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Atmosphere
Volume 11
Issue 10
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Atmosphere, Volume 11, Issue 10 (October 2020) – 119 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The Gulf Coast is prone to mercury contaminated food webs. The atmosphere plays a critical role in cycling and transporting mercury to this ecosystem. Inexpensive passive air samplers were deployed along the Mississippi and Alabama shoreline over the course of a year. Seasonal and spatial variations observed in gaseous elemental mercury concentrations demonstrate that that this approach can provide insight into atmospheric mercury levels and the factors affecting them along coastal regions. View this paper
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26 pages, 4625 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Horizontal Homogeneity of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (HHABL) Profile Using Different CFD Software
by Islam Abohela, Elsa Aristodemou, Abas Hadawey and Raveendran Sundararajan
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1138; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101138 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3545
Abstract
One of the main factors affecting the reliability of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations for the urban environment is the Horizontal Homogeneity of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (HHABL) profile—meaning the vertical profiles of the mean streamwise velocity, the turbulent kinetic energy, and dissipation [...] Read more.
One of the main factors affecting the reliability of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations for the urban environment is the Horizontal Homogeneity of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (HHABL) profile—meaning the vertical profiles of the mean streamwise velocity, the turbulent kinetic energy, and dissipation rate are maintained throughout the streamwise direction of the computational domain. This paper investigates the preservation of the HHABL profile using three different commercial CFD codes—the ANSYS Fluent, the ANSYS CFD, and the Siemens STAR-CCM+ software. Three different cases were considered, identified by their different inlet conditions for the inlet velocity, turbulent kinetic energy, and dissipation rate profiles. Simulations were carried out using the RANS k-ε turbulence model. Slight variations in the eddy viscosity models, as well as in the wall boundary conditions, were identified in the different software, with the standard wall function with roughness being implemented in the Fluent applications, the scalable wall function with roughness in the CFX applications, and the blended wall function option in the STAR-CCM+ simulations. There was a slight difference in the meshing approach in the three different software, with a prism-layer option in the STAR-CCM+ software, which allowed a finer mesh near the wall/ground boundary. The results show all three software are able to preserve the horizontal homogeneity of the ABL—less than 0.5% difference between the software—indicating very similar degrees of accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Modeling Study)
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15 pages, 4831 KiB  
Article
Impact of the COVID-19 Outbreak on Air Quality in Korea
by Ji Hoon Seo, Hyun Woo Jeon, Ui Jae Sung and Jong-Ryeul Sohn
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1137; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101137 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 8088
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has led countries to take action, which has included practicing social distancing or lockdown. Many cities are experiencing air quality improvements due to human activity restrictions. The purpose of this study was to compare the air quality between 2020 and [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic has led countries to take action, which has included practicing social distancing or lockdown. Many cities are experiencing air quality improvements due to human activity restrictions. The purpose of this study was to compare the air quality between 2020 and the previous three years, focusing on the two cities (Seoul and Daegu) where coronavirus is spreading the fastest in Korea. Significant decreases in PM2.5, PM10, CO, and NO2 were observed in both cities. In particular, compared to the same period of 2017-2019, in March 2020, PM2.5 showed remarkable reductions of 36% and 30% in Seoul and Daegu, respectively. The effects of social distancing have maximized improvements in air quality due to reduced transboundary pollutants. The PM2.5/PM10 ratio was significantly reduced after social distancing, indicating that the contribution of traffic-related PM2.5 declined. Air quality improved overall from January to July, and the most noticeable drop in the air quality index (AQI) was observed in April. These findings indicate that relatively weak social distancing measures compared to a COVID-19 lockdown can help reduce air pollutant levels. At the same time, however, changes in air quality in the neighboring countries caused by COVID-19 control action are affecting Korea. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Quality Assessment and Management)
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18 pages, 1031 KiB  
Review
The Importance of Microbial Inoculants in a Climate-Changing Agriculture in Eastern Mediterranean Region
by Athanasia Kavadia, Michalis Omirou, Dionysia Fasoula and Ioannis M. Ioannides
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1136; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101136 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5591
Abstract
Climate change has gained importance due to its severe consequences for many aspects of life. Increasing temperature, drought and greenhouse gases affect directly or indirectly the productivity of agricultural and natural ecosystems as well as human health. The nutrient supply capacity of the [...] Read more.
Climate change has gained importance due to its severe consequences for many aspects of life. Increasing temperature, drought and greenhouse gases affect directly or indirectly the productivity of agricultural and natural ecosystems as well as human health. The nutrient supply capacity of the soil is diminishing, while food requirements for the growing population are increasing. The ongoing application of agrochemicals results in adverse effects on ecosystem functioning and food chain. Now, more than ever, there is a need to mitigate the effects of agricultural activities on climate change using environmentally friendly techniques. The role of plant beneficial microorganisms on this global challenge is increasingly being explored, and there is strong evidence that could be important. The use of functional microbial guilds forms an alternative or even a supplementary approach to common agricultural practices, due to their ability to act as biofertilizers and promote plant growth. Application of microbial inocula has a significantly lower impact on the environment compared to chemical inputs, while the agricultural sector will financially benefit, and consumers will have access to quality products. Microbial inoculants could play an important role in agricultural stress management and ameliorate the negative impacts of climate change. This short review highlights the role of microbes in benefiting agricultural practices against climate-changing conditions. In particular, the main microbial plant growth-promoting functional traits that are related to climate change are presented and discussed. The importance of microbial inoculants’ multifunctionality is debated, while future needs and challenges are also highlighted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptation of Cyprus Agriculture to Climate Change)
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15 pages, 81195 KiB  
Article
North–South Discrepancy of Interannual Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies over the South China Sea Associated with Eastern Pacific El Niño Events in the Spring
by Yujie Liu and Shuang Li
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1135; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101135 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2721
Abstract
This paper discovers a spatial feature of interannual sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies over the South China Sea (SCS) in the boreal spring, based on the Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA) monthly data in the period from January 1958 to December 2010. The [...] Read more.
This paper discovers a spatial feature of interannual sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies over the South China Sea (SCS) in the boreal spring, based on the Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA) monthly data in the period from January 1958 to December 2010. The Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis of interannual SST anomalies shows a north–south discrepant pattern of the first mode, which is characterized by higher (lower) anomalies in the northern (southern) SCS and possessing seasonal phase locking (in the boreal spring). Besides, the high correlation coefficient between the time series of the first EOF mode and the Nino 3 SST anomalies during winter reveals that this discrepant pattern is likely caused by El Niño events. The composites of SST anomalies show that this discrepant pattern appears in the eastern Pacific (EP) El Niño events, while it does not exist in the Central Pacific (CP) El Niño events. It is believed that the western North Pacific anticyclone (WNPA) plays a key role in conveying the El Niño impact on the interannual variabilities of SCS SST in the EP El Niño events. The anomalous anticyclone in the Philippine Sea weakens the northeasterly monsoon over the SCS by its southwest portion during the mature phases of the EP El Niño events. This anomalous atmospheric circulation contributes to the north–south discrepant pattern of the wind stress anomalies over the SCS in the EP El Niño mature winters, and then leads to the north–south dipole pattern of the contemporaneous latent heat flux anomalies. The latent heat flux is a major contributor to the surface net heat flux, and heat budget analysis shows that the net heat flux is the major contributor to the SCS SST anomalies during the spring for the EP El Niño events, and the north–south discrepancy of SCS SST anomalies in the succeeding spring is ultimately formed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air-Sea Interaction)
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15 pages, 4924 KiB  
Article
Trends and Persistence of Dry–Wet Conditions in Northeast Brazil
by Antonio Samuel Alves da Silva, Moacyr Cunha Filho, Rômulo Simões Cezar Menezes, Tatijana Stosic and Borko Stosic
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1134; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101134 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2905
Abstract
We analyze trend and persistence in Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) time series derived from monthly rainfall data at 133 gauging stations in Pernambuco state, Brazil, using a suite of complementary methods to address the spatially explicit tendencies, and persistence. SPI was calculated for [...] Read more.
We analyze trend and persistence in Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) time series derived from monthly rainfall data at 133 gauging stations in Pernambuco state, Brazil, using a suite of complementary methods to address the spatially explicit tendencies, and persistence. SPI was calculated for 1-, 3-, 6-, and 12-month time scales from 1950 to 2012. We use Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope to determine sign and magnitude of the trend, and detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) method to quantify long-term correlations. For all time scales significant negative trends are obtained in the Sertão (deep inland) region, while significant positive trends are found in the Agreste (intermediate inland), and Zona da Mata (coastal) regions. The values of DFA exponents show different scaling behavior for different time scales. For short-term conditions described by SPI-1 the DFA exponent is close to 0.5 indicating weak persistency and low predictability, while for medium-term conditions (SPI-3 and SPI-6) DFA exponents are greater than 0.5 and increase with time scale indicating stronger persistency and higher predictability. For SPI-12 that describes long-term precipitation patterns, the values of DFA exponents for inland regions are around 1, indicating strong persistency, while in the shoreline the value of the DFA exponent is between 1.0 and 1.5, indicating anti-persistent fractional Brownian motion. These results should be useful for agricultural planning and water resource management in the region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Agrometeorological Time Series)
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19 pages, 8168 KiB  
Article
Effect of Natural Forest Fires on Regional Weather Conditions in Siberia
by Alexander Kirsanov, Inna Rozinkina, Gdaliy Rivin, Denis Zakharchenko and Alexander Olchev
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101133 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3906
Abstract
Effects of forest fires on regional weather conditions were analyzed for Central and Eastern Siberia after warm and dry weather conditions in summer 2019 using COSMO-Ru (COnsortium for Small-scale MOdeling; Ru—Russia) and COSMO-RuART (ART—Aerosols and Reactive Trace gases) model systems. Four series of [...] Read more.
Effects of forest fires on regional weather conditions were analyzed for Central and Eastern Siberia after warm and dry weather conditions in summer 2019 using COSMO-Ru (COnsortium for Small-scale MOdeling; Ru—Russia) and COSMO-RuART (ART—Aerosols and Reactive Trace gases) model systems. Four series of numerical experiments were conducted (one control experiment and three forest fire experiments assuming total vegetation destruction within the burned areas) to evaluate possible effects of forest fires on surface albedo and vegetation properties as well as their influence on air chemistry and aerosol concentration in the atmosphere. The modeling results showed significant influence of forest fires on regional weather conditions that occurred over large areas situated even away from burnt regions. Decreased surface albedo and reduced latent heat fluxes due to fire-induced destruction of forest cover lead to higher near-surface air temperature and lower air humidity in both burned and surrounding unburned forest areas. On the other hand, reduced incoming solar radiation due to smoke from forest fire plumes decreased land surface temperatures and increased thermal atmospheric stability resulting in reduced regional precipitation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Response of Boreal and Tropical Forest Ecosystems to Extreme Weather Events)
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16 pages, 8699 KiB  
Article
Impacts on Brake Particle Emission Testing
by Sebastian Gramstat, Thilo Mertens, Robert Waninger and Dmytro Lugovyy
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1132; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101132 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3678
Abstract
The presented article picks out brake particle emission testing as a central theme. Those emissions are part of the so-called non-exhaust emissions, which play an increasing role for particle emissions from transportation. The authors propose a laboratory test setup by using a brake [...] Read more.
The presented article picks out brake particle emission testing as a central theme. Those emissions are part of the so-called non-exhaust emissions, which play an increasing role for particle emissions from transportation. The authors propose a laboratory test setup by using a brake dynamometer and a constant volume sampling approach to determine the emissions in regard to the particle number concentration. Several impacts were investigated while the same test cycle (novel worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure (novel-WLTP)) was applied. In a first item, the importance of the bedding process was investigated and it is shown that friction couples without bedding emit much more particles. Furthermore, the efforts for reaching a bedded friction state are discussed. Additionally, the impact of brake lining compositions is investigated and shows that NAO concepts own crucial advantages in terms of brake particle emissions. Another impact, the vehicle weight and inertia, respectively, shows how important lightweight measures and brake cooling improvements are. Finally, the role of the load profile is discussed, which shows the importance of driving parameters like vehicle speed and reservoir dynamics. The authors show that, under urban driving conditions, extreme low particle emissions are detected. Furthermore, it is explained that off-brake emissions can play a relevant role in regard to brake particle emissions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Study of Brake Wear Particle Emissions)
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12 pages, 1819 KiB  
Article
Determining the Impact of Wildland Fires on Ground Level Ambient Ozone Levels in California
by Ricardo Cisneros, Haiganoush K. Preisler, Donald Schweizer and Hamed Gharibi
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101131 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2727
Abstract
Wildland fire smoke is visible and detectable with remote sensing technology. Using this technology to assess ground level pollutants and the impacts to human health and exposure is more difficult. We found the presence of satellite derived smoke plumes for more than a [...] Read more.
Wildland fire smoke is visible and detectable with remote sensing technology. Using this technology to assess ground level pollutants and the impacts to human health and exposure is more difficult. We found the presence of satellite derived smoke plumes for more than a couple of hours in the previous three days has significant impact on the chances of ground level ozone values exceeding the norm. While the magnitude of the impact will depend on characteristics of fires such as size, location, time in transport, or ozone precursors produced by the fire, we demonstrate that information on satellite derived smoke plumes together with site specific regression models provide useful information for supporting causal relationship between smoke from fire and ozone exceedances of the norm. Our results indicated that fire seasons increasing the median ozone level by 15 ppb. However, they seem to have little impact on the metric used for regulatory compliance, in particular at urban sites, except possibly during the 2008 forest fires in California. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Statistical Approaches to Investigate Air Quality)
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24 pages, 5517 KiB  
Article
Influence of Climate Variability on Soybean Yield in MATOPIBA, Brazil
by Layara Reis, Cláudio Moisés Santos e Silva, Bergson Bezerra, Pedro Mutti, Maria Helena Spyrides, Pollyanne Silva, Thaynar Magalhães, Rosaria Ferreira, Daniele Rodrigues and Lara Andrade
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1130; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101130 - 21 Oct 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5704
Abstract
The objective of this study was to analyze the influence of large-scale atmospheric–oceanic mechanisms (El Niño–Southern Oscillation—ENSO and the inter-hemispheric thermal gradient of the Tropical Atlantic) on the spatial–temporal variability of soy yield in MATOPIBA. The following, available in the literature, were used: [...] Read more.
The objective of this study was to analyze the influence of large-scale atmospheric–oceanic mechanisms (El Niño–Southern Oscillation—ENSO and the inter-hemispheric thermal gradient of the Tropical Atlantic) on the spatial–temporal variability of soy yield in MATOPIBA. The following, available in the literature, were used: (i) daily meteorological data from 1980 to 2013 (Xavier et al., 2016); (ii) (chemical, physical, and hydric) properties of the predominant soil class in the area of interest, available at the World Inventory of Soil Emission Potentials platform; (iii) genetic coefficients of soybean cultivar with Relative Maturity Group adapted to the conditions of the region. The simulations were performed using the CROPGRO-Soybean culture model of the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) system, considering sowing dates between the months of October and December of 33 agricultural years, as well as for three meteorological scenarios (climatology, favorable-wet, and unfavorable-dry). Results showed that the different climate scenarios can alter the spatial patterns of agricultural risk. In the favorable-wet scenario, there was a greater probability of an increase in yield and a greater favorable window for sowing soybean, while in the unfavorable-dry scenario these values were lower. However, considering the unfavorable-dry scenario, in some areas the reduction in yield losses will depend on the chosen planting date. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)
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15 pages, 3498 KiB  
Article
Accumulation Characteristics of Metals and Metalloids in Plants Collected from Ny-Ålesund, Arctic
by Hongmei Ma, Guitao Shi and Yongqian Cheng
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101129 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2752
Abstract
Toxic elements can be transported to polar regions by long-range atmospheric transport from mid and low latitudes, leading to enrichment of elements in the polar environment, especially in the Arctic. The plants can be ideal bioindicators of element contamination in environments, but information [...] Read more.
Toxic elements can be transported to polar regions by long-range atmospheric transport from mid and low latitudes, leading to enrichment of elements in the polar environment, especially in the Arctic. The plants can be ideal bioindicators of element contamination in environments, but information on the element enrichment and sources of plants remains limited in polar regions. Here, concentrations of 15 metals and metalloids (Pb, Ni, Cr, Cu, Co, As, Cd, Sb, Hg, Se, Fe, Zn, Mn, Al, and Ti) in six species of plants, Deschampsia caespitosa (Tufted Hair Grass), Puccinellia phryganodes (Creeping Alkaligrass), Saxifraga aizoides (Yellow Mountain Saxifrage), Dicranum angustum (Dicranum Moss), Salix Polaris (Polar Willow), and Cerastium arcticum (Arctic Mouse-Ear Chickweed), collected from Ny-Ålesund, the Arctic, were determined, and enrichment and sources of elements were assessed. Results show that element concentrations vary in different plant species, and element levels in D. angustum and C. arcticum are generally higher. In spatial terms, elevated element concentrations were found near residential areas, while low element levels were present at the sites far from settlement points. Enrichment assessment shows that Cd, Hg, and Zn are the most enriched elements, with enrichment factors above 30, suggesting sources other than soil dust control their concentrations. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the extracted three components can explain 82% of the total variance in element concentrations. The elements Ni, Cr, As, Sb, Fe, Al, Ti, and to a lesser extent Co are highly loaded in PC1, possibly associated with continental crust particles. PC2 is closely correlated with Cd, Se, Mn, Cu, and Zn, while Hg and Pb have high loadings on PC3. The elements highly loaded on PC2 and PC3 are likely associated with pollutants from atmospheric transportation. Together with enrichment assessment, the investigated plants have a great potential for monitoring atmospheric Cd, Hg, and Zn pollution in Ny-Ålesund, and D. angustum and D. caespitosa are the more sensitive species. The results would be of significance for monitoring element contamination in the pristine Arctic environments using the bioindicator plants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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17 pages, 4499 KiB  
Article
Impact of Lightning NOx Emissions on Atmospheric Composition and Meteorology in Africa and Europe
by Laurent Menut, Bertrand Bessagnet, Sylvain Mailler, Romain Pennel and Guillaume Siour
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1128; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101128 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2875
Abstract
NOx emissions from lightning have been added to the CHIMERE v2020r1 model using a parameterization based on convective clouds. In order to estimate the impact of these emissions on pollutant concentrations, two simulations, using the online coupled WRF-CHIMERE models with and without [...] Read more.
NOx emissions from lightning have been added to the CHIMERE v2020r1 model using a parameterization based on convective clouds. In order to estimate the impact of these emissions on pollutant concentrations, two simulations, using the online coupled WRF-CHIMERE models with and without NOx emissions from lightning, have been carried out over the months of July and August 2013 and over a large area covering Europe and the northern part of Africa. The results show that these emissions modify the pollutant concentrations as well as the meteorology. The changes are most significant where the strongest emissions are located. Adding these emissions improves Aerosol Optical Depth in Africa but has a limited impact on the surface concentrations of pollutants in Europe. For the two-month average we find that the maximum changes are localized and may reach ±0.5 K for 2 m temperature, ±0.5 m s−1 for 10 m wind speed, 10 W m−2 for short wave radiation surface flux, and 50 and 2 μg m−3 for dust and sea salt surface concentrations, respectively. This leads to maximum changes of 1 μg m−3 for surface concentrations of PM2.5. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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19 pages, 719 KiB  
Article
Using Seasonal Forecast as an Adaptation Strategy: Gender Differential Impact on Yield and Income in Senegal
by Ndeye Seynabou Diouf, Mathieu Ouedraogo, Issa Ouedraogo, Gnalenba Ablouka and Robert Zougmoré
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1127; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101127 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3461
Abstract
The use of seasonal forecast has been demonstrated as a good option to reduce the effects of climate variability in sub-Saharan African countries. However, its use, benefits and interests may be different depending on gender. This paper aims at analyzing the gender differential [...] Read more.
The use of seasonal forecast has been demonstrated as a good option to reduce the effects of climate variability in sub-Saharan African countries. However, its use, benefits and interests may be different depending on gender. This paper aims at analyzing the gender differential impact of the use of seasonal forecast on the main crop yields (rice, maize, sorghum, millet and groundnut) and farm income in Senegal. We collected data from 1481 farmers (44% women) in four regions of Senegal. We applied the counterfactual outcomes framework of modern evaluation theory to estimate the local average treatment effect (LATE) of the use of the seasonal forecast on crop yield and farm income. The results showed a significant impact of the use of the seasonal forecast (SF) in the main crop yields and the agricultural income for farmers in Senegal. This impact varies according to the sex and the type of the crops. The users (men and women) of the seasonal forecast gained on average 158 kg/ha and 140 kg/ha more yield than the non-users, respectively, for millet and rice crops. The impact of the use of SF is greater for men on millet (202.7 kg/ha vs. 16.7 kg/ha) and rice (321.33 kg/ha vs. −25.3 kg/ha). However, it is greater for women on maize (210 kg/ha vs. −105 kg/ha). Potential users of seasonal forecast had also a positive and significant impact of 41$ per ha on the income. The additional income is more important for men (56$) than women (11$). These findings suggest that the use of seasonal forecast increases the productivity of rural communities and affects men and women differently. The access to and use of SF should therefore be widely promoted among farmers’ organizations; women’s associations should be particularly targeted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Inclusive and Operational Weather and Climate Services to Strengthen Resilience to Climate Change)
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21 pages, 4420 KiB  
Article
Populus nigra Italica Leaves as a Valuable Tool for Mineralogical and Geochemical Interpretation of Inorganic Atmospheric Aerosols’ Genesis
by Maciej Górka, Wojciech Bartz, Alisa Skuridina and Anna Potysz
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101126 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2954
Abstract
The Olmaliq industrial area in Uzbekistan is believed to represent a risk to the environment and to human health due to the dispersal of contaminants into the air and soil. This study was undertaken to delineate the track of airborne contaminants’ migration and [...] Read more.
The Olmaliq industrial area in Uzbekistan is believed to represent a risk to the environment and to human health due to the dispersal of contaminants into the air and soil. This study was undertaken to delineate the track of airborne contaminants’ migration and to assess the distribution of such particles deposited on Populus nigra L. cv Italica leaves and soils. Particles were identified using scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), while bulk soil composition was quantified by applying inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The results of this study confirmed the research hypothesis, indicating the industrial center as a source of pollution and human exposure to metallic contaminants. The Olmaliq area in particular is strongly influenced by atmospheric pollutants from local industries. The spread of ultra-fine particles is mainly governed by the industrial output and the direction of prevailing winds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metals in Ambient Particles: Sources and Effects on Human Health)
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14 pages, 7641 KiB  
Article
Kriging Interpolation in Modelling Tropospheric Wet Delay
by Hongyang Ma, Qile Zhao, Sandra Verhagen, Dimitrios Psychas and Han Dun
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1125; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101125 - 20 Oct 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3233
Abstract
This contribution implements the Kriging interpolation in predicting the tropospheric wet delays using global navigation satellite system networks. The predicted tropospheric delays can be used in strengthening the precise point positioning models and numerical weather prediction models. In order to evaluate the performances [...] Read more.
This contribution implements the Kriging interpolation in predicting the tropospheric wet delays using global navigation satellite system networks. The predicted tropospheric delays can be used in strengthening the precise point positioning models and numerical weather prediction models. In order to evaluate the performances of the Kriging interpolation, a sparse network with 8 stations and a dense network with 19 stations from continuously operating reference stations (CORS) of the Netherlands are selected as the reference. In addition, other 15 CORS stations are selected as users, which are divided into three blocks: 5 stations located approximately in the center of the networks, 5 stations on the edge of the networks and 5 stations outside the networks. The zenith tropospheric wet delays are estimated at the network and user stations through the ionosphere-free positioning model; meanwhile, the predicted wet delays at the user stations are generated by the Kriging interpolation in the use of the tropospheric estimations at the network. The root mean square errors (RMSE) are calculated by comparing the predicted wet delays and estimated wet delays at the same user station. The results show that RMSEs of the stations inside the network are at a sub-centimeter level with an average value of 0.74 cm in the sparse network and 0.69 cm in the dense network. The stations on edge and outside the network can also achieve 1-cm level accuracy, which overcomes the limitation that accurate interpolations can only be attained inside the network. This contribution also presents an insignificant improvement of the prediction accuracy from the sparse network to the dense network over 1-year’s data processing and a seasonal effect on the tropospheric wet delay predictions. Full article
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21 pages, 9275 KiB  
Review
Evaluating Land Suitability and Potential Climate Change Impacts on Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) Production in Ethiopia
by Sintayehu Alemayehu, Essayas K. Ayana, Yihun T. Dile, Teferi Demissie, Yohannes Yimam, Evan Girvetz, Ermias Aynekulu, Dawit Solomon and Abeyou W. Worqlul
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1124; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101124 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5575
Abstract
Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa with 35 million tropical livestock units. The livestock system relies on natural open grazing which is affected by frequent droughts. However, little research exists that studies the suitability of the biophysical environment for fodder production [...] Read more.
Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa with 35 million tropical livestock units. The livestock system relies on natural open grazing which is affected by frequent droughts. However, little research exists that studies the suitability of the biophysical environment for fodder production and the risks due to climate change. The main objectives of the study are to evaluate the potential effects of climate change on land suitability for alfalfa production in Ethiopia and to assess the extent of irrigation requirements for alfalfa growing under the adverse climate change projections. The impact of climate change on land suitability for alfalfa was evaluated using projected changes in rainfall and temperature based on three global circulation models (CCSM4, HadGEM2-AO, and MIROC5). A multi-criteria evaluation in GIS that uses biophysical, climatic and topography factors was applied to identify the suitable land. The highly suitable area under current climate scenarios covered ~472,000 km2, while moderately suitable and marginally suitable covered ~397,000 km2 and ~16,200 km2, respectively. The projected climate alters the suitable land for fodder production across Ethiopia. Expansion of suitable land occurred in the highlands where climate scenarios predict an increase in temperature and precipitation. Dryland regions showed a rainfall deficit for the three model projections. The research provides guidelines for growing alfalfa in Ethiopia considering ecological and climatic variability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Its Impact on Crops)
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21 pages, 19536 KiB  
Article
Identification of Tropical Cyclones’ Critical Positions Associated with Extreme Precipitation Events in Central America
by Hugo G. Hidalgo, Eric J. Alfaro, Franklin HernÃandez-Castro and Paula M. Pérez-Briceño
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101123 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4195
Abstract
Tropical cyclones are one of the most important causes of disasters in Central America. Using historical (1970–2010) tracks of cyclones in the Caribbean and Pacific basin, we identify critical path locations where these low-pressure systems cause the highest number of floods in a [...] Read more.
Tropical cyclones are one of the most important causes of disasters in Central America. Using historical (1970–2010) tracks of cyclones in the Caribbean and Pacific basin, we identify critical path locations where these low-pressure systems cause the highest number of floods in a set of 88 precipitation stations in the region. Results show that tropical cyclones from the Caribbean and Pacific basin produce a large number of indirect impacts on the Pacific slope of the Central American isthmus. Although the direct impact of a tropical cyclone usually results in devastation in the affected region, the indirect effects are more common and sometimes equally severe. In fact, the storm does not need to be an intense hurricane to cause considerable impacts and damage. The location of even a lower intensity storm in critical positions of the oceanic basin can result in destructive indirect impacts in Central America. The identification of critical positions can be used for emergency agencies in the region to issue alerts of possible flooding and catastrophic events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Central America and Caribbean Hydrometeorology and Hydroclimate)
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15 pages, 4759 KiB  
Review
NLOS Communication: Theory and Experiments in the Atmosphere and Underwater
by Vladimir V. Belov, Irit Juwiler, Nathan Blaunstein, Mikhail V. Tarasenkov and Egor S. Poznakharev
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1122; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101122 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3294
Abstract
In this paper, we present investigations of non-line-of-sight (NLOS) communication carried out in Russia and in collaboration with researchers in Israel. The theories of radiative transfer and linear systems provide the theoretical basis for this joint research, and experimental results demonstrate that maximal [...] Read more.
In this paper, we present investigations of non-line-of-sight (NLOS) communication carried out in Russia and in collaboration with researchers in Israel. The theories of radiative transfer and linear systems provide the theoretical basis for this joint research, and experimental results demonstrate that maximal ranges for NLOS communication through atmospheric channels can reach hundreds of kilometers in the visible range and tens of kilometers in the ultraviolet (UV) range of the spectrum. Finally, we predict the range of bistatic underwater communication systems can reach hundreds of meters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric and Ocean Optics: Atmospheric Physics II)
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11 pages, 1215 KiB  
Article
Differentiation of the Athens Fine PM Profile during Economic Recession (March of 2008 Versus March of 2013): Impact of Changes in Anthropogenic Emissions and the Associated Health Effect
by Styliani Pateraki, Kyriaki-Maria Fameli, Vasiliki Assimakopoulos, Kyriaki Bairachtari, Alexandros Zagkos, Theodora Stavraka, Aikaterini Bougiatioti, Thomas Maggos and Nikolaos Mihalopoulos
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1121; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101121 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2135
Abstract
Despite the various reduction policies that have been implemented across Europe in the past few years, Particulate Matter (PM) exceedances continue to be recorded. Therefore, with the principal aim to clarify the complex association between emissions and fine particles levels, this work evaluates [...] Read more.
Despite the various reduction policies that have been implemented across Europe in the past few years, Particulate Matter (PM) exceedances continue to be recorded. Therefore, with the principal aim to clarify the complex association between emissions and fine particles levels, this work evaluates the impact of the anthropogenic contribution to the fine PM chemical profile. The fieldwork was conducted during March in 2008 and 2013 and covers the periods before and during the economic recession. The experimental data were analyzed in parallel with the emissions from the Flexible Emission Inventory for Greece and the Greater Athens Area (FEI-GREGAA). The differentiation of the mass closure results’ and the aerosols’ character is also discussed in combination with the calculated PM2.5-Air Quality Indexes. The peak in the PM load and the Particulate Organic Matter (POM) component was recorded in 2013, corresponding to the enhancement of the anthropogenic input. Although the monitoring location is traffic-impacted, the sector of heating, from both wood burning and fossil fuel, proved to be the driving force for the configuration of the obtained PM picture. Especially in 2013, its contribution was two times that of traffic. Finally, the low wind speed values led to the deterioration of the air quality, especially for the sensitive groups. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sources and Composition of Ambient Particulate Matter)
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22 pages, 5535 KiB  
Article
Minimizing Contamination from Plastic Labware in the Quantification of C16 and C18 Fatty Acids in Filter Samples of Atmospheric Particulate Matter and Their Utility in Apportioning Cooking Source Contribution to Urban PM2.5
by Yuk Ying Cheng and Jian Zhen Yu
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1120; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101120 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4427
Abstract
Palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0) are among the most abundant products in cooking emission, and thus could serve as potential molecular tracers in estimating the contributions of cooking emission to particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution in the atmosphere. Organic tracer [...] Read more.
Palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0) are among the most abundant products in cooking emission, and thus could serve as potential molecular tracers in estimating the contributions of cooking emission to particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution in the atmosphere. Organic tracer analysis in filter-based samples generally involves extraction by organic solvents, followed by filtration. In these procedures, disposable plastic labware is commonly used due to convenience and as a precaution against sample-to-sample cross contamination. However, we observed contamination for both C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids, their levels reaching 6–8 ppm in method blanks and leading to their detection in 9% and 42% of PM2.5 samples from Hong Kong, indistinguishable from the blank. We present in this work the identification of plastic syringe and plastic syringe filter disc as the contamination sources. We further demonstrated that a new method procedure using glass syringe and stainless-steel syringe filter holder offers a successful solution. The new method has reduced the contamination level from 6.6 ± 1.2 to 2.6 ± 0.9 ppm for C16:0 and from 8.9 ± 2.1 to 1.9 ± 0.8 ppm for C18:0 fatty acid. Consequently, the limit of detection (LOD) for C16:0 has decreased by 57% from 1.8 to 0.8 ppm and 56% for C18:0 fatty acid from 3.2 to 1.4 ppm. Reductions in both LOD and blank variability has allowed the increase in quantification rate of the two fatty acids in ambient samples and thereby retrieving more data for estimating the contribution of cooking emission to ambient PM2.5. With the assistance of three cooking related tracers, palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0) and cholesterol, positive matrix factorization analysis of a dataset of PM2.5 samples collected from urban Hong Kong resolved a cooking emission source. The results indicate that cooking was a significant local PM2.5 source, contributing to an average of 2.2 µgC/m3 (19%) to organic carbon at a busy downtown roadside location and 1.8 µgC/m3 (15%) at a general urban site. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Analysis Methods for Particle-Phase Pollutants)
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12 pages, 1570 KiB  
Article
Simulation Analysis on the Optimal Imaging Detection Wavelength of SO2 Concentration in Ship Exhaust
by Zhenduo Zhang, Wenbo Zheng, Kai Cao, Ying Li and Ming Xie
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1119; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101119 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2548
Abstract
The SO2 discharged by ships causes serious pollution to the atmosphere. Therefore, the International Maritime Organization has set strict requirements on the sulfur content of marine fuel. For the first time, this study investigates the optimal detection wavelength based on the imaging [...] Read more.
The SO2 discharged by ships causes serious pollution to the atmosphere. Therefore, the International Maritime Organization has set strict requirements on the sulfur content of marine fuel. For the first time, this study investigates the optimal detection wavelength based on the imaging technology to realize an accurate monitoring of the SO2 concentration in ship exhaust. First, a simulation analysis model of the optimal imaging detection (SAMID) wavelength of the SO2 concentration in ship exhaust is proposed and analyzed in this study. Next, a bench experiment is designed. The values and the range of the gas concentration values required for the simulation are obtained. Finally, based on the principle of minimum error, the optimal detection wavelengths of the single- and the dual-wavelength imaging detection technologies are determined as 287 nm and 297 nm and 298 nm, respectively. During the SO2 concentration retrieval, the minimum values of the root mean squared error, the mean absolute error, and the mean absolute percentage error of the single- and the dual-wavelengths are 563.14 molecules/cm3, 445.11 molecules/cm3, and 347.22% and 0.62 molecules/cm3, 0.49 molecules/cm3, and 0.85%, respectively. The simulation analysis results provide a theoretical basis for the future hardware development of an optical remote sensing system based on the imaging detection technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Engine Emissions and Air Quality)
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12 pages, 1246 KiB  
Article
The Effect of the Covid-19 Lockdown on Air Quality in Three Italian Medium-Sized Cities
by Gabriele Donzelli, Lorenzo Cioni, Mariagrazia Cancellieri, Agustin Llopis Morales and Maria M. Morales Suárez-Varela
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101118 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 70 | Viewed by 6400
Abstract
Despite the societal and economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, the lockdown measures put in place by the Italian government provided an unprecedented opportunity to increase our knowledge of the effect transportation and industry-related emissions have on the air quality in our cities. [...] Read more.
Despite the societal and economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, the lockdown measures put in place by the Italian government provided an unprecedented opportunity to increase our knowledge of the effect transportation and industry-related emissions have on the air quality in our cities. This study assessed the effect of reduced emissions during the lockdown period, due to COVID-19, on air quality in three Italian cities, Florence, Pisa, and Lucca. For this study, we compared the concentration of particulate matter PM10, PM2.5, NO2, and O3 measured during the lockdown period, with values obtained in the same period of 2019. Our results show no evidence of a direct relationship between the lockdown measures implemented and PM reduction in urban centers, except in areas with heavy traffic. Consistent with recently published studies, we did, however, observe a significant decrease in NO2 concentrations among all the air-monitoring stations for each city in this study. Finally, O3 levels remained unchanged during the lockdown period. Of note, there were slight variations in the meteorological conditions for the same periods of different years. Our results suggest a need for further studies on the impact of vehicular traffic and industrial activities on PM air pollution, including adopting holistic source-control measures for improved air quality in urban environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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13 pages, 1262 KiB  
Article
Measuring the Impact of Infectious Diseases on Tourists’ Willingness to Pay to Visit Island Destinations
by Carmelo J. León, Yen E. Lam-González, Carmen García Galindo and Matías M. González Hernández
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101117 - 18 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4220
Abstract
The occurrence of infectious diseases may change tourists’ perceptions of a destination’s image and value. This article proposes and empirically tests a choice model to measure the effect of the risk of infectious disease outbreaks caused by climate change on tourists’ willingness to [...] Read more.
The occurrence of infectious diseases may change tourists’ perceptions of a destination’s image and value. This article proposes and empirically tests a choice model to measure the effect of the risk of infectious disease outbreaks caused by climate change on tourists’ willingness to pay for holidays to island destinations. With this aim, an online survey was administrated to 2538 European frequent travellers at their country of residence. Tourists were presented with a hypothetical situation whereby they had to choose among eleven well-known European island destinations for their next holiday. The choice cards included the probability of the occurrence of infectious disease events in the context of other potential risks caused by climate change (i.e., forest fires, floods, heat waves, etc.). The results show infectious disease is the risk that more negatively affects tourists’ willingness to pay to visit islands, followed by forest fires. The results have implications for tourism policy, highlighting the importance of prevention and response strategies, and the design of climate-oriented services, which may raise opportunities to work towards the enhancement of those health and environmental conditions of tourist destinations that ensure their sustainability in the longer term. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Blue Economy in Islands)
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24 pages, 2868 KiB  
Article
Multifractal Cross Correlation Analysis of Agro-Meteorological Datasets (Including Reference Evapotranspiration) of California, United States
by Adarsh Sankaran, Jaromir Krzyszczak, Piotr Baranowski, Archana Devarajan Sindhu, Nandhineekrishna Pradeep Kumar, Nityanjali Lija Jayaprakash, Vandana Thankamani and Mumtaz Ali
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1116; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101116 - 18 Oct 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3558
Abstract
The multifractal properties of six acknowledged agro-meteorological parameters, such as reference evapotranspiration (ET0), wind speed (U), incoming solar radiation (SR), air temperature (T), air pressure (P), and relative air humidity (RH) of five stations in California, USA were examined. The investigation of multifractality [...] Read more.
The multifractal properties of six acknowledged agro-meteorological parameters, such as reference evapotranspiration (ET0), wind speed (U), incoming solar radiation (SR), air temperature (T), air pressure (P), and relative air humidity (RH) of five stations in California, USA were examined. The investigation of multifractality of datasets from stations with differing terrain conditions using the Multifractal Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (MFDFA) showed the existence of a long-term persistence and multifractality irrespective of the location. The scaling exponents of SR and T time series are found to be higher for stations with higher altitudes. Subsequently, this study proposed using the novel multifractal cross correlation (MFCCA) method to examine the multiscale-multifractal correlations properties between ET0 and other investigated variables. The MFCCA could successfully capture the scale dependent association of different variables and the dynamics in the nature of their associations from weekly to inter-annual time scales. The multifractal exponents of P and U are consistently lower than the exponents of ET0, irrespective of station location. This study found that joint scaling exponent was nearly the average of scaling exponents of individual series in different pairs of variables. Additionally, the α-values of joint multifractal spectrum were lower than the α values of both of the individual spectra, validating two universal properties in the MFCCA studies for agro-meteorological time series. The temporal evolution of cross-correlation determined by the MFCCA successfully captured the dynamics in the nature of associations in the P-ET0 link. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change and Agrometeorological Time Series)
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15 pages, 3980 KiB  
Article
Aerosol Effective Radiative Forcing in the Online Aerosol Coupled CAS-FGOALS-f3-L Climate Model
by Hao Wang, Tie Dai, Min Zhao, Daisuke Goto, Qing Bao, Toshihiko Takemura, Teruyuki Nakajima and Guangyu Shi
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1115; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101115 - 17 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4822
Abstract
The effective radiative forcing (ERF) of anthropogenic aerosol can be more representative of the eventual climate response than other radiative forcing. We incorporate aerosol–cloud interaction into the Chinese Academy of Sciences Flexible Global Ocean–Atmosphere–Land System (CAS-FGOALS-f3-L) by coupling an existing aerosol module named [...] Read more.
The effective radiative forcing (ERF) of anthropogenic aerosol can be more representative of the eventual climate response than other radiative forcing. We incorporate aerosol–cloud interaction into the Chinese Academy of Sciences Flexible Global Ocean–Atmosphere–Land System (CAS-FGOALS-f3-L) by coupling an existing aerosol module named the Spectral Radiation Transport Model for Aerosol Species (SPRINTARS) and quantified the ERF and its primary components (i.e., effective radiative forcing of aerosol-radiation interactions (ERFari) and aerosol-cloud interactions (ERFaci)) based on the protocol of current Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6). The spatial distribution of the shortwave ERFari and ERFaci in CAS-FGOALS-f3-L are comparable with that of most available CMIP6 models. The global mean 2014–1850 shortwave ERFari in CAS-FGOALS-f3-L (−0.27 W m−2) is close to the multi-model means in 4 available models (−0.29 W m−2), whereas the assessing shortwave ERFaci (−1.04 W m−2) and shortwave ERF (−1.36 W m−2) are slightly stronger than the multi-model means, illustrating that the CAS-FGOALS-f3-L can reproduce the aerosol radiation effect reasonably well. However, significant diversity exists in the ERF, especially in the dominated component ERFaci, implying that the uncertainty is still large. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerosol-Climate Interaction)
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17 pages, 8827 KiB  
Article
Real-Time Prediction of Areas Susceptible to Flash Drought Development
by L. Gwen Chen, Adam Hartman, Brad Pugh, Jon Gottschalck and David Miskus
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1114; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101114 - 17 Oct 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4978
Abstract
Flash drought is a type of drought that develops quickly (usually within 2–4 weeks) in contrast to conventional, slowly evolving drought. Due to its sudden onset, flash drought is more difficult to predict and can cause major agricultural losses if it is not [...] Read more.
Flash drought is a type of drought that develops quickly (usually within 2–4 weeks) in contrast to conventional, slowly evolving drought. Due to its sudden onset, flash drought is more difficult to predict and can cause major agricultural losses if it is not forecasted in a timely manner. To improve our ability to predict flash drought, we develop a subseasonal tool to predict areas susceptible to flash drought development using the Phase 2 of the North American Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS-2) data. The tool calculates the rapid change index (RCI) using 7-day mean evapotranspiration anomalies. RCI is the accumulated magnitude of moisture stress changes (standardized differences) occurring over multiple weeks, and drought is likely to develop when RCI is negative. Since RCI changes with time, like all drought variables, it is difficult to capture drought development signals by monitoring RCI maps. In order to create an intuitive drought prediction map that directly depicts drought tendency, we use a threshold method to identify grid points with large decreases of 7-day mean evapotranspiration anomaly (i.e., RCI less than −0.5) in the last 30 days and under the condition that 3-month standardized precipitation index is less than −0.4. The real-time tool started running on 1 April 2018 at the NOAA Climate Prediction Center (CPC) and has been used to support CPC’s Monthly Drought Outlook efforts. The performance of the tool is evaluated using both retrospective and real-time predictions. The assessment shows promising results in predicting potential flash drought development, and the interplay between precipitation and high temperatures appears to be a challenge for flash drought prediction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)
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15 pages, 4243 KiB  
Article
Hygienic Condition of Different Water Sources in the Kharaa River Basin, Mongolia in the Light of a Rapid Warming Trend
by Bolor-Erdene Ochirbold, Ariuntuya Tserendorj, Katja Westphal and Daniel Karthe
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1113; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101113 - 17 Oct 2020
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3412
Abstract
Mongolia is a water-scarce land-locked country, and available water resources are utilized for multiple purposes including irrigation, food preparation, drinking water for livestock and people. Limited data availability on water hygiene means that the related risks to public health are only partially understood. [...] Read more.
Mongolia is a water-scarce land-locked country, and available water resources are utilized for multiple purposes including irrigation, food preparation, drinking water for livestock and people. Limited data availability on water hygiene means that the related risks to public health are only partially understood. This is particularly problematic due to the widespread use of unimproved water sources such as surface water and water from simple shallow wells. Based on two field surveys in the Kharaa River Basin in spring 2017 and 2018, we assessed the presence and quantity of total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), and E. coli bacteria in surface waters and wells and investigated potential linkages between temperature and hygiene. In the Kharaa River and its tributaries, TC concentrations averaged at a most probable number of (MPN) of 754 ± 761 per 100 mL and FC concentrations at an MPN of 31 ± 33. Only small and non-significant correlations between coliform concentrations and temperature were identified. Coliforms concentrations in wells were lower (average MPN for TC: 550 ± 1286, and for FC 58 ± 253). There was considerable variation between wells, with moderate but significant correlations between temperature and bacterial counts. Low water temperatures in April and May (just above freezing to less than 6.5 °C in wells and 7.5 °C to 14.5 °C in the river system) and the positive correlations between temperature and coliform concentrations particularly for well samples indicate that further warming is likely to increase the risks of microbiological water pollution. In the future, this should be complemented by modeling at a watershed scale. This should include the consideration of a trend towards stronger rainfall events, changes in livestock density, and urban sewage treatment and discharge, which are other likely drivers of changes in water hygiene. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Climate Change on Human Infectious Diseases Related to Water Ecosystems)
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20 pages, 3821 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modeling of Formation and Rise of Gas and Dust Cloud from Large Scale Commercial Blasting
by Valery M. Khazins, Valery V. Shuvalov and Sergey P. Soloviev
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1112; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101112 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3515
Abstract
The emission of dust particles into the atmosphere during rock mass breaking by blasting in ore mining open-pits is one of the factors that determine the ground-level air pollution in the vicinity of pits. The data on dust concentration in the cloud, which [...] Read more.
The emission of dust particles into the atmosphere during rock mass breaking by blasting in ore mining open-pits is one of the factors that determine the ground-level air pollution in the vicinity of pits. The data on dust concentration in the cloud, which is extremely difficult to obtain experimentally for large-scale explosions, is required to calculate the dust dispersion in the wind stream. We have elaborated a Eulerian model to simulate the initial stage of dust cloud formation and rising, and a Navier–Stokes model to simulate thermal rising and mixing with the ambient air. The first model is used to describe the dust cloud formation after a 500 t TNT (Trinitrotoluene equivalent) explosion. The second model based on the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) method is used to predict the height of cloud rising, its mass, and the evolution of dust particles size distribution for explosions of 1–1000 t TNT. It was found that the value of the turbulent eddy viscosity coefficient (Smagorinsky coefficient) depends on both the charge mass and the spatial resolution (grid cell size). The values of the Smagorinsky coefficient were found for charges with a mass of 1–1000 t using a specific grid. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric and Ocean Optics: Atmospheric Physics II)
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16 pages, 2960 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Regional Transport and Meteorology on Ground-Level Ozone in Windsor, Canada
by Tianchu Zhang, Xiaohong Xu and Yushan Su
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1111; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101111 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2567
Abstract
This study investigated impacts of regional transport and meteorology on ground-level ozone (O3) in the smog season (April–September) during 1996–2015 in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Data from five upwind stations in the US, which are within 310 km (i.e., Allen Park and [...] Read more.
This study investigated impacts of regional transport and meteorology on ground-level ozone (O3) in the smog season (April–September) during 1996–2015 in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Data from five upwind stations in the US, which are within 310 km (i.e., Allen Park and Lansing in Michigan, Erie, National Trail School, and Delaware in Ohio), were included to assess the regional characteristics of O3. The five US stations showed high degrees of similarity with O3 concentrations in Windsor, with overall strong correlations (r = 0.567–0.876 for hourly O3 and r = 0.587–0.92 for 8 h max O3 concentrations) and a low degree of divergence, indicating that O3 pollution in the study area shares regional characteristics. Meteorological conditions played important roles in O3 levels in Windsor. High O3 concentrations were associated with southerly and southwesterly air mass from which polluted and hot air mass was transported and that enhanced local photochemical O3 production. In contrast, northerly flows brought in clean, cool, and dry air mass, and led to low O3 concentrations. Strong correlations were found between numbers of days with 8 h max O3 concentrations greater than 70 ppb and numbers of days with daily max temperature greater than 30 °C, as well as between daily max temperatures and 8 h max O3 concentrations. Nearly half (45%) of the high O3 days (≥90th percentile) occurred in dry tropical weather during 1996–2015, and the 90th percentile 8 h max O3 was associated with dry tropical weather. Occurrences of both southerly flow hours and dry tropical weather type in the smog season increased during the study period. If there were more hot and dry days in the next few decades due to climate change, the effect of emission control on reducing peak O3 values would be diminished. Therefore, continued regional and international efforts are essential to control precursors’ emissions and to mitigate O3 pollution in Windsor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tropospheric Ozone Observations)
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14 pages, 2227 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Gasoline Evaporative Emissions from Fuel-Cap Removal after a Real-World Driving Event
by Hiroo Hata, Syun-ya Tanaka, Genta Noumura, Hiroyuki Yamada and Kenichi Tonokura
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1110; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101110 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3138
Abstract
This study evaluated gasoline evaporative emissions from fuel-cap removal during the refueling process (or “puff loss”) for one gasoline vehicle in the Japanese market. Specifically, the puff loss emissions were measured after a real-world driving event in urban Tokyo, Japan for different seasons [...] Read more.
This study evaluated gasoline evaporative emissions from fuel-cap removal during the refueling process (or “puff loss”) for one gasoline vehicle in the Japanese market. Specifically, the puff loss emissions were measured after a real-world driving event in urban Tokyo, Japan for different seasons and gasoline types. The experimental results indicated higher puff loss emissions during summer than in winter and spring despite using low vapor pressure gasoline during summer. These higher puff loss emissions accounted maximally for more than 4 g of the emissions from the tested vehicle. The irregular emission trends could be attributed to the complex relationships between physical parameters such as fuel-tank filling, ambient temperature, ambient pressure, and gasoline vapor pressure. Furthermore, an estimation model was developed based on the theory of thermodynamics to determine puff loss emissions under arbitrary environmental conditions. The estimation model included no fitting parameter and was in good agreement with the measured puff loss emissions. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to elucidate the effects of three physical parameters, i.e., fuel tank-filling, ambient pressure, and gasoline type, on puff loss emissions. The results indicated that fuel tank-filling was the most important parameter affecting the quantity of puff loss emissions. Further, the proposed puff loss estimation model is likely to aid the evaluation of future volatile organic compound emission inventories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Its Impacts on Human Health)
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15 pages, 4506 KiB  
Article
SST Warming in Recent Decades in the Gulf Stream Extension Region and Its Impact on Atmospheric Rivers
by Yifei Wu, Yinglai Jia, Rui Ji and Jie Zhang
Atmosphere 2020, 11(10), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11101109 - 16 Oct 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3322
Abstract
The sea surface temperature (SST) front in the Gulf Stream (GS) extension region is important to synoptic variations in atmosphere. In winter, large amounts of heat and moisture are released from the SST front, modulating the baroclinicity and humidity of the atmosphere, which [...] Read more.
The sea surface temperature (SST) front in the Gulf Stream (GS) extension region is important to synoptic variations in atmosphere. In winter, large amounts of heat and moisture are released from the SST front, modulating the baroclinicity and humidity of the atmosphere, which is important for extratropical cyclones and atmospheric rivers (ARs). In this study, the variation of SST in the North Atlantic in winters since 1981 is investigated using satellite and reanalysis datasets, and a 23-year (1997 to 2019) warming trend of SST in the GS extension region is detected. The increase of SST is mainly distributed along the SST front, with more than 2 °C warming and a northward shift of the SST gradient from 1997 to 2019. Connected with the SST warming, significant increases in turbulent heat flux and moisture release into the atmosphere were found along the ocean front. As a result, baroclinic instability, upward water vapor flux and AR occurrence frequency increased in recent decades. Meanwhile, there was an increase in extreme rainfall along with the increase in AR landfalling on continental Western Europe (especially in the Iberian Peninsula and on the northern coast of the Mediterranean Sea). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)
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