Materials

15 pages, 2137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Evolution and Prediction Model of Dam Polyurethane Insulation Materials Under Multi-Field Coupling Conditions in Hot Summer and Cold Winter Climate Zones

by Lingmin Liao, Hui Liang, Ting Zhao, Wei Han, Yun Dong, Da Zhang and Zhenhua Su

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3208; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133208 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 315

Abstract

This study evaluates the performance degradation of spray rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) insulation on reservoir dam structures under multi-physics coupling conditions. Focusing on characteristic environmental exposures in Hot Summer and Cold Winter (HSCW) climate zones, accelerated aging tests simulating coupled temperature–humidity effects were [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the performance degradation of spray rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) insulation on reservoir dam structures under multi-physics coupling conditions. Focusing on characteristic environmental exposures in Hot Summer and Cold Winter (HSCW) climate zones, accelerated aging tests simulating coupled temperature–humidity effects were conducted to comparatively analyze the thermal resistance and durability evolution between unprotected and encapsulated RPUF configurations. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), infrared spectroscopy (IR), and other methods were used to characterize and analyze the structure of RPUF. Research has shown that in HSCW climate zones, the thermal conductivity of RPUF gradually increases with the number of degradation cycles, and the insulation performance decreases, mainly due to the damage of the pore structure caused by temperature aging and the combined effect of moisture absorption aging. In comparison, the RPUF after protection can effectively slow down the rate and degree of decline of its insulation performance. On this basis, a time-varying prediction model for the thermal conductivity of RPUF under long-term service in HSCW climate environments was fitted, providing a scientific basis for the durability evaluation of reservoir dam insulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Construction and Building Materials (3rd Edition))

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16 pages, 2473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of EMAT Butterfly Coil for Defect Detection in Aluminum Alloy Plate

by Dazhao Chi, Guangyu Sun and Haichun Liu

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3207; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133207 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 233

Abstract

For non-destructive testing (NDT) of defects in aluminum alloy plates, traditional ultrasonic contact methods face challenges from high temperatures and liquid couplant contamination. Using electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs), a key issue is that longitudinal waves (L-waves) excited by the butterfly-coil EMATs interfere with [...] Read more.

For non-destructive testing (NDT) of defects in aluminum alloy plates, traditional ultrasonic contact methods face challenges from high temperatures and liquid couplant contamination. Using electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs), a key issue is that longitudinal waves (L-waves) excited by the butterfly-coil EMATs interfere with the desired shear waves (S-waves) reflected by internal defects. To solve this problem, a simulation–experiment approach optimized the butterfly coil parameters. An FE model visualized the electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) acoustic field and predicted signals. Orthogonal simulations tested three main parameters: excitation frequency, wire diameter, and effective coil width. Tests on aluminum specimens with artificial defects used the optimized EMAT. Simulated and measured signals showed strong correlation, validating optimal parameters. The results confirmed suppressed L-wave interference and improved defect detection sensitivity, enabling detection of a 3 mm diameter flat-bottomed hole buried 37 mm deep. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Alloys)

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29 pages, 5671 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress in and Defect Improvement Measures for Laser Cladding

by Bo Cui, Peiqing Zhou and You Lv

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3206; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133206 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 241

Abstract

Laser cladding, a cutting-edge surface modification technique for metals, offers a novel approach to enhancing the wear and corrosion resistance of substrates due to its rapid heating and cooling capabilities, precise control over coating thickness and dilution rates, and non-contact processing characteristics. However, [...] Read more.

Laser cladding, a cutting-edge surface modification technique for metals, offers a novel approach to enhancing the wear and corrosion resistance of substrates due to its rapid heating and cooling capabilities, precise control over coating thickness and dilution rates, and non-contact processing characteristics. However, disparities in the physical properties between the coating material and the substrate, coupled with the improper utilization of process parameters, can lead to coating defects, thereby compromising the quality of the coating. This paper examines the effects of material systems and process parameters on laser cladding composite coatings and shows that cracking is mainly caused by thermal and residual stresses. This article summarizes the methods for crack improvement and prevention in five aspects: the selection of processes in the preparation stage, the application of auxiliary fields in the cladding process, heat treatment technology, the use of auxiliary software, and the search for new processes and new structural materials. Finally, the future development trends of laser cladding technology are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Manufacturing Processes and Systems)

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28 pages, 53432 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deposition of Mesoporous Silicon Dioxide Films Using Microwave PECVD

by Marcel Laux, Ralf Dreher, Rudolf Emmerich and Frank Henning

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3205; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133205 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 204

Abstract

Mesoporous silicon dioxide films have been shown to be well suited as adhesion-promoting interlayers for generating high-strength polymer–metal interfaces. These films can be fabricated via microwave plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition using the precursor hexamethyldisiloxane and oxygen as working gas. The resulting mesoporous structures [...] Read more.

Mesoporous silicon dioxide films have been shown to be well suited as adhesion-promoting interlayers for generating high-strength polymer–metal interfaces. These films can be fabricated via microwave plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition using the precursor hexamethyldisiloxane and oxygen as working gas. The resulting mesoporous structures enable polymer infiltration during overmolding, which leads to a nanoscale form-locking mechanism after solidification. This mechanism allows for efficient stress transfer across the interface and makes the resulting adhesion highly dependent on the morphology of the deposited film. To gain a deeper understanding of the underlying deposition mechanisms and improve process stability, this work investigates the growth behavior of mesoporous silica films using a multiple regression analysis approach. The seven process parameters coating time, distance, chamber pressure, substrate temperature, flow rate, plasma pulse duration, and pause-to-pulse ratio were systematically varied within a Design of Experiments framework. The resulting films were characterized by their free surface area, mean agglomerate diameter, and film thickness using digital image analysis, white light interferometry, and atomic force microscopy. The deposited films exhibit a wide range of morphological appearances, ranging from quasi-dense to dust-like structures. As part of this research, the free surface area varied from 15 to 55 percent, the mean agglomerate diameter from 17 to 126 nm, and the film thickness from 35 to 1600 nm. The derived growth model describes the deposition process with high statistical accuracy. Furthermore, all coatings were overmolded via injection molding and subjected to mechanical testing, allowing a direct correlation between film morphology and their performance as adhesion-promoting interlayers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Thin Films and Interfaces)

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17 pages, 4414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Characteristics of 26H2MF and St12T Steels Under Torsion at Elevated Temperatures

by Waldemar Dudda

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3204; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133204 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 212

Abstract

The concept of “material effort” appears in continuum mechanics wherever the response of a material to the currently existing state of loads and boundary conditions loses its previous, predictable character. However, within the material, which still descriptively remains a continuous medium, new physical [...] Read more.

The concept of “material effort” appears in continuum mechanics wherever the response of a material to the currently existing state of loads and boundary conditions loses its previous, predictable character. However, within the material, which still descriptively remains a continuous medium, new physical structures appear and new previously unused physical features of the continuum are activated. The literature is dominated by a simplified way of thinking, which assumes that all these states can be characterized and described by one and the same measure of effort—for metals it is the Huber–Mises–Hencky equivalent stress. Quantitatively, perhaps 90% of the literature is dedicated to this equivalent stress. The remaining authors, as well as the author of this paper, assume that there is no single universal measure of effort that would “fit” all operating conditions of materials. Each state of the structure’s operation may have its own autonomous measure of effort, which expresses the degree of threat from a specific destruction mechanism. In the current energy sector, we are increasingly dealing with “low-cycle thermal fatigue states”. This is related to the fact that large, difficult-to-predict renewable energy sources have been added. Professional energy based on coal and gas units must perform many (even about 100 per year) starts and stops, and this applies not only to the hot state, but often also to the cold state. The question arises as to the allowable shortening of start and stop times that would not to lead to dangerous material effort, and whether there are necessary data and strength characteristics for heat-resistant steels that allow their effort to be determined not only in simple states, but also in complex stress states. Do these data allow for the description of the material’s yield surface? In a previous publication, the author presented the results of tension and compression tests at elevated temperatures for two heat-resistant steels: St12T and 26H2MF. The aim of the current work is to determine the properties and strength characteristics of these steels in a pure torsion test at elevated temperatures. This allows for the analysis of the strength of power turbine components operating primarily on torsion and for determining which of the two tested steels is more resistant to high temperatures. In addition, the properties determined in all three tests (tension, compression, torsion) will allow the determination of the yield surface of these steels at elevated temperatures. They are necessary for the strength analysis of turbine elements in start-up and shutdown cycles, in states changing from cold to hot and vice versa. A modified testing machine was used for pure torsion tests. It allowed for the determination of the sample’s torsion moment as a function of its torsion angle. The experiments were carried out at temperatures of 20 °C, 200 °C, 400 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C for St12T steel and at temperatures of 20 °C, 200 °C, 400 °C, 550 °C, and 800 °C for 26H2MF steel. Characteristics were drawn up for each sample and compared on a common graph corresponding to the given steel. Based on the methods and relationships from the theory of strength, the yield stress and torsional strength were determined. The yield stress of St12T steel at 600 °C was 319.3 MPa and the torsional strength was 394.4 MPa. For 26H2MH steel at 550 °C, the yield stress was 311.4 and the torsional strength was 382.8 MPa. St12T steel was therefore more resistant to high temperatures than 26H2MF. The combined data from the tension, compression, and torsion tests allowed us to determine the asymmetry and plasticity coefficients, which allowed us to model the yield surface according to the Burzyński criterion as a function of temperature. The obtained results also allowed us to determine the parameters of the Drucker-Prager model and two of the three parameters of the Willam-Warnke and Menetrey-Willam models. The research results are a valuable contribution to the design and diagnostics of power turbine components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Production, Processing and Characterization of Industrial Materials)

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14 pages, 4114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Silica Sol on the Preparation and Oxidation Resistance of MoSi₂@SiO₂

by Linlin Guo, Jinjun Zhang, Chengpeng Miao, Shuang Feng, Xiaozhen Fan, Haiyan Du, Jiachen Liu and Mingchao Wang

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3203; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133203 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 191

Abstract

The limited oxidation resistance of MoSi₂ between 400 °C and 600 °C restricts its aerospace applications. This study develops a silica-sol derived core-shell MoSi₂@SiO₂ composite to enhance the low-temperature oxidation resistance of MoSi₂. Acidic, neutral, and basic [...] Read more.

The limited oxidation resistance of MoSi₂ between 400 °C and 600 °C restricts its aerospace applications. This study develops a silica-sol derived core-shell MoSi₂@SiO₂ composite to enhance the low-temperature oxidation resistance of MoSi₂. Acidic, neutral, and basic silica sols were systematically applied to coat MoSi₂ powders through sol-adsorption encapsulation. Two pathways were used, one was ethanol-mediated dispersion, and the other was direct dispersion of MoSi₂ particles in silica sol. Analysis demonstrated that ethanol-mediated dispersion significantly influenced the coating efficiency and oxidation resistance, exhibited significantly decreased coating weight gains (maximum 27%) and increased oxidation weight gains (10–20%) between 340 °C and 600 °C compared with direct dispersion of MoSi₂ particles with silica sol, ascribe to the kinetic inhibition of hydroxyl group condensation and steric hindrance of MoSi₂-silica sol interface interactions of ethanol. Systematic investigation of silica sol encapsulation of MoSi₂ revealed critical correlations between colloid properties and oxidation resistance of MoSi₂@SiO₂. Basic silica sol coated MoSi₂ (BS-MoSi₂) exhibits the lowest coating efficiency (coating weight gain of 7.74 ± 0.06%) as well as lowest oxidation weight gain (18.45%) between 340 °C and 600 °C compared with those of acid and neutral silica sol coated MoSi₂ (AS-MoSi₂ and NS-MoSi₂), arises from optimal gelation kinetics, enhanced surface coverage via reduced agglomeration, and suppressed premature nucleation through controlled charge interactions under alkaline conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced and Functional Ceramics and Glasses)

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22 pages, 6286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Degradation and Flame Resistance Mechanism of Phosphorous-Based Flame Retardant of ABS Composites Used in 3D Printing Technology

by Rafał Oliwa, Katarzyna Bulanda and Mariusz Oleksy

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3202; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133202 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 244

Abstract

As part of the work, polymer composites dedicated to rapid prototyping were developed, especially for 3D printing using the material extrusion technique. For this purpose, a polymer matrix was selected, which was an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) terpolymer and a flame retardant, which was tetrakis [...] Read more.

As part of the work, polymer composites dedicated to rapid prototyping were developed, especially for 3D printing using the material extrusion technique. For this purpose, a polymer matrix was selected, which was an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) terpolymer and a flame retardant, which was tetrakis (2,6-dimethylphenyl)-m-phenylenebisphosphate, commercially known as PX200. The effect of the presence and amount (5, 10, 15 and 20 wt.%) of the introduced additive on the rheological properties, structural properties, flammability (limiting oxygen index, LOI; UL94) and flame retardant properties (microcone calorimeter, MLC) of ABS-based composites was investigated. In addition, the mechanism of thermal degradation and flame resistance was investigated using thermogravimetric analysis, TGA and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, FT-IR of the residue after the MLC test. In the first part of the work, using the author’s technological line, filaments were obtained from unfilled ABS and its composites. Samples for testing were obtained by 3D printing in Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technology. In order to determine the quantitative and qualitative spread of fire and the effectiveness of the phosphorus flame retardant PX200 in the produced composites, the Maximum Average Rate of Heat Emission (MARHE); Fire Growth Rate Index (FIGRA); Fire Potential Index (FPI) and Flame Retardancy Index (FRI) were determined. Based on the obtained results, it was found that the aryl biphosphate used in this work exhibits activity in the gas phase, which was confirmed by quantitative assessment using data from a microcone calorimeter and non-residues after combustion and thermolysis at 700 °C. As a result, the flammability class did not change (HB40), and the LOI slightly increased to 20% for the composite with 20% flame retardant content. Moreover, this composite was characterized by the following flammability indices: pHRR = 482.9 kW/m² (−40.3%), MARHE = 234 kW/m² (−40.7%), FIGRA = 3.1 kW/m²·s (−56.3%), FPI = 0.061 m²·s/kW (+64.9%), FRI = 2.068 (+106.8%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials)

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20 pages, 7140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Carbon Fiber Electrodes Modified with Silver Nanoparticles by Electroplating Method

by Yuhang Wang, Rui Li, Tianyuan Hou, Zhenming Piao, Yanxin Lv, Changsheng Liu and Yi Xin

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3201; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133201 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 277

Abstract

To solve the problems of carbon fiber (CF) electrodes, including poor frequency response and large potential drift, CFs were subjected to a roughening pretreatment process combining thermal oxidation and electrochemical anodic oxidation and then modified with Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) using electroplating to prepare [...] Read more.

To solve the problems of carbon fiber (CF) electrodes, including poor frequency response and large potential drift, CFs were subjected to a roughening pretreatment process combining thermal oxidation and electrochemical anodic oxidation and then modified with Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) using electroplating to prepare a CF electric field sensor. The surface morphology of the as-prepared AgNP-CF electric field sensor was characterized via optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, XPS, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and its impedance, polarization drift, self-noise, and temperature drift values were determined. Results show that the surface modification of the AgNP-CF electric field sensor is uniform, and its specific surface area is considerably increased. The electrode potential drift, characteristic impedance, self-noise, and temperature drift are 52.1 µV/24 h, 3.6 Ω, 2.993 nV/√Hz@1 Hz, and less than 70 µV/°C, respectively. Additionally, the AgNP-CF electric field sensor demonstrates low polarization and high stability. In field and simulated ocean tests, the AgNP-CF electrode exhibits excellent performance in the field and underwater environments, which renders it promising for the measurement of the ocean and geoelectric fields owing to its advantages, such as low noise and high stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology)

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18 pages, 6078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Composites with Flax and Hemp Fibers Obtained Using Osmotic Degumming, Water-Retting, and Dew-Retting Processes

by Wanda Różańska and Szymon Rojewski

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3200; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133200 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 272

Abstract

This study presents the application of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) and hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) fibers into composites with polyethylene matrices. The applied fibers were obtained using osmotic, water-retting, and dew-retting processes. The study determined the impact of the fiber extraction [...] Read more.

This study presents the application of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) and hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) fibers into composites with polyethylene matrices. The applied fibers were obtained using osmotic, water-retting, and dew-retting processes. The study determined the impact of the fiber extraction method on the properties of the composites obtained from natural filler and polyethylene matrix. These properties included color, tensile strength, thermal stability, adhesion of filler to the polymer, and flammability. It has been shown that the addition of flax and hemp fibers improves the mechanical properties of the composite compared to pure polymer. The tensile strength of the pure polymer samples was 24.64 MPa, while the tensile strength of composites reinforced with flax fibers ranged from 31.26 to 34.45 MPa, and those reinforced with hemp fibers ranged from 31.41 to 33.36 MPa. Studying the composites’ flammability showed that filling them with osmotic degummed hemp fibers reduced the maximum heat release rate by over 34% for hemp compared to pure polymer. This research shows that the composites filled with flax and hemp fibers, regardless of extraction method, are characterized by reduced flammability and improved mechanical properties compared to the pure polyethylene samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Biodegradable and Bio-Based Materials and Composites)

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21 pages, 22021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Achieving High Strength in Mg-0.7Sm-0.3Zr Alloy via Room-Temperature Rotary Swaging: Radial Gradient Microstructure and Grain Refinement Mechanisms

by Jie Liu, Yuanxiao Dai, Zhongshan Li and Yaobo Hu

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3199; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133199 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 311

Abstract

Room-temperature rotary swaging was conducted on microalloyed high-ductility Mg-0.7Sm-0.3Zr alloy rods to investigate microstructural and mechanical variations across different swaging passes and radial positions. The results indicate that following room-temperature rotary swaging, the alloy rods exhibit a large number of tensile twins and [...] Read more.

Room-temperature rotary swaging was conducted on microalloyed high-ductility Mg-0.7Sm-0.3Zr alloy rods to investigate microstructural and mechanical variations across different swaging passes and radial positions. The results indicate that following room-temperature rotary swaging, the alloy rods exhibit a large number of tensile twins and low-angle grain boundaries, leading to significant grain refinement. After two swaging passes, the microstructure exhibits a pronounced radial gradient, characterized by progressively finer grain sizes from the core to the edge regions, with a hardness difference of 3.8 HV between the edge and the core. After five swaging passes, the grain size was refined from an initial 4.37 μm to 2.02 μm. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of the alloy increased from 157 MPa and 210 MPa in the extruded state to 292 MPa and 302 MPa, respectively. This observed strengthening is primarily attributed to grain refinement, dislocation hardening, and texture strengthening, with grain refinement playing the dominant role. The grain refinement process during rotary swaging can be divided into two stages: in the initial stage, coarse grains are subdivided by tensile twinning; in the later stage, high-stress-induced grain boundary bulging leads to new dynamic recrystallization, further refining the microstructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Metals and Alloys)

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14 pages, 14826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Nano-Sized Features in Powder Bed Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V Alloy

by Eyal Eshed and Amnon Shirizly

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3198; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133198 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 295

Abstract

In this study, we delve into the intricate microstructural features of Ti-6Al-4V alloy additively manufactured and heat-treated at 800 °C for 4 h. Our in-depth analysis will enable us to gain a better understanding of the β-Ti precipitation process, its dependence on temperature, [...] Read more.

In this study, we delve into the intricate microstructural features of Ti-6Al-4V alloy additively manufactured and heat-treated at 800 °C for 4 h. Our in-depth analysis will enable us to gain a better understanding of the β-Ti precipitation process, its dependence on temperature, and its ultimate effect on the overall mechanical properties. As well as α-Ti martensite grains and β-Ti particles interspersed in the α-Ti grain boundaries, there is a third microstructural feature, overlooked by many researchers. This feature is observed as nano-sized particles homogeneously embedded inside the α-Ti laths. Using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, we reveal that these nano-sized features do not constitute a different phase. Instead, they define isolated regions of α-Ti in its relaxed form, surrounded by the heavily strained form of the α-Ti phase. This phenomenon is a result of the “incomplete” precipitation of the β-Ti phase following the heat treatment stage. The straining of the α-Ti phase appears as a shift in the equilibrium atomic position. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser and Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing of Metal Alloys)

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25 pages, 3278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Performance of Composite-Modified Epoxy Resin Potting Adhesive for Repairing Oblique Cracks

by Zimin Chen, Zhengyi Li, Zhihong Ran, Yan Zhang, Fan Lin and Yu Zhou

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3197; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133197 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 295

Abstract

Reinforced concrete structures are prone to the development of microcracks during service. In this study, a composite-modified epoxy potting adhesive was formulated using nano-TiO₂, carboxyl-terminated butadiene nitrile liquid rubber (CTBN), and the reactive diluent D-669. The mechanical properties and effectiveness of [...] Read more.

Reinforced concrete structures are prone to the development of microcracks during service. In this study, a composite-modified epoxy potting adhesive was formulated using nano-TiO₂, carboxyl-terminated butadiene nitrile liquid rubber (CTBN), and the reactive diluent D-669. The mechanical properties and effectiveness of this composite adhesive in repairing oblique cracks were systematically evaluated and compared with those of single-component-modified epoxy adhesives. Key material parameters influencing the performance of oblique crack repair were identified, and the underlying repair mechanisms were analyzed. Based on these findings, a theoretical formula for calculating the shear-bearing capacity of beams with repaired web reinforcement was proposed. Experimental results demonstrated that compared to single-component-modified epoxy resin, the optimally formulated composite adhesive improved the tensile strength, elongation at break, and bond strength by 4.07–21.16 MPa, 13.28–20.4%, and 1.05–3.79 MPa, respectively, while reducing the viscosity by 48–872 mPa·s. The viscosity of the adhesive was found to play a critical role in determining the repair effectiveness, with toughness enhancing the crack resistance and bond strength contributing to the structural stiffness recovery. The adhesive effectively penetrated the steel–concrete interface, forming a continuous bonding layer that improved energy dissipation and significantly enhanced the load-bearing capacity of the repaired beams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)

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22 pages, 5806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Design and Wall Thickness Optimization for Enhanced Lifetime of Ultra-High Temperature Ceramic Matrix Composite Thruster for Use in Green Propulsion Systems

by Tamim Doozandeh, Prakhar Jindal and Jyoti Botchu

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3196; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133196 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 253

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive finite element investigation into the design optimization of an ultra-high temperature ceramic matrix composite thruster for green bipropellant systems. Focusing on ZrB₂–SiC–Cfiber composites, it explores their thermal and mechanical response under realistic transient combustion conditions. Two [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive finite element investigation into the design optimization of an ultra-high temperature ceramic matrix composite thruster for green bipropellant systems. Focusing on ZrB₂–SiC–Cfiber composites, it explores their thermal and mechanical response under realistic transient combustion conditions. Two geometries, a simplified and a complex full-featured model, were evaluated to assess the impact of geometric fidelity on stress prediction. The complex thruster model (CTM) offered improved resolution of temperature gradients and stress concentrations, especially near flange and convergent regions, and was adopted for optimization. A parametric study with nine wall thickness profiles identified a 2 mm tapered configuration in both convergent and divergent sections that minimized mass while maintaining structural integrity. This optimized profile reduced peak thermal stress and overall mass without compromising safety margins. Transient thermal and strain analyses showed that thermal stress dominates initially (≤3 s), while thermal strain becomes critical later due to stiffness degradation. Damage risk was evaluated using temperature-dependent stress margins at four critical locations. Time-dependent failure maps revealed throat degradation for short burns and flange cracking for longer durations. All analyses were conducted under hot-fire conditions without cooling. The validated methodology supports durable, lightweight nozzle designs for future green propulsion missions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing, Characterization and Applications of Ceramic Matrix Composites)

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30 pages, 4865 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Behavior and Smoke Suppression of Polyamide 6,6 Fabric Treated with ALD-ZnO and DOPO-Based Silane

by Wael Ali, Raphael Otto, Ana Raquel Lema Jimenez, Sebastian Lehmann, Eui-Young Shin, Ying Feng, Milijana Jovic, Sabyasachi Gaan, Jochen S. Gutmann, Kornelius Nielsch, Amin Bahrami and Thomas Mayer-Gall

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133195 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 511

Abstract

Polyamide 6,6 (PA6,6) fabrics are widely used in textiles due to their high mechanical strength and chemical stability. However, their inherent flammability and melting behavior under fire pose significant safety challenges. In this study, a dual-layer flame-retardant system was developed by integrating atomic [...] Read more.

Polyamide 6,6 (PA6,6) fabrics are widely used in textiles due to their high mechanical strength and chemical stability. However, their inherent flammability and melting behavior under fire pose significant safety challenges. In this study, a dual-layer flame-retardant system was developed by integrating atomic layer deposition (ALD) of ZnO with a phosphorus–silane-based flame retardant (DOPO-ETES). ALD allowed precise control of ZnO layer thickness (50, 84, and 199 nm), ensuring uniform coating. Thermal analysis (TGA) and microscale combustion calorimetry (MCC) revealed that ZnO altered the degradation pathway of PA6,6 through catalytic effects, promoting char formation and reducing heat release. The combination of ZnO and DOPO-ETES resulted in further reductions in heat release rates. However, direct flame tests showed that self-extinguishing behavior was not achieved, emphasizing the limitations related to the melting of PA6,6. TG-IR and cone calorimetry confirmed that ZnO coatings suppressed the release of smoke-related volatiles and incomplete combustion products. These findings highlight the potential of combining metal-based catalytic flame retardants like ZnO with phosphorus-based coatings to improve flame retardancy while addressing the specific challenges of polyamide textiles. This approach may also be adapted to other fabric types and integrated with additional flame retardants, broadening its relevance for textile applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flame Retardant Materials: Designs, Properties and Applications)

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11 pages, 11723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spectrally Resolved Dynamics of Delayed Luminescence in Dense Scattering Media

by Mahshid Zoghi, Ernesto Jimenez-Villar and Aristide Dogariu

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3194; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133194 - 6 Jul 2025

Viewed by 287

Abstract

Highly scattering media have garnered significant interest in recent years, ranging from potential applications in solar cells, photocatalysis, and other novel photonic devices to research on fundamental topics such as topological photonics, enhanced light–matter coupling and light confinement. Here, we report measurements of [...] Read more.

Highly scattering media have garnered significant interest in recent years, ranging from potential applications in solar cells, photocatalysis, and other novel photonic devices to research on fundamental topics such as topological photonics, enhanced light–matter coupling and light confinement. Here, we report measurements of spectrally and time-resolved delayed luminescence (DL) in highly scattering rutile TiO₂ films. The complex emission kinetics manifests in the non-exponential decay of photon density and the temporal evolution of the spectral composition. We found that while the energy levels of TiO₂ nanoparticles broadly set the spectral regions of excitation and emission, our results demonstrate that the DL intensity and duration are strongly influenced by the inherent multiple elastic and inelastic processes determined by the mesoscale inhomogeneous structure of random media. We show that the lifetime of DL increases up to 6 s for the largest redshift detected, which is associated with multiple reabsorption processes. We outline a simple model for spectrally resolved DL emission from dense scattering media that can guide the design and characterization of composite materials with specific spectral and temporal properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Smart Materials)

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13 pages, 3410 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring of Layered Thermoplastic Composites Using Shape Memory Alloys as Integrated Sensors for Multifunctional Lightweight Structures

by Michael Schwarz, Marius Weiler, Saravanan Palaniyappan, Steven Quirin, Maik Trautmann, Guntram Wagner and Hans-Georg Herrmann

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3193; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133193 - 6 Jul 2025

Viewed by 316

Abstract

Since lightweight design and construction safety is a crucial element in different sectors of industry, the use of SMA wires in composites could improve the monitoring and adjustment of mechanical properties starting from the product development process through to field use. This work [...] Read more.

Since lightweight design and construction safety is a crucial element in different sectors of industry, the use of SMA wires in composites could improve the monitoring and adjustment of mechanical properties starting from the product development process through to field use. This work shows how embedded SMA wires can lead to a better understanding of applied forces to a composite structure made of GFRP laminates. To achieve this, different methods will be addressed. Besides mechanical testing of the GFRP-samples with embedded SMA wires, NDT-methods like active thermography, high-frequency ultrasonic testing, and computer tomography are used to detect the SMA wires, whereby thermography and computer tomography are best suited. In this study, the location and the amount of the applied force on GFRP composites with embedded SMA wires could be characterized with relative resistance changes. It is shown that SMA wires with a diameter of 250 µm are preferred to wires with a diameter of 100 µm due to production process and better performance under load (4N force plateau for 100 µm in contrast to 25N force plateau for 250 µm wires). Furthermore, Young’s modulus of the GFRP composites with embedded SMA wires was measured and is similar for various samples with 30.8 GPa on average. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technology and Applications of Shape Memory Materials)

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19 pages, 4947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Injection Molding Simulation of Polycaprolactone-Based Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposites for Biomedical Implant Manufacturing

by Krzysztof Formas, Jarosław Janusz, Anna Kurowska, Aleksandra Benko, Wojciech Piekarczyk and Izabella Rajzer

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3192; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133192 - 6 Jul 2025

Viewed by 364

Abstract

This study consisted of the injection molding simulation of polycaprolactone (PCL)-based nanocomposites reinforced with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for biomedical implant manufacturing. The simulation was additionally supported by experimental validation. The influence of varying MWCNT concentrations (0.5%, 5%, and 10% by weight) on [...] Read more.

This study consisted of the injection molding simulation of polycaprolactone (PCL)-based nanocomposites reinforced with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for biomedical implant manufacturing. The simulation was additionally supported by experimental validation. The influence of varying MWCNT concentrations (0.5%, 5%, and 10% by weight) on key injection molding parameters, i.e., melt flow behavior, pressure distribution, temperature profiles, and fiber orientation, was analyzed with SolidWorks Plastics software. The results proved the low CNT content (0.5 wt.%) to be endowed with stable filling times, complete mold cavity filling, and minimal frozen regions. Thus, this formulation produced defect-free modular filament sticks suitable for subsequent 3D printing. In contrast, higher CNT loadings (particularly 10 wt.%) led to longer fill times, incomplete cavity filling, and early solidification due to increased melt viscosity and thermal conductivity. Experimental molding trials with the 0.5 wt.% CNT composites confirmed the simulation findings. Following minor adjustments to processing parameters, high-quality, defect-free sticks were produced. Overall, the PCL/MWCNT composites with 0.5 wt.% nanotube content exhibited optimal injection molding performance and functional properties, supporting their application in modular, patient-specific biomedical 3D printing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Functional Nanomaterials for Biomedical Application (Second Edition))

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26 pages, 20735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Study of the Effect of Blade Sharpening Conditions on the Lifetime of Planar Knives During Industrial Flatfish Skinning Operations

by Paweł Sutowski, Bartosz Zieliński and Krzysztof Nadolny

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3191; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133191 - 6 Jul 2025

Viewed by 308

Abstract

Users of technical blades expect new generations of tools to feature reduced power requirements for process and maximized tool life. The second aspect is reflected in the reduction in costs associated with the purchase of tools and in the reduction in process line [...] Read more.

Users of technical blades expect new generations of tools to feature reduced power requirements for process and maximized tool life. The second aspect is reflected in the reduction in costs associated with the purchase of tools and in the reduction in process line downtime due to tool replacement. Meeting these demands is particularly challenging in cutting operations involving heterogeneous materials, especially when the processed raw material contains inclusions and impurities significantly harder than the material itself. This situation occurs, among others, during flatfish skinning operations analyzed in this paper, a common process in the fish processing industry. These fish, due to their natural living environment and behavior, contain a significant proportion of hard inclusions and impurities (shell fragments, sand grains) embedded in their skin. Contact between the tool and hard inclusions causes deformation, wrapping, crushing, and even chipping of the cutting edge of planar knives, resulting in non-uniform blade wear, which manifests as areas of uncut skin on the fish fillet. This necessitates frequent tool changes, resulting in higher tooling costs and longer operating times. This study provides a unique opportunity to review the results of in-service pre-implementation tests of planar knives in the skinning operation conducted under industrial conditions. The main objective was to verify positive laboratory research results regarding the extension of technical blade tool life through optimization of sharpening conditions during grinding. Durability test results are presented for the skinning process of fillets from plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) and flounder (Platichthys flesus). The study also examined the effect of varying cooling and lubrication conditions in the grinding zone on the tool life of technical planar blades. Sharpening knives under flood cooling conditions and using the hybrid method (combining minimum quantity lubrication and cold compressed air) increased their service life in the plaice skinning process (Pleuronectes platessa) by 12.39% and 8.85%, respectively. The increase in effective working time of knives during flounder (Platichthys flesus) skinning was even greater, reaching 17.7% and 16.3% for the flood cooling and hybrid methods, respectively. Full article

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11 pages, 3730 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Chiral Grayscale Imaging Based on a Versatile Metasurface of Spin-Selective Manipulation

by Yue Cao, Yi-Fei Sun, Zi-Yang Zhu, Qian-Wen Luo, Bo-Xiong Zhang, Xiao-Wei Sun and Ting Song

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3190; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133190 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 359

Abstract

Metasurface display, a kind of unique imaging technique with subwavelength scale, plays a key role in data storage, information processing, and optical imaging due to the superior performance of high resolution, miniaturization, and integration. Recent works about grayscale imaging as a typical metasurface [...] Read more.

Metasurface display, a kind of unique imaging technique with subwavelength scale, plays a key role in data storage, information processing, and optical imaging due to the superior performance of high resolution, miniaturization, and integration. Recent works about grayscale imaging as a typical metasurface display have showcased an excellent performance for optical integrated devices in the near field. However, chiral grayscale imaging has been rarely elucidated, especially using a single structure. Here, a novel method is proposed to display a continuously chiral grayscale imaging that is adjusted by a metasurface consisting of a single chiral structure with optimized geometric parameters. The simulation results show that the incident light can be nearly converted into its cross-polarized reflection when the chiral structural variable parameters are α = 80° and β = 45°. The versatile metasurface can arbitrarily and independently realize the spin-selective manipulation of wavelength and amplitude of circularly polarized light. Due to the excellent manipulation ability of the versatile metasurface, a kind of circularly polarized light detection and a two-channel encoded display with different operating wavelengths are presented. More importantly, this versatile metasurface can also be used to show high-resolution chiral grayscale imaging, which distinguishes it from the results of previous grayscale imaging studies about linearly polarized incident illumination. The proposed versatile metasurface of spin-selective manipulation, with the advantages of high resolution, large capacity, and monolithic integration, provides a novel way for polarization detection, optical display, information storage, and other relevant fields. Full article

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13 pages, 5053 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermoelectric Properties of NbCoNi_xSn (x = 0–1)

by Moritz Thiem, Ruijuan Yan, Anke Weidenkaff and Wenjie Xie

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3189; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133189 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 384

Abstract

The half-Heusler (HH) compound NbCoSn, with 18 valence electrons, is a promising thermoelectric (TE) material due to its favourable electrical properties and excellent thermal and chemical stability. Enhancing its TE performance typically involves doping and microstructure engineering. In this study, Ni was introduced [...] Read more.

The half-Heusler (HH) compound NbCoSn, with 18 valence electrons, is a promising thermoelectric (TE) material due to its favourable electrical properties and excellent thermal and chemical stability. Enhancing its TE performance typically involves doping and microstructure engineering. In this study, Ni was introduced into NbCoSn to form NbCoNi_xSn (x = 0–1), and the effects of Ni content on the microstructure and TE properties were systematically investigated. At low doping levels (x ≤ 0.05), Ni occupies interstitial sites, forming NbCoNi_xSn solid solutions. At higher concentrations (x > 0.05), full-Heusler (FH) secondary phases emerge, resulting in HH–FH composites. The introduction of Co/Ni interstitials enhances TE performance by creating in-gap electronic states and increasing phonon scattering through point defects. A clear structural transition from HH to FH phases is observed with increasing Ni content. The highest figure of merit, ZT ≈ 0.52 at 975 K, was obtained for NbCoNi_0.05Sn, comparable to the best values reported for this system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synergy in Polyphase Materials: Harnessing the Power of Glass and Ceramics)

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15 pages, 3979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Properties of Selected Additive Materials Used to Increase the Lifetime of Tools for Crushing Unwanted Growths Using Hardfacing by Welding Technology

by Miroslava Ťavodová, Monika Vargová, Dana Stančeková, Anna Rudawska and Arkadiusz Gola

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3188; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133188 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 270

Abstract

This article focuses on the possibilities of increasing the service life of tools for crushing unwanted growths. One way to increase their service life is to increase the hardness and resistance to abrasive wear of exposed surfaces of the tool, which are their [...] Read more.

This article focuses on the possibilities of increasing the service life of tools for crushing unwanted growths. One way to increase their service life is to increase the hardness and resistance to abrasive wear of exposed surfaces of the tool, which are their face and back. At the same time, however, care must be taken to ensure that the shape and weight of the tool is not altered after the additive has been hardfaced on. Thus, the tool was first modified by removing the material by milling from the face and back. Subsequently, two surfacing materials, namely UTP 690 and OK WearTrode 55, were chosen and hardfaced by welding onto the pre-prepared surfaces. After hardfacing by welding, the tools were ground to their original shape and their weight was measured. Subsequently, the tool was sawn, and specimens were created for Rockwell hardness evaluation, material microstructure and for abrasive wear resistance testing as per ASTM G133-95. The OK WearTrode 55 electrode is a hardfacing electrode that produces weld metal with a high-volume fraction of fine carbides in a martensitic matrix. Better results were achieved by the UTP 690 hardfacing material. The hardness was 3.1 times higher compared to the base tool material 16MnCr5 and 1.2 times higher than the OK WearTrode 55 material. The abrasive wear resistance was 2.76 times higher compared to 16MnCr5, and 1.14 times higher compared to the OK WearTrode 55 material. The choice of a suitable pre-treatment for the tool and the selection and application of such additional material, which with its complex properties better resists the effects of the working environment, is a prerequisite for increasing the service life of tools working in forestry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Materials and Components)

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32 pages, 947 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Impact of Environmental and Material Factors on Fluoride Release from Metal-Modified Glass Ionomer Cements: A Systematic Review of In Vitro Studies

by Sylwia Klimas, Sylwia Kiryk, Jan Kiryk, Agnieszka Kotela, Julia Kensy, Mateusz Michalak, Zbigniew Rybak, Jacek Matys and Maciej Dobrzyński

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3187; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133187 - 5 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Objective: Fluoride is widely recognized for its preventive role against secondary caries. This systematic review aimed to evaluate how environmental and material factors influence fluoride ion release from metal-reinforced glass ionomer cements. Methods: A structured literature search was performed in March 2025 across [...] Read more.

Objective: Fluoride is widely recognized for its preventive role against secondary caries. This systematic review aimed to evaluate how environmental and material factors influence fluoride ion release from metal-reinforced glass ionomer cements. Methods: A structured literature search was performed in March 2025 across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Search terms included combinations of fluoride release AND glass ionomer AND silver OR zinc OR strontium OR copper. The study selection process followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and was organized using the PICO framework. Out of 281 initially identified records, 153 were screened based on titles and abstracts. After applying predefined eligibility criteria, 23 studies met the inclusion requirements and were included in the qualitative analysis. Results: Among the 23 included publications, 12 involved glass ionomers modified with silver, and 6 of these reported an increase in fluoride release. Seven studies focused on zinc-modified cements, and four examined materials reinforced with strontium. Conclusions: The addition of strontium, titanium oxide, silver nanoparticles, or zirconium oxide increases the release of fluoride ions, while sintered silver reduces it. There is a great discrepancy among researchers regarding the effect of the addition of zinc oxide and its appropriate amount in the glass ionomer material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Bioactive Materials and Bulk-Fill Composite Resins in Dental Restorative)

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25 pages, 5828 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Performance and Aging Mechanism of Rubber-Modified Asphalt Under Variable-Intensity UV Aging

by Qian Liu, Fujin Hou, Dongdong Ge, Songtao Lv and Zihao Ju

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3186; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133186 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 380

Abstract

Prolonged ultraviolet (UV) exposure accelerates aging and degradation, while conventional constant-intensity UV simulations do not reflect the variable nature of outdoor radiation. Aging duration and film thickness are both key factors affecting Rubber-Modified Asphalt (RMA), but how their combination influences RMA remains unclear. [...] Read more.

Prolonged ultraviolet (UV) exposure accelerates aging and degradation, while conventional constant-intensity UV simulations do not reflect the variable nature of outdoor radiation. Aging duration and film thickness are both key factors affecting Rubber-Modified Asphalt (RMA), but how their combination influences RMA remains unclear. To address this limitation, this research employed accelerated aging experiments under variable-intensity UV radiation to investigate the performance and aging mechanism of RMA across different aging durations and asphalt film thicknesses. Rheological properties were analyzed through rheological tests, and the UV aging mechanisms of RMA were revealed using FTIR and SEM. The results revealed that crumb rubber improved RMA’s UV aging resistance, including high-temperature performance, fatigue life, and low-temperature cracking resistance. Aging effects were more influenced in RMA with thinner films under prolonged UV exposure. After nine cycles of ultraviolet aging, the rutting resistance, elastic recovery, fatigue life, and low-temperature cracking resistance of RMA with a 1 mm film thickness were 1.33, 1.11, 0.54, and 0.67 times, respectively, those of RMA with a 2 mm film thickness subjected to three UV aging cycles. RMA demonstrated comparable high-temperature performance and elastic recovery under UV aging conditions corresponding to a 1.5 mm film thickness aged for three cycles and a 2.0 mm film thickness aged for six cycles, as well as a 1.0 mm film thickness aged for six cycles and a 1.5 mm film thickness aged for nine cycles. FTIR showed that the increased activity of C=C and C-H under photo-oxidative aging caused a greater impact on the carbonyl groups than the sulfoxide groups. Under high-intensity UV radiation, RMA with thinner films exhibited greater rubber powder detachment, increased surface oxidation, and a substantial widening of cracks. The rubber powder absorbed UV radiation, enhancing the stability of RMA. The maximum crack width of the 1 mm NA was twice that of RMA. These provided insight into the microstructural pattern of cracking resistance degradation caused by aging. This research provides theoretical support for the optimization of the anti-aging performance of RMA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Sustainable Infrastructure Construction Materials (3rd Edition))

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24 pages, 5443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Early-Age Curing and Environmental Conditions on Shrinkage and Microcracking in Concrete

by Magdalena Bacharz, Kamil Bacharz and Wiesław Trąmpczyński

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3185; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133185 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 321

Abstract

This study analyzed the effects of curing and maturation on the formation of shrinkage strain and destructive processes in concrete. Experimental tests were performed on commonly used concrete, class C30/37, with basalt aggregate and blast furnace cement tested: at constant temperature after water [...] Read more.

This study analyzed the effects of curing and maturation on the formation of shrinkage strain and destructive processes in concrete. Experimental tests were performed on commonly used concrete, class C30/37, with basalt aggregate and blast furnace cement tested: at constant temperature after water curing, at constant temperature without water curing, and under cyclically changing temperature without prior curing. Shrinkage strain was measured for 46 days with an extensometer on 150 × 150 × 600 mm specimens, and the acoustic emission (AE) method was used to monitor microcracks and processes in concrete in real time. The results were compared with the model according to EN 1992-1-1:2023. It was found that this model correctly estimates shrinkage strain for wet-curing concrete, but there are discrepancies for air-dried concrete, regardless of temperature and moisture conditions (constant/variable). Correlation coefficients between shrinkage strain increments and process increments in early-age concrete are proposed. Correlations between shrinkage strain and destructive processes occurring in concrete were confirmed. It was found that by using correlation coefficients, it is possible to estimate internal damage in relation to shrinkage strain. The results indicate the need to develop guidelines for estimating shrinkage strain in non-model environmental conditions and demonstrate the usefulness of the nondestructive AE method in diagnosing early damage, especially in concrete structures exposed to adverse service conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Concrete and Building Materials)

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29 pages, 6644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Design Methodology of Asphalt Mixture Dynamic Modulus Based on Pavement Response

by You Huang, Boxiong Feng, Xin Yang, Minxiang Cheng and Zhaohui Liu

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3184; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133184 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 249

Abstract

The design of asphalt mixture has, for a long time, been an empirical and proof process, causing the mismatch between material design and pavement structure design. To enhance the rationality of asphalt pavement design, this study seeks a path to bridge the gap [...] Read more.

The design of asphalt mixture has, for a long time, been an empirical and proof process, causing the mismatch between material design and pavement structure design. To enhance the rationality of asphalt pavement design, this study seeks a path to bridge the gap between asphalt mixture modulus and structural behavior. Firstly, pavement models with different base rigidities, including cement concrete base, cement-treated granular base, and granular base, were constructed to calculate the pavement responses under different dynamic modulus master curve parameters. The influence of master curve parameters on critical pavement responses was identified by the response surface method (RSM). Furthermore, a Whale Optimization Algorithm–Back Propagation (WOA-BP) artificial-neural-network-based pavement response prediction model was established. Then, a database mapping over 100 thousand pavement responses and dynamic modulus master curve parameters was built for determining the dynamic modulus master curve parameters by optimizing the pavement responses. The results show that the impacts of dynamic modulus master curve parameters on critical pavement responses depend on pavement structures. In general, parameter δ has the greatest impact, followed by α, while the effects of β and γ are relatively small. The Artificial Neural Network (ANN) performance prediction model, optimized by the WOA algorithm, has a high accuracy. The methodology for determining the dynamic modulus master curve parameter based on the critical response of pavement was successfully implemented. The findings can bridge the gap between material design and structure design of asphalt pavement and provide a basis for more accurate and reasonable asphalt pavement design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning, Health Monitoring, and Numerical Simulation of Civil Engineering Materials)

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17 pages, 5457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiphysics Modeling of Heat Transfer and Melt Pool Thermo-Fluid Dynamics in Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion of Metals

by Tingzhong Zhang, Xijian Lin, Yanwen Qin, Dehua Zhu, Jing Wang, Chengguang Zhang and Yuchao Bai

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3183; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133183 - 5 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Laser-based powder bed fusion of metals (PBF-LB/M) is one of the most promising additive manufacturing technologies to fabricate complex-structured metal parts. However, its corresponding applications have been limited by technical bottlenecks and increasingly strict industrial requirements. Process optimization, a scientific issue, urgently needs [...] Read more.

Laser-based powder bed fusion of metals (PBF-LB/M) is one of the most promising additive manufacturing technologies to fabricate complex-structured metal parts. However, its corresponding applications have been limited by technical bottlenecks and increasingly strict industrial requirements. Process optimization, a scientific issue, urgently needs to be solved. In this paper, a three-phase transient model based on the level-set method is established to examine the heat transfer and melt pool behavior in PBF-LB/M. Surface tension, the Marangoni effect, and recoil pressure are implemented in the model, and evaporation-induced mass and thermal loss are fully considered in the computing element. The results show that the surface roughness and density of metal parts induced by heat transfer and melt pool behavior are closely related to process parameters such as laser power, layer thickness, scanning speed, etc. When the volumetric energy density is low, the insufficient fusion of metal particles leads to pore defects. When the line energy density is high, the melt track is smooth with low porosity, resulting in the high density of the products. Additionally, the partial melting of powder particles at the beginning and end of the melting track usually contributes to pore formation. These findings provide valuable insights for improving the quality and reliability of metal additive manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Developments in Advanced Machining Technologies for Materials)

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29 pages, 14256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bond Behavior and Critical Anchorage Length Prediction of Novel Negative Poisson’s Ratio Bars Embedded in Ultra-High-Performance Concrete

by Zhao Xu, Chang-Ze Xu, Xian-Liang Rong, Jun-Yan Wang and Xue-Yuan Ma

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3182; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133182 - 4 Jul 2025

Viewed by 427

Abstract

Negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR) reinforcement offers a novel solution to the usual trade-off between strength gains and ductility loss. Incorporating NPR into ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) effectively overcomes the ductility limitations of structural elements. However, the interfacial bonding between NPR reinforcement and UHPC is [...] Read more.

Negative Poisson’s ratio (NPR) reinforcement offers a novel solution to the usual trade-off between strength gains and ductility loss. Incorporating NPR into ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) effectively overcomes the ductility limitations of structural elements. However, the interfacial bonding between NPR reinforcement and UHPC is not sufficiently studied, especially its patterns and mechanisms, impeding the application of the materials. In this paper, the effects of nine design parameters (rebar type, prestrain, etc.) on the bond performance of NPR-UHPC through eccentric pull-out tests are investigated, and a quantitative discriminative indicator K_c for NPR-UHPC bond failure modes is established. The results showed that when K_c ≤ 4.3, 4.3 < K_c ≤ 5.64, and K_c ≥ 5.6, the NPR-UHPC specimens undergo splitting failure, splitting–pull-out failure, and pull-out failure, respectively. In terms of bonding with UHPC, the NPR bars outperform the HRB400 bars, and the HRB400 bars outperform the helical grooved (HG) bars. For the NPR bars, prestrain levels of 5.5%, 9.5%, and 22.0% decrease τ_u by 5.07%, 7.79%, and 17.01% and s_u by 7.00%, 15.88%, and 30.54%, respectively. Bond performance deteriorated with increasing rib spacing and decreasing rib height. Based on the test results, an artificial neural network (ANN) model is developed to accurately predict the critical embedded length l_cd and ultimate embedded length l_ud between NPR bars and UHPC. Moreover, the MAPE of the ANN model is only 53.9% of that of the regression model, while the RMSE is just 62.0%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)

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16 pages, 9499 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Durability Assessment of Alkali-Activated Geopolymers Matrices for Organic Liquid Waste Immobilization

by Rosa Lo Frano, Salvatore Angelo Cancemi, Eleonora Stefanelli and Viktor Dolin

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3181; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133181 - 4 Jul 2025

Viewed by 272

Abstract

This study investigates the mechanical and microstructural performance of three alkali-activated geopolymer formulations, constituted of metakaolin (MK), blast furnace slag (BFS), and a ternary blend of MK, BFS, and fly ash (MIX), for the immobilization of simulated radioactive liquid organic waste (RLOW). Thermal [...] Read more.

This study investigates the mechanical and microstructural performance of three alkali-activated geopolymer formulations, constituted of metakaolin (MK), blast furnace slag (BFS), and a ternary blend of MK, BFS, and fly ash (MIX), for the immobilization of simulated radioactive liquid organic waste (RLOW). Thermal ageing tests were performed to evaluate geopolymer durability, including fire exposure (800 °C) and climatic chamber cycles (from −20 to 40 °C). Characterization through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), compression tests, and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) was carried out to assess material degradation after thermal ageing. Preliminary results showed substantial strength and microstructural degradation in oil-loaded specimens after cyclic climatic ageing, while fire-exposed blank matrices retained partial mechanical integrity. BFS matrices exhibited the best thermal resistance, attributable to the formation of Ca-Al-Si-hydrate (C-A-S-H) gels. These findings support the use of optimized geopolymer formulations for safe RLOW immobilization, while contributing to the advancement of knowledge on sustainable and regulatory-compliant direct conditioning technology. Full article

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18 pages, 4306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing the Thermal Treatment of Mining-Waste-Amended Clays for Ceramic Aggregates in Pavement Applications

by Murilo Miguel Narciso, Lisley Madeira Coelho, Sergio Neves Monteiro and Antônio Carlos Rodrigues Guimarães

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3180; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133180 - 4 Jul 2025

Viewed by 277

Abstract

Mining activities generate large volumes of tailings with significant environmental impact but also the potential for sustainable reuse in construction materials. This study evaluates the production of ceramic aggregates from mixtures of clay, sand, and iron ore waste subjected to thermal treatment at [...] Read more.

Mining activities generate large volumes of tailings with significant environmental impact but also the potential for sustainable reuse in construction materials. This study evaluates the production of ceramic aggregates from mixtures of clay, sand, and iron ore waste subjected to thermal treatment at temperatures ranging from 600 to 1100 °C. The influence of calcination temperature on mineralogical transformations and mechanical integrity was investigated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and the

α

-Treton parameter, derived from standardized impact resistance testing. The results indicate that the formation of metakaolinite between 700 and 900 °C enhances mechanical resistance, while higher temperatures (>900 °C) lead to structural degradation, followed by partial recovery due to mullite crystallization. The

α

-Treton curve exhibited clear correlation with the phase changes identified by XRD, demonstrating its applicability as a low-cost, sensitive proxy for optimizing thermal activation. A simplified methodology is proposed to optimize the thermal activation of such materials by correlating firing temperature with mineralogical evolution and mechanical integrity, contributing to the development of sustainable ceramic aggregates for pavement applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Industrial Solid Wastes for Construction and Building Materials—Second Edition)

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14 pages, 5562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of AlCoCrFeNi High-Entropy Alloy-Reinforced Ti-6Al-4V Composites

by Abdulaziz Kurdi, Animesh Kumar Basak, Nachimuthu Radhika and Ahmed Degnah

Materials 2025, 18(13), 3179; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133179 - 4 Jul 2025

Viewed by 397

Abstract

High-entropy alloy (HEA) particle-reinforced metal matrix composites (MMCs) are a new generation of MMCs with potential applications as orthopedic material in automotive, aerospace, and biomedical fields. In this study, AlCoCrFeNi HEA-reinforced Ti-6Al-4V metal matrix composites (MMCs) were prepared by microwave sintering. The microstructural [...] Read more.

High-entropy alloy (HEA) particle-reinforced metal matrix composites (MMCs) are a new generation of MMCs with potential applications as orthopedic material in automotive, aerospace, and biomedical fields. In this study, AlCoCrFeNi HEA-reinforced Ti-6Al-4V metal matrix composites (MMCs) were prepared by microwave sintering. The microstructural aspects of the MMC were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), with an emphasis on the interdiffusion (ID) layer. The mechanical properties of the composites were studied by micro-pillar compression at the micro-length scale. The results show that the ID layer exists between the HEA particles and the matrix, is equiaxed in nature, and leads towards metallurgical bonding within the composite. The strength of this ID layer (1573 MPa of yield strength and 1867 MPa of compressive strength) and its Young’s modulus (570 MPa) were about 1.5 times lower than that of the matrix. The HEA particles exhibit the highest strength (2157 MPa of yield strength and 3356 MPa of compressive strength) and Young’s modulus (643 MPa), whereas the matrix falls in between 2372 MPa of yield strength and 2661 MPa of compressive strength, and a Young’s modulus of 721 MPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization of Metallic Materials: Solidification, Deformation, Heat Treatment and Other Related Phenomena—Third Edition)

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