the seafloor. However sedimentary buried carbonate nodules are a hitherto unknown microbial habitat. In this study, we investigated the microbial community structures in two carbonate nodules collected from a high methane flux site in a gas hydrate field off the Oki islands in the Sea of Japan. The nodules were formed around sulfate-methane interfaces (SMI) corresponding to 0.7 and 2.2 m below the seafloor. Based on a geochemical analysis, light carbon isotopic values ranging from −54.91‰ to −37.32‰ were found from the nodules collected at the shallow SMI depth, which were attributed to the high contributions of AOM-induced carbonate precipitation. Signatures of methanotrophic archaeal populations within the sedimentary buried nodule were detected based on microbial community composition analyses and quantitative real-time PCR targeted 16S rRNA, and functional genes for AOM. These results suggest that the buried carbonate nodule currently develops AOM-related microbial communities, and grows depending on the continued AOM under high methane flux conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biogeosciences)
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30 pages, 19420 KB  
Article
Lithospheric Structure of a Transitional Magmatic to Amagmatic Continental Rift System—Insights from Magnetotelluric and Local Tomography Studies in the North Tanzanian Divergence, East African Rift
by Matthieu Plasman, Sophie Hautot, Pascal Tarits, Stéphanie Gautier, Christel Tiberi, Bernard Le Gall, Khalfan Mtelela and Remigius Gama
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110462 - 29 Oct 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4222
Abstract
Continental break-up is controlled by several parameters and processes (rheology, inherited structures, magmatism, etc). Their impact, chronology and interactions are still poorly known and debated, particularly when rifting interacts with cratons. In order to better understand the rifting initiation in a cratonic lithosphere, [...] Read more.
Continental break-up is controlled by several parameters and processes (rheology, inherited structures, magmatism, etc). Their impact, chronology and interactions are still poorly known and debated, particularly when rifting interacts with cratons. In order to better understand the rifting initiation in a cratonic lithosphere, we analysed 22 magnetotelluric (MT) soundings collected along two East-West profiles in two different rift segments of the North Tanzanian Divergence. The North Tanzanian Divergence, where the East African Rift is at its earliest stage, is a remarkable example of the transition between magmatic to amagmatic rifting with two clearly identified segments. Only separated by a hundred kilometers, these segments, Natron (North) and Manyara (South), display contrasted morphological (wide versus narrow), volcanic (many versus a few edifices) and seismic (shallow versus deep activity) signatures. Magnetotelluric profiles across the two segments were inverted with a three-dimensional approach and supplied the resistive structure of the upper lithosphere (down to about 70 km). The Natron segment has a rather conductive lithosphere containing several resistive features (Proterozoic Belt), whereas the Manyara segment displays highly resistive blocks probably of cratonic nature encompassing a conductive structure under the axial valley. The joint interpretation of these models with recent local and regional seismological studies highlights totally different structures and processes involved in the two segments of the North Tanzanian Divergence. We identified contrasted CO2 content, magma upwelling or trapping, in depth regarding the Manyara or the Natron branch and the influence of inherited cratonic structures in the rifting dynamics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The East African Rift: Tectonics, Magmatism and Natural Hazards)
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22 pages, 3734 KB  
Article
Hydrology of Mountain Blocks in Arizona and New Mexico as Revealed by Isotopes in Groundwater and Precipitation
by Christopher J. Eastoe and William E. Wright
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110461 - 28 Oct 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4680
Abstract
Mountain-block groundwater in the Southern Basin-and-Range Province shows a variety of patterns of δ18O and δ2H that indicate multiple recharge mechanisms. At 2420 m above sea level (masl) in Tucson Basin, seasonal amount-weighted means of δ18O and [...] Read more.
Mountain-block groundwater in the Southern Basin-and-Range Province shows a variety of patterns of δ18O and δ2H that indicate multiple recharge mechanisms. At 2420 m above sea level (masl) in Tucson Basin, seasonal amount-weighted means of δ18O and δ2H for summer are −8.3, −53‰, and for winter, −10.8 and −70‰, respectively. Elevation-effect coefficients for δ18O and δ2H are as follows: summer, −1.6 and −7.7 ‰ per km and winter, −1.1 and −8.9 ‰ per km. Little altitude effect exists in 25% of seasons studied. At 2420 masl, amount-weighted monthly averages of δ18O and δ2H decrease in summer but increase in winter as precipitation intensity increases. In snow-banks, δ18O and δ2H commonly plots close to the winter local meteoric water line (LMWL). Four principal patterns of (δ18O, δ2H) data have been identified: (1) data plotting along LMWLs for all precipitation at >1800 masl; (2) data plotting along modified LMWLs for the wettest 30% of months at <1700 masl; (3) evaporation trends at all elevations; (4) other patterns, including those affected by ancient groundwater. Young, tritiated groundwater predominates in studied mountain blocks. Ancient groundwater forms separate systems and mixes with young groundwater. Recharge mechanisms reflect a complex interplay of precipitation season, altitude, precipitation intensity, groundwater age and geology. Tucson Basin alluvium receives mountain-front recharge containing 50%–90% winter precipitation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater in arid and semiarid areas)
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23 pages, 6788 KB  
Article
Analysis of the Possibility of Environmental Pollution by Composted Biodegradable and Oxo-Biodegradable Plastics
by Florentyna Markowicz and Agata Szymańska-Pulikowska
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110460 - 27 Oct 2019
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7773
Abstract
Composting the municipal organic fraction of waste results in a valuable product in the form of compost, which could be used instead of other forms of fertilisation. The organic waste stream may contain oxo-biodegradable and biodegradable plastics used for waste collection. Their components [...] Read more.
Composting the municipal organic fraction of waste results in a valuable product in the form of compost, which could be used instead of other forms of fertilisation. The organic waste stream may contain oxo-biodegradable and biodegradable plastics used for waste collection. Their components and decomposition residues may contaminate the compost chemically and physically. In this paper, the results of studies on the content of selected macro- and microelements in new and composted plastics have been analysed. Statistical analyses were carried out in order to determine the most characteristic components of plastics and to determine the character of chemical composition changes. The analysis of the test results showed that multidirectional changes in the content of macro- and microelements occur during composting, and they may be the source of contamination of the fertiliser produced. Contaminants in the form of microplastics may also be released into the environment, which may pose a threat to many elements of the environment, including animals and humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Waste Management and Environmental Remediation)
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40 pages, 61344 KB  
Article
Hydrothermal Carbonate Mineralization, Calcretization, and Microbial Diagenesis Associated with Multiple Sedimentary Phases in the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme Formation, Kurdistan Region-Iraq
by Namam Salih, Howri Mansurbeg, Kamal Kolo and Alain Préat
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110459 - 26 Oct 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7771
Abstract
Hydrothermal diagenesis during the Zagros Orogeny produced three phases of saddle dolomites (SD1, SD2, and SD3) and two phases of blocky calcites (CI and CII) in the studied sections of Bekhme Formation (Fm) (Campanian–Maastrichtian). Field observations, as well as petrographic, cathodoluminescence (CL), Scanning [...] Read more.
Hydrothermal diagenesis during the Zagros Orogeny produced three phases of saddle dolomites (SD1, SD2, and SD3) and two phases of blocky calcites (CI and CII) in the studied sections of Bekhme Formation (Fm) (Campanian–Maastrichtian). Field observations, as well as petrographic, cathodoluminescence (CL), Scanning Elecron Microscope (SEM), and oxygen–carbon isotope analyses, indicated that the unit went through multiple submergence–emergence phases after or during hydrothermal diagenesis. These phases resulted in a characteristic calcretized 2–6-m-thick layer within the Bekhme Fm. Several pedogenic textures (e.g., alveolar, pisolite, and laminar fabric microfeatures) were observed. Strong evidence of microbial alteration and diagenesis in this formation brings new insights into its depositional history. The microbial activities developed on the original mineral surface were associated with a great variety of processes including dissolution, re-precipitation, replacement, open-space fillings, microporosity development, grain bridging, and micritization. Probable oxalate pseudomorphs embedded in these fabrics and regular filaments preserved along crystal boundaries suggest the activity of fungi, while frequent coccoidal, rod-like, and chain-like forms attached to the surfaces of dolomitic and calcitic crystals point to bacterial colonization. Extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) was often visible with fungal and bacterial forms. These features, together with stable isotope data, invoke that near-surface conditions occurred sporadically in the Bekhme Fm after the first generation of hydrothermal dolomitization. These new findings allow recognition of unreported sedimentological phases based on new evidence in the Spelek–Sulauk area during the Upper Cretaceous. Full article
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17 pages, 3976 KB  
Article
Identification and Analysis of Sets Variables for of Municipal Waste Management Modelling
by Krzysztof Nęcka, Tomasz Szul and Jarosław Knaga
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110458 - 25 Oct 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3362
Abstract
Due to the large quantities of municipal waste generated, their harmful effects on the environment should be minimized. The rationalization of waste management is therefore necessary to achieve a more sustainable development system. In order to support the decision-making process for municipal waste [...] Read more.
Due to the large quantities of municipal waste generated, their harmful effects on the environment should be minimized. The rationalization of waste management is therefore necessary to achieve a more sustainable development system. In order to support the decision-making process for municipal waste management, this document focuses on developing models for practical use by local authorities in forecasting and managing the size of waste stream in their area. This action, because of its specificity, is a difficult task, especially because of the systemic changes made and the territorial differentiation and changes in the living level of the population. The work presents studies conducted in 2479 municipalities for which mass accumulation index forecasts were developed, using selected methods based on readily available input variables that have not yet been used (structure municipalities and typology of municipalities by scope of influence). The studies confirmed the hypothesis that the amount of municipal waste collected from households depends both on the administrative type of the municipality and on the factors related to the location and socioeconomic function of the area. The inclusion of localization and socioeconomic factors, which so far were not used to model the municipal waste stream, allowed for the reduction of the prediction error of this indicator. Relevant waste stream forecasts will allow local governments to achieve more effectively the objective of sustainable waste management and thus reduce their environmental impact. The achievement of this objective will be possible not only through the preparation of infrastructure to serve the projected waste volumes; it will also identify the waste management areas where the municipal waste reception process is inadequate. Thus, it will help to eliminate illegal processing and the landfill of waste. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Waste Management and Environmental Remediation)
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14 pages, 3099 KB  
Article
Analysis of the Space–Temporal Trends of Wet Conditions in the Different Rainy Seasons of Brazilian Northeast by Quantile Regression and Bootstrap Test
by Rodrigo Lins da Rocha Júnior, Fabrício Daniel dos Santos Silva, Rafaela Lisboa Costa, Heliofábio Barros Gomes, Dirceu Luis Herdies, Vicente de Paulo Rodrigues da Silva and Alexandre Candido Xavier
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110457 - 24 Oct 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3738
Abstract
Drought causes serious social and environmental problems that have great impact on the lives of thousands of people all around the world. The purpose of this research was to investigate the trends in humid conditions in the northeast of Brazil (NEB) in the [...] Read more.
Drought causes serious social and environmental problems that have great impact on the lives of thousands of people all around the world. The purpose of this research was to investigate the trends in humid conditions in the northeast of Brazil (NEB) in the highest climatic precipitation quarters, November–December–January (NDJ), February–March–April (FMA), and May–June–July (MJJ), through the standardized precipitation and evapotranspiration index (SPEI), considering an alternative statistical approach. Precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (PET) time series for the calculation of the SPEI were extracted for the 1794 NEB municipalities between 1980 and 2015 from a grid dataset with a resolution of 0.25° × 0.25° using the bilinear interpolation method. The trends and statistical significance of the SPEI were estimated by quantile regression (QR) and the bootstrap test. In NDJ, opposite trends were seen in the eastern NEB (~0.5 SPEI/decade) and in the south (~−0.6 SPEI/decade). In FMA, most of NEB presented negative trends in the 0.50 and 0.95 quantiles (~−0.3 SPEI/decade), while in MJJ, most of NEB presented positive trends in all quantiles studied (~0.4 SPEI/decade). The results are consistent with observational analyses of extreme rainfall. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards)
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20 pages, 4149 KB  
Article
Fossilized Endolithic Microorganisms in Pillow Lavas from the Troodos Ophiolite, Cyprus
by Diana-Thean Carlsson, Magnus Ivarsson and Anna Neubeck
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110456 - 23 Oct 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3979
Abstract
The last decade has revealed the igneous oceanic crust to host a more abundant and diverse biota than previously expected. These underexplored rock-hosted deep ecosystems dominated Earth’s biosphere prior to plants colonized land in the Ordovician, thus the fossil record of deep endoliths [...] Read more.
The last decade has revealed the igneous oceanic crust to host a more abundant and diverse biota than previously expected. These underexplored rock-hosted deep ecosystems dominated Earth’s biosphere prior to plants colonized land in the Ordovician, thus the fossil record of deep endoliths holds invaluable clues to early life and the work to decrypt them needs to be intensified. Here, we present fossilized microorganisms found in open and sealed pore spaces in pillow lavas from the Troodos Ophiolite (91 Ma) on Cyprus. A fungal interpretation is inferred upon the microorganisms based on characteristic morphological features. Geochemical conditions are reconstructed using data from mineralogy, fluid inclusions and the fossils themselves. Mineralogy indicates at least three hydrothermal events and a continuous increase of temperature and pH. Precipitation of 1) celadonite and saponite together with the microbial introduction was followed by 2) Na and Ca zeolites resulting in clay adherence on the microorganisms as protection, and finally 3) Ca carbonates resulted in final fossilization and preservation of the organisms in-situ. Deciphering the fossil record of the deep subseafloor biosphere is a challenging task, but when successful, can unlock doors to life’s cryptic past. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tracking the Deep Biosphere through Time)
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