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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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20 pages, 2872 KB  
Review
Challenges in Toxicological Risk Assessment of Environmental Cadmium Exposure
by Soisungwan Satarug
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050404 - 16 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1079
Abstract
Dietary exposure to a high dose of cadmium (Cd) ≥ 100 µg/day for at least 50 years or a lifetime intake of Cd ≥ 1 g can cause severe damage to the kidneys and bones. Alarmingly, however, exposure to a dose of Cd [...] Read more.
Dietary exposure to a high dose of cadmium (Cd) ≥ 100 µg/day for at least 50 years or a lifetime intake of Cd ≥ 1 g can cause severe damage to the kidneys and bones. Alarmingly, however, exposure to a dose of Cd between 10 and 15 µg/day and excretion of Cd at a rate below 0.5 µg/g creatinine have been associated with an increased risk of diseases with a high prevalence worldwide, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD), fragile bones, diabetes, and cancer. These findings have cast considerable doubt on a “tolerable” Cd exposure level of 58 µg/day for a 70 kg person, while questioning the threshold level for the Cd excretion rate of 5.24 µg/g creatinine. The present review addresses many unmet challenges in a threshold-based risk assessment for Cd. Special emphasis is given to the benchmark dose (BMD) methodology to estimate the Cd exposure limit that aligns with a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL). Cd exposure limits estimated from conventional dosing experiments and human data are highlighted. The results of the BMDL modeling of the relationship between Cd excretion and various indicators of its effects on kidneys are summarized. It is recommended that exposure guidelines for Cd should employ the most recent scientific research data, dose–response curves constructed from an unbiased exposure indicator, and clinically relevant adverse effects such as proteinuria, albuminuria, and a decrease in the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). These are signs of developing CKD and its progression to the end stage, when dialysis or a kidney transplant is required for survival. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occupational and Environmental Exposures, Diseases and Epidemiology: From Basic Research to Human Health)
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30 pages, 5318 KB  
Review
Progress of Ship Exhaust Emissions in China’s Lijiang River: Current Status and Aftertreatment Technologies
by Pengyu Liu, Bensen Xian, Mei Wang, Yong Xiao, Xiaobin Zhou, Dandan Xu, Yanan Zhang, Huili Liu and Shaoyuan Bai
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050396 - 15 May 2025
Viewed by 1234
Abstract
Exhaust emissions from ships are significant threats to the environment and human health, necessitating effective control measures and treatment technologies. In response to the increasing stringency of emission regulations set by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and national governments, the shipping industry must [...] Read more.
Exhaust emissions from ships are significant threats to the environment and human health, necessitating effective control measures and treatment technologies. In response to the increasing stringency of emission regulations set by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and national governments, the shipping industry must adopt advanced techniques to mitigate these emissions. The study focuses on the current status of exhaust pollution prevention and control on the Lijiang River and describes the latest progress in ship emission management. It summarizes the sources and hazards of nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulfur oxides (SOX), and particulate matter (PM) emitted from ships. The study introduces and compares several exhaust treatment key technologies for desulfurization, denitrification, and integrated desulfurization and denitrification to emphasize their principles, processes, and characteristics. It also demonstrates the future prospects for controlling exhaust gas pollution on inland ships and advocates for the development of integrated technologies that are efficient, space-saving, and cost-effective. The research aims to provide a valuable reference for inland ship exhaust pollution prevention and control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)
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34 pages, 5872 KB  
Review
Plastic Smell: A Review of the Hidden Threat of Airborne Micro and Nanoplastics to Human Health and the Environment
by Claudio Casella, Umberto Cornelli, Santiago Ballaz, Giuseppe Zanoni, Gabriele Merlo and Luis Ramos-Guerrero
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 387; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050387 - 12 May 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3091
Abstract
Airborne micro and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) are a growing issue due to their possible health hazards. Since the current bibliography lacks a thorough evaluation, this review examines the sources, environmental dynamics, and health impacts of airborne MPs/NPs. Through atmospheric transport processes, these neo-pollutants spread [...] Read more.
Airborne micro and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) are a growing issue due to their possible health hazards. Since the current bibliography lacks a thorough evaluation, this review examines the sources, environmental dynamics, and health impacts of airborne MPs/NPs. Through atmospheric transport processes, these neo-pollutants spread around the world after being released, potentially settling in urban and remote areas. This review is the first to compare active and passive aerosol sampling methods, and microscopy, thermochemical, and spectroscopy analytical techniques, with a focus on their limitations in precisely quantifying micro-nanoscale plastic particles. It also draws attention to the potential toxicological effects of inhaled MPs/NPs, which can lead to oxidative stress, respiratory inflammation, and other negative health consequences. This review concludes by examining how airborne MPs/NPs may worsen their ecological impact by serving as carriers of hazardous chemicals and microbial pollutants. Despite growing awareness, there still are many unanswered questions, especially about the impact of long-term exposure and how atmospheric conditions affect the spread of MPs/NPs. The aim of this review was to bring attention to the issue of airborne MP/NP effects and to promote the development of advanced monitoring systems, a new multidisciplinary scientific field for the study of these novel pollutants, and global regulatory frameworks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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33 pages, 602 KB  
Review
Micro- and Nanoplastics and Fetal Health: Challenges in Assessment and Evidence from Epidemiological Studies
by Ankica Sekovanić, Tatjana Orct and Zorana Kljaković-Gašpić
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050388 - 12 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1619
Abstract
The usage of plastics in life and industrial applications has led to global environmental pollution by micro- and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs). Despite their widespread occurrence in the environment, little is known about their presence in humans and the potential implications for human health, particularly [...] Read more.
The usage of plastics in life and industrial applications has led to global environmental pollution by micro- and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs). Despite their widespread occurrence in the environment, little is known about their presence in humans and the potential implications for human health, particularly maternal and fetal health during the prenatal and neonatal periods. Studies on experimental animals indicate that exposure to MPs/NPs can lead to neurological abnormalities in offspring and hemodynamic alterations in the placenta and fetal cerebral arteries. These findings underscore the need for further epidemiological studies that examine the effects of MPs/NPs on fetal health during pregnancy, a critical period for neurological development. This review summarizes the existing knowledge on the effects of prenatal exposure to MPs/NPs on fetal development and birth outcomes in humans and provides a detailed overview of the challenges encountered in contamination prevention, quality assurance and quality control in analytical procedures. It also discusses the sampling and digestion methods used for the extraction of MPs/NPs from biological samples of maternal and fetal origin, highlighting the difficulties associated with accurately quantifying these particles in complex biological matrices, identifying the gaps in current research, and suggesting recommendations to improve methodologies for assessing the risks associated with prenatal MP/NP exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Biomonitoring in Health Risk Assessment of Emerging Chemicals)
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13 pages, 2884 KB  
Article
Overlooked Photochemical Risk of Antimicrobial Fragrances: Formation of Potent Allergens and Their Mechanistic Pathways
by Xiaolin Niu, Junji Wu, Yi Chen, Na Luo and Yanpeng Gao
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050386 - 10 May 2025
Viewed by 692
Abstract
Antimicrobial fragrances, commonly found in household and personal care products, are frequently detected in water bodies, yet their environmental fate and transformation mechanisms remain inadequately explored. This study investigates the photochemical transformation of cinnamaldehyde (CA), a representative antimicrobial fragrance, and its consequence for [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial fragrances, commonly found in household and personal care products, are frequently detected in water bodies, yet their environmental fate and transformation mechanisms remain inadequately explored. This study investigates the photochemical transformation of cinnamaldehyde (CA), a representative antimicrobial fragrance, and its consequence for toxicological effects. The results showed that under UV irradiation, 94.6% CA was eliminated within 60 min, with a degradation rate of 0.059 min−1. Laser flash photolysis, quenching experiments, and electron paramagnetic resonance spectra identified O2•− and 3CA* as the important species, contributing 29.4% and 33.6%, respectively, to the transformation process. Additionally, singlet oxygen (1O2), hydroxyl radicals (•OH), and solvated electrons (eaq−) were involved in mediating the oxidation reactions. These species facilitated photoionization and oxidation, resulting in the formation of five major transformation products, including cis-cinnamyl aldehyde, cinnamic acid, styrene, 1aH-indeno [1,2-b]oxirene), and 1-Oxo-1H-indene. Most of these products were persistent, and exhibited considerable ecotoxicological risks. Specifically, the cinnamic acid and 1-Oxo-1H-indene caused severe skin irritation, while cinnamic acid induced significant eye irritation. Notably, the transformation products demonstrated sensitizing effects on human skin. This study underscores the overlooked ecotoxicological risks associated with the photochemical transformation of antimicrobial fragrances, revealing their potential to generate potent allergens and other harmful byproducts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Monitoring, Transformation and Ecological Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Aquatic Environments)
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17 pages, 1560 KB  
Article
The Association Between Maternal Dietary Intake and the Risk of Heavy Metals in Human Breast Milk in Korea
by Nalae Moon, Su Ji Heo, Seungyoung Park, Hosub Im and Ju Hee Kim
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050381 - 8 May 2025
Viewed by 1044
Abstract
Heavy metals (HMs) persist in the environment and enter the human body via various pathways. Once stored in adipose tissue, they can be transferred to breast milk, posing risks to infants. Moreover, maternal diet plays a key role in influencing HM levels in [...] Read more.
Heavy metals (HMs) persist in the environment and enter the human body via various pathways. Once stored in adipose tissue, they can be transferred to breast milk, posing risks to infants. Moreover, maternal diet plays a key role in influencing HM levels in breast milk. The aim of this study was to measure the concentration of HMs, including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As), in the breast milk of Korean mothers, assess their potential health risks, and identify maternal dietary factors influencing HM concentration in breast milk. Survey data on maternal–infant pairs and breast milk samples from 209 healthy lactating mothers were collected between January and March 2023. Trained nurses manually expressed the breast milk to prevent external contamination, and maternal dietary intake was systematically assessed using the 24 h recall method. The concentrations of Pb, Cd, Hg, and As were measured, and a risk assessment was conducted using the estimated daily intake hazard quotient. A multiple linear regression model was employed to evaluate the association between the HMs in breast milk and maternal dietary factors. Cd was detected in 99% of the breast milk samples, and high detection rates were observed for Hg (97%), As (89%), and Pb (79%). Arsenic was the largest contributor to the potential health risks of HM-contaminated breast milk. Positive associations were observed between Pb concentration and legume and seaweed consumption, Cd concentration and vegetable and seaweed consumption, Hg concentration and sugar intake, and As concentration and meat intake. This study highlights that maternal dietary intake is closely linked to HM concentrations in breast milk, and elevated As levels potentially pose health risks to infants. These findings underscore the importance of adopting a healthy diet to reduce HM exposure in breast milk and to promote safer breastfeeding practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Contaminant Bioaccumulation and Toxicokinetics: A One Health Perspective)
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13 pages, 644 KB  
Article
Patterns of Polydrug Use in Patients Presenting at the Emergency Department with Acute Intoxication
by Helena Manjón-Prado, Enrique Serrano Santos and Eduardo Osuna
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 380; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050380 - 7 May 2025
Viewed by 959
Abstract
Studies analyzing the prevalence of associated substance use are limited. Currently, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines polydrug use as the concurrent (simultaneous use) or sequential (use of one drug followed by another) abuse of more than one drug or type of drug, [...] Read more.
Studies analyzing the prevalence of associated substance use are limited. Currently, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines polydrug use as the concurrent (simultaneous use) or sequential (use of one drug followed by another) abuse of more than one drug or type of drug, with dependence on at least one. Associated drug consumption can exacerbate the adverse effects and complicate the clinical management of patients. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of polydrug use, excluding tobacco, in patients presenting with acute intoxication in the Emergency Department (ED) of the Clinical University Hospital Virgen de la Arrixaca (Murcia, Spain) in the year 2023. To this end, a retrospective analysis of 2562 patients was conducted, examining demographic variables, substance use patterns, reasons for presenting to the ED, and the substances consumed by each patient. The study reveals an average patient age of 41 ± 0.5 (SD = 11.96) composed of predominantly male patients (74.4%). A high prevalence of benzodiazepines and cocaine use, often in combination, was observed. The main reasons for attendance included symptoms such as palpitations, dyspnea, vomiting, diarrhea, behavioral disturbances, and self-harm. Only 25.5% of patients admitted to consuming all substances detected in their analyses. Polydrug use is frequent in our environment, which can lead to added complexity in diagnosis and treatment. Consumption patterns show a profile strongly related to the age of the subject. Among the youngest subjects, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and benzodiazepines predominate, whilst among older subjects, alcohol and benzodiazepines, and sometimes cocaine, predominate. This study highlights the need to design specific intervention and prevention strategies to address patterns of substance abuse, the importance of family and community support, and the need to tackle challenges in identifying and treating cases of polysubstance abuse. Moreover, cooperation between the healthcare system and law enforcement is also important to obtain up-to-date knowledge of new drugs and their consumption patterns in an emergency context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)
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24 pages, 650 KB  
Article
Health Risk for Non-Dietary Children’s Exposure to Heavy Metals in Postindustrial Areas in Upper Silesia, Poland
by Grzegorz Dziubanek, Joanna Furman, Danuta Rogala, Klaudia Gut-Pietrasz, Małgorzata Ćwieląg-Drabek, Monika Rusin, Joanna Domagalska, Agata Piekut, Renata Baranowska, Anna Niesler and Weronika Osmala-Kurpiewska
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050377 - 6 May 2025
Viewed by 1409
Abstract
Heavy metal exposure is a significant public health problem, especially among children, who are a particularly vulnerable group. This study investigates the non-dietary exposure of children to lead, cadmium, and zinc and the associated health risk in three selected locations near the former [...] Read more.
Heavy metal exposure is a significant public health problem, especially among children, who are a particularly vulnerable group. This study investigates the non-dietary exposure of children to lead, cadmium, and zinc and the associated health risk in three selected locations near the former non-ferrous metal smelters. Soil samples were collected from schools, parks, playgrounds, and other recreational places where children spend their free time in three districts of such towns as Katowice, Świętochłowice, and Piekary Śląskie. The contents of Cd, Pb, and Zn in the surface soil samples had the following ranges: 4.09–20.94 mg Cd/kg d.m., 161.70–1027.68 mg Pb/kg d.m., and 577.76–1475.93 mg Zn/kg d.m., respectively. The threshold doses of Cd, Zn, and Pb are 0.001 mg × kg−1 × day−1, 0.3 mg × kg−1 × day−1, and 0.0035 mg × kg−1 × day−1. A significant health risk was estimated as a result of non-dietary exposure of children to lead. The greatest non-cancer health risk in the population of children <6 years of age and in younger school children (<12 years of age) was shown. The problem was especially concerning in the scenario that assumed ingestion of soil particles in the areas most heavily contaminated with lead in the Katowice—Szopienice district. The public health policy should aim to monitor the current exposure of the local population to Pb and educate them on effective prophylactic methods to minimize environmental health risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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27 pages, 7465 KB  
Article
The Effects of Construction and Demolition Waste (C&DW) Fine Residues on Landfill Environments: A Column Leaching Experiment
by Adane S. Molla, Waiching Tang, Willy Sher, Md Mezbaul Bahar and Dawit Nega Bekele
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050370 - 2 May 2025
Viewed by 1800
Abstract
The rapid increase in construction and demolition waste (C&DW) has emerged as a significant environmental challenge, particularly due to the hazardous substances embodied within the fine residues destined into landfills. The disposal of C&DW in landfills has been widely recognized as a source [...] Read more.
The rapid increase in construction and demolition waste (C&DW) has emerged as a significant environmental challenge, particularly due to the hazardous substances embodied within the fine residues destined into landfills. The disposal of C&DW in landfills has been widely recognized as a source of leachate, containing toxic contaminants, which pose significant environmental risks. A controlled column leaching experiment was conducted using samples with varying proportions of C&DW, gypsum, and organic content to assess their impact on leachate chemistry. The results indicate that higher C&DW content leads to increased concentrations of heavy metals, such as Pb, Hg, As, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Co, as well as other metals like Al and Fe, with peak contamination occurring within the first 13–15 weeks. Gypsum presence exacerbates heavy metal solubility by reducing pH, increasing sulfate levels, and promoting metal-sulfate complex formation. Despite remaining within regulatory thresholds, the cumulative concentration of toxic metals over time highlights potential environmental risks, particularly in landfill settings. This study underscores the need for improved C&DW management practices, enhanced waste segregation, and sustainable alternatives to gypsum to mitigate long-term ecological impacts. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of C&DW leachate dynamics and inform policy recommendations for sustainable waste management in the construction sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment of Priority Substances)
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14 pages, 813 KB  
Article
Assessment of Potential Toxic Effects of Fungicide Fludioxonil on Human Cells and Aquatic Microorganisms
by Maria Antonopoulou, Anna Tzamaria, Sotiris Papas, Ioanna Efthimiou and Dimitris Vlastos
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050358 - 30 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1010
Abstract
Fludioxonil is a widely used fungicide that is frequently used to combat fungal plant diseases. Consequently, excessive concentrations of fludioxonil may enter and accumulate over time in aquatic systems, harming (micro) organisms in several ways. Thus, it is of great importance to evaluate [...] Read more.
Fludioxonil is a widely used fungicide that is frequently used to combat fungal plant diseases. Consequently, excessive concentrations of fludioxonil may enter and accumulate over time in aquatic systems, harming (micro) organisms in several ways. Thus, it is of great importance to evaluate the potential toxic effects of fludioxonil using bioassays. In the present study, various in vitro assays were used to assess the possible effects of fludioxonil in human cells and aquatic microorganisms. For the investigation of the toxic effects of fludioxonil on freshwater microalgae, Scenedesmus rubescens and Dunaliella tertiolecta were exposed to various environmentally relevant concentrations of the fungicide for a period of 96 h. Fludioxonil at 50–200 μg L−1 significantly limited the growth of both microalgae, especially in the first 24 h of the exposure, where inhibitions up to 82.34% were calculated. The toxicity of fludioxonil was further evaluated via the Microtox test, and the studied fungicide was found to be less toxic for the bacteria Aliivibrio fischeri. Regarding human cells, the fludioxonil’s toxic and cyto-genotoxic effects were assessed using the Trypan blue exclusion test and the Cytokinesis Block MicroNucleus (CBMN) assay. Cell viability in all fludioxonil-treated concentrations was similar to control values according to the results of the Trypan blue exclusion test. However, the CBMN assay was used and revealed that fludioxonil had genotoxic potential in higher concentrations and exerted cytotoxic activity against human lymphocytes. Specifically, only the highest dose of fludioxonil, i.e., 10 μg mL−1, exerted genotoxic effects against human lymphocytes, whereas treatment with 0.5, 1, and 5 μg mL−1 did not lead to statistically significant induction of micronuclei (MN) frequencies compared with the control culture. However, fludioxonil-mediated cytotoxicity was statistically significant, which was demonstrated by the decreased CBPI (cytokinesis block proliferation index) values in all cases except for the lowest dose, i.e., 0.5 μg mL−1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Low-Tier to Individual Effects of Emerging Pollutants: Integrative Approaches to Ecotoxicological Assessments—2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 3772 KB  
Article
Oxidative Stress Response of Liver Cell Culture in Atlantic Salmon Challenged Under Two Antibiotics: Oxytetracycline and Florfenicol
by Luis Vargas-Chacoff, Francisco Dann, Ricardo Oyarzún-Salazar, Daniela Nualart and José Luis P. Muñoz
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050361 - 30 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 694
Abstract
Aquaculture is currently the fastest-growing sector in animal production, with an average annual growth rate of 7.5% since 1970. In Chile, the industry is largely driven by salmonid farming, with Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) accounting for over 65% of national production. This species [...] Read more.
Aquaculture is currently the fastest-growing sector in animal production, with an average annual growth rate of 7.5% since 1970. In Chile, the industry is largely driven by salmonid farming, with Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) accounting for over 65% of national production. This species has shown the most significant growth within the sector. This growth is achieved by having high-density farming, which results in high levels of stress due to overcrowding and the appearance of pathogens such as the Infectious Salmon Anemia (ISA) virus, Bacterial Kidney Disease (BKD), Caligus sea lice (Caligus rogercresseyi), and Piscirickettsiosis (SRS) caused by Piscirickettsia salmonis, among others. This study evaluated the toxicity of the two most commonly used antibiotics in the salmon industry—oxytetracycline and florfenicol—at four concentrations each, using primary liver cell cultures of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Oxidative stress was assessed through enzymatic activity and gene expression of oxidative markers, including cytochrome P450, catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Samples were analyzed at 1, 3, 6, 12, and 48 h post-exposure. These findings reveal time- and dose-dependent oxidative responses in salmon liver cells to OTC and FLO, providing critical insights into the sublethal cellular effects of antibiotics commonly used in aquaculture, which indicates the presence of a high amount of free radicals in the liver cells, indicating toxicity of both antibiotics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Pollutants: Environmental Fate, Risk Assessment and Sustainable Solutions)
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14 pages, 1228 KB  
Article
N-Acetylcysteine-Amide Protects Against Acute Acrylamide Neurotoxicity in Adult Zebrafish
by Niki Tagkalidou, Júlia Goyenechea-Cunillera, Irene Romero-Alfano, Maria Olivella Martí, Juliette Bedrossiantz, Eva Prats, Cristian Gomez-Canela and Demetrio Raldúa
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050362 - 30 Apr 2025
Viewed by 890
Abstract
Acrylamide (ACR) is a potent neurotoxicant that disrupts cellular redox homeostasis by depleting reduced glutathione (GSH) and inducing oxidative stress. Despite its well-characterized mechanism, no effective treatments for ACR-induced neurotoxicity currently exist. This study evaluates the therapeutic efficacy of N-acetylcysteine-amide (AD4), a blood–brain [...] Read more.
Acrylamide (ACR) is a potent neurotoxicant that disrupts cellular redox homeostasis by depleting reduced glutathione (GSH) and inducing oxidative stress. Despite its well-characterized mechanism, no effective treatments for ACR-induced neurotoxicity currently exist. This study evaluates the therapeutic efficacy of N-acetylcysteine-amide (AD4), a blood–brain barrier (BBB)-permeable derivative of N-acetylcysteine, in a novel severe acute ACR neurotoxicity model in adult zebrafish. Adult zebrafish received a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of ACR (800 μg/g), followed by AD4 (400 μg/g i.p.) or PBS 24 h later. ACR exposure reduced brain GSH levels by 51% reduction at 48 h, an effect fully reversed by AD4 treatment. Behavioral analyses showed that AD4 rescued ACR-induced deficits in short-term habituation of the acoustic startle response (ASR). Surprisingly, ACR exposure did not alter the neurochemical profile of key neurotransmitters or the expression of genes related to redox homeostasis, synaptic vesicle recycling, regeneration, or myelination. These results demonstrate AD4’s neuroprotective effects against acute ACR-induced brain toxicity, highlighting its therapeutic potential and validating adult zebrafish as a translational model for studying neurotoxic mechanisms and neuroprotective interventions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicological Studies Using Zebrafish Models)
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35 pages, 5171 KB  
Review
A Review of Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds from Plants: Research Progress and Future Prospects
by Rongrong Luo, Xiaoxiu Lun, Rui Gao, Le Wang, Yuan Yang, Xingqian Su, Md Habibullah-Al-Mamun, Xiaohang Xu, Hong Li and Jinjuan Li
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050364 - 30 Apr 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4482
Abstract
Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) emitted by plants contribute to secondary air pollution through photochemical reactions in sunlight. Due to the influence of multiple factors, accurately characterizing and quantifying the emission of BVOCs from plant sources is challenging, which poses significant obstacles to [...] Read more.
Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) emitted by plants contribute to secondary air pollution through photochemical reactions in sunlight. Due to the influence of multiple factors, accurately characterizing and quantifying the emission of BVOCs from plant sources is challenging, which poses significant obstacles to the effective management and control of BVOCs. Therefore, this paper summarizes the emission mechanisms of BVOCs from plants, explores the primary factors influencing variations in the emission rates of these compounds, and evaluates the advantages and limitations of contemporary “measurement-modeling” methods for characterizing BVOC emissions. It is concluded that current measurement techniques still need to be further developed to meet the criteria of simplicity, affordability, and high precision simultaneously, and in terms of modeling and prediction studies, there is a lack of in-depth research on the atmospheric chemistry of BVOCs and the synergistic effects of multiple factors. Finally, it is suggested to leverage interdisciplinary strengths to develop advanced measurement technologies and high-resolution models for monitoring volatile compounds. Additionally, strategically selecting low-BVOC tree species in pollution-vulnerable urban areas—contingent on rigorous ecological assessments—combined with stringent controls on anthropogenic precursors (e.g., anthropogenic volatile organic compounds (AVOCs)) could serve as a complementary measure to mitigate secondary pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Source and Components Analysis of Aerosols in Air Pollution)
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21 pages, 3777 KB  
Article
Potential Health Risk of Microplastic Exposures from Skin-Cleansing Products
by Raluca Maria Bucur (Popa), Cristiana Radulescu, Ioana Daniela Dulama, Raluca Maria Stirbescu, Ioan Alin Bucurica, Andreea Laura Banica and Sorina Geanina Stanescu
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050354 - 29 Apr 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1441
Abstract
This research aims to investigate and quantify the possible presence of microplastics (MPs) in usual skin-cleansing products (i.e., liquid soap, micellar water, and micellar cleansing oil), the most popular from the market in terms of brand and customer confidence. Therefore, optical microscopy and [...] Read more.
This research aims to investigate and quantify the possible presence of microplastics (MPs) in usual skin-cleansing products (i.e., liquid soap, micellar water, and micellar cleansing oil), the most popular from the market in terms of brand and customer confidence. Therefore, optical microscopy and micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (micro-FTIR) were used to determine the MPs’ number, color, shape, size, and chemical composition. For the first time, the results were correlated with the possible exposure paths (i.e., inhalation, ingestion, or adsorption) to assess the human health risk of the analyzed micellar-based cleansers in terms of chronic total exposure dose to microplastics. Finally, a statistical analysis was added to this study for source prediction of MPs in skin-cleansing samples in terms of morphology, chemical composition, and other factors (i.e., brand, packaging, etc.). The various exposures and toxicities of MPs were assessed in terms of potential health risk, knowing that their toxic effect depends on the polymeric structure strongly linked with the size, shape, and concentration in the products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Effects and Toxicology Studies of Emerging Contaminants)
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13 pages, 4614 KB  
Article
Determination of Multiple Fluorescent Brighteners in Human Plasma Using Captiva EMR-Lipid Clean-Up and LC-MS/MS Analysis
by Yubing Yan, Bowen Liang, Jiawen Yang, Qing Deng, Xiaoying Liang, Hui Chen, Bibai Du and Lixi Zeng
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050352 - 28 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 676
Abstract
Fluorescent brighteners (FBs) are a class of chemicals extensively used in industrial and consumer products. Their environmental occurrences and potential health risks have raised significant concerns. However, the lack of analytical methods for FBs in human samples has hindered the accurate assessment of [...] Read more.
Fluorescent brighteners (FBs) are a class of chemicals extensively used in industrial and consumer products. Their environmental occurrences and potential health risks have raised significant concerns. However, the lack of analytical methods for FBs in human samples has hindered the accurate assessment of internal exposure levels. Addressing this gap, this study developed and validated a novel method for the simultaneous determination of 13 FBs at trace levels in human plasma using solid-phase extraction combined with HPLC-MS/MS. The method employed EMR-Lipid SPE columns, which can selectively adsorb phospholipids for plasma sample pre-treatment. Detection was achieved through positive ion electrospray ionization (ESI) in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes. The results showed that all 13 FBs exhibited good linearity within their respective ranges, with correlation coefficients (R2) greater than 0.992. The method quantitation limits (MQLs) of the FBs ranged from 0.012 to 0.348 ng/mL, and the spiked recovery rates ranged from 61% to 98%. The method was successfully applied to analyze 10 adult plasma samples, detecting 10 FBs with total concentrations ranging from 0.221 to 0.684 ng/mL. This study provides a reliable analytical method for determining FBs in human plasma, providing a basis for further research on human internal exposure to FBs and associated health risk assessments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Risk Assessment of Exposure to Emerging Contaminants)
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19 pages, 1799 KB  
Review
Solutions to the Dilemma of Antibiotics Use in Livestock and Poultry Farming: Regulation Policy and Alternatives
by Shimei Zheng, Yongchao Li, Cuihong Chen, Naiyu Wang and Fengxia Yang
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050348 - 27 Apr 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3545
Abstract
While the application of antibiotics in livestock production has undeniably propelled the rapid growth of animal husbandry, the escalating crisis of antimicrobial resistance stemming from antibiotic use poses significant threats to global public health and sustainable agricultural development. To address this critical challenge, [...] Read more.
While the application of antibiotics in livestock production has undeniably propelled the rapid growth of animal husbandry, the escalating crisis of antimicrobial resistance stemming from antibiotic use poses significant threats to global public health and sustainable agricultural development. To address this critical challenge, multifaceted strategies have been implemented through coordinated policy interventions and scientific innovations. This review systematically examines two pivotal dimensions: (1) evolving regulatory frameworks governing antibiotic usage and (2) emerging non-antibiotic alternatives, with a particular focus on their implementation mechanisms and technological maturation. The analysis of transnational antibiotic governance encompasses comparative policy evolution in the European Union, the United States, and China. These regulatory paradigms address critical control points including registration management policies, usage monitoring systems, and integrated surveillance programs. Concerning technological alternatives, six categories of antibiotic substitutes are critically evaluated: Chinese herbal formulations, plant-derived essential oils, antimicrobial peptides, microecological agents, acidifiers, and enzyme preparations. These solutions are functionally categorized into prophylactic agents (enhancing disease resilience) and zootechnical additives (optimizing feed efficiency). These antibiotic alternatives demonstrate certain efficacy in alleviating the challenges of antibiotic overuse, yet they still face multiple implementation barriers. Further investigations are warranted to establish standardized efficacy evaluation protocols and conduct technoeconomic feasibility assessments under commercial-scale production conditions. Ultimately, resolving the antibiotic dilemma requires synergistic collaboration between regulatory bodies, pharmaceutical innovators, and academic researchers. This work emphasizes the crucial interplay between evidence-based policymaking and technological advancement in shaping sustainable livestock production systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antibiotics and Resistance Genes in Environment)
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11 pages, 718 KB  
Article
Safety and Sublethal Effects of Acaricides on Stethorus punctillum, a Neglected Key Natural Enemy of Phytophagous Mites
by Huan Guo, Dawei Zhang, Haoyu Wang, Xiaoling He, Senshan Wang and Yanhui Lu
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050346 - 26 Apr 2025
Viewed by 545
Abstract
Stethorus punctillum Weise, a predatory beetle attacking phytophagous mites in northwest China, remains underutilized for biological control. Current over-reliance on synthetic acaricides necessitates evaluation of their non-target effects on this predator, particularly their safety and sublethal impacts. Here, we assessed the acute toxicity [...] Read more.
Stethorus punctillum Weise, a predatory beetle attacking phytophagous mites in northwest China, remains underutilized for biological control. Current over-reliance on synthetic acaricides necessitates evaluation of their non-target effects on this predator, particularly their safety and sublethal impacts. Here, we assessed the acute toxicity of four acaricides to S. punctillum in laboratory bioassays and then focused on sublethal impacts of abamectin on adult predation efficiency and lifespan. Based on the LC50 values, the acute toxicities of the four acaricides tested against S. punctillum larvae and adults both ranked as follows (from greatest to least): abamectin > pyridaben > spirotetramat > petroleum oil. All acaricides exhibited selective toxicity (STR: 2.16–182.49) with moderate to low risk (SF: 0.46–8.71). Notably, petroleum oil, despite showing the lowest acute toxicity to S. punctillum, posed the highest risk to larvae (SF: 0.46–0.77). Abamectin exposures at LC20 or LC50 significantly compromised S. punctillum adults, prolonging prey handling time (females: 33–100%; males: 40%), reducing maximum daily predation (females: 25–50%; males: 29%), and shortening adult lifespan (females: 2.34–3.17 days; males: 3.95–5.08 days). This study assessed the safety of four commonly used acaricides for S. punctillum, revealing abamectin-induced impairments to key biological traits. Our findings offer critical insights for risk-aware acaricide selection and integrated spider mite management strategies in agroecosystems in northwest China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)
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15 pages, 2303 KB  
Article
Identification and Characterization of Atmospheric Nickel-Containing Particles in Guangzhou After the Implementation of the Clean Fuel Policy
by Zaihua Wang, Xuanxiao Chen, Cheng Wu, Hong Ju, Zhong Fu, Xin Xiong, Ting Qiu, Yuchen Lu, Junjie He, Yaxi Liu, Haining Wu, Chunlei Cheng and Mei Li
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050345 - 26 Apr 2025
Viewed by 688
Abstract
Nickel, as a toxic trace element in fine particulate matter (PM2.5), has detrimental effects on both air quality and human health. Based on measurements from 2020 to 2021 using a single-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SPAMS), this study investigates the properties of [...] Read more.
Nickel, as a toxic trace element in fine particulate matter (PM2.5), has detrimental effects on both air quality and human health. Based on measurements from 2020 to 2021 using a single-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SPAMS), this study investigates the properties of nickel-containing particles (NCPs) in Guangzhou. The composition, sources, and temporal trends of NCPs were evaluated and the impact of the clean ship fuel policy introduced in 2020 was also examined. The key findings include: (1) Nickel particles account for 0.08% number fraction of PM2.5, which is consistent with previously reported mass fraction in PM2.5. (2) Three distinct types of NCPs were identified, including Ni-fresh, Ni-aged, and Ni-ash. Each type exhibits unique characteristics in size distribution, wind direction dependence, sources, and temporal variations. Ni-fresh particles originate from shipping emissions in the Huangpu Port area 2 km away and are the major contributors to fine nickel particles in the region. (3) Ni-aged and Ni-ash particles, which carry secondary components, tend to be larger (>500 nm) and are representative of regional or background nickel particles. (4) The implementation of the clean ship fuel policy has effectively reduced the number concentrations of NCPs and is beneficial to regional and local air quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Aerosols: Source Apportionment, Characterizations, and Detection, 2nd Edition)
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13 pages, 1409 KB  
Article
Burden of Disease Attributed to Prenatal Methylmercury Exposure in the Yanomami Indigenous Land
by Ana Claudia Santiago de Vasconcellos, Raiane Fontes de Oliveira, Marcos Wesley Oliveira and Paulo Cesar Basta
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050339 - 25 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1120
Abstract
The Yanomami Indigenous Land (YIL) is heavily impacted by illegal gold mining, leading to significant contamination by methylmercury, a neurotoxin that poses severe risks to human health. The fetal brain is particularly susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury, which can result in [...] Read more.
The Yanomami Indigenous Land (YIL) is heavily impacted by illegal gold mining, leading to significant contamination by methylmercury, a neurotoxin that poses severe risks to human health. The fetal brain is particularly susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury, which can result in mild mental retardation (MMR). The goal of this study was to estimate the burden of disease (BoD) associated with methylmercury exposure in the YIL and its economic implications. The BoD calculations followed World Health Organization (WHO) methodologies. To estimate the local BoD, hair samples were collected from women of childbearing age in the Waikás, Mucajaí, Paapiu, and Maturacá regions. For broader estimates, data from the scientific literature were used. The average hair methylmercury concentrations in these investigated regions were 6.21 µg/g, 3.86 µg/g, 3.53 µg/g, and 2.96 µg/g, respectively. The MMR incidence rate (IR) in children ranged from 2.08 to 4.47 per 1000 in these regions. The Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) per 1000 births varied from 24.8 to 53.4. In the Worst-Case Scenario, MMR-IR reached 9 per 1000, with DALYs per 1000 births rising to 109.6. The estimated economic impact of methylmercury exposure ranged from USD 716,750 to USD 3,153,700. This study is the first to quantify the MMR incidence due to mercury in the YIL, highlighting the severe threat posed by gold mining to the health and survival of the Yanomami people. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollutants and Neurocognitive Disorders in Autochthones Populations Worldwide)
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20 pages, 2597 KB  
Article
Effects of Polystyrene Nanoplastics on Oxidative Stress, Blood Biochemistry, and Digestive Enzyme Activity in Goldfish (Carassius auratus)
by Sasan Azarm-Karnagh, Masoud Sattari, Mahdi Banaee, Behzad Shirkavand Hadavand and Francesca Falco
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050336 - 24 Apr 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1074
Abstract
Plastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems has become a global concern, and nanoplastics, due to their small size and high penetration potential, pose significant risks to aquatic organisms. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) on oxidative stress biomarkers, blood [...] Read more.
Plastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems has become a global concern, and nanoplastics, due to their small size and high penetration potential, pose significant risks to aquatic organisms. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) on oxidative stress biomarkers, blood biochemical parameters, and digestive enzyme activities in Goldfish (Carassius auratus). The experiment was conducted over 21 days, exposing fish to four different dietary concentrations of PS-NPs (0, 1, 10, and 100 mg/Kg). The results showed that chronic exposure to 50 nm PS-NPs significantly increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD, and GPx) and MDA activity in the gill, kidney, and liver tissues, indicating the induction of oxidative stress. Furthermore, notable alterations were observed in blood biochemical enzymes (alkaline phosphatase [ALP], alanine aminotransferase [ALT], aspartate aminotransferase [AST], and lactate dehydrogenase [LDH]), suggesting cellular damage and physiological disturbances. Additionally, PS-NP exposure affected the activity of digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, and protease), which may impact nutrient digestion and absorption. These findings highlight that PS-NPs can adversely affect aquatic animal health and may influence the nutritional quality of fish. Therefore, further research is necessary to assess the long-term ecological and toxicological impacts of nanoplastics in freshwater ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Pollutants on Aquatic Ecosystems and Food Safety)
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14 pages, 3219 KB  
Article
Bioaccumulation, Biotransformation and Oxidative Stress of 6:2 Fluorotelomer Sulfonamidoalkyl Betaine (6:2 FTAB) in Earthworms (Eisenia fetida)
by Xinlei Zhang, Mengyao Fang, Zhiyuan Bai, Yulu Zong, Shuyan Zhao and Jingjing Zhan
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050337 - 24 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 790
Abstract
As a novel perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) alternative, 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonamide alkylbetaine (6: 2 FTAB) has been detected in the environment and biotas. However, its behaviors and toxicity in earthworms remain unclear. Here, earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were exposed to 6:2 FTAB to [...] Read more.
As a novel perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) alternative, 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonamide alkylbetaine (6: 2 FTAB) has been detected in the environment and biotas. However, its behaviors and toxicity in earthworms remain unclear. Here, earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were exposed to 6:2 FTAB to investigate its bioaccumulation, biotransformation and toxicity. Results indicated that 6:2 FTAB could be biodegraded in soil into perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA), perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and perfluoropropionic acid (PFPrA). The uptake rate constant (ku) and the bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of 6:2 FTAB in earthworms were 0.0504 goc gww−1 d and 1.65 goc gww−1, respectively. 6:2 FTAB was biotransformed to form PFHxA, PFPeA, PFBA and PFPrA in earthworms after in vivo and in vitro exposure. The aerobic bacteria isolated from worm gut could degrade 6:2 FTAB to form PFPeA and PFHxA, while the anaerobic bacteria did not contribute to 6:2 FTAB biodegradation in worms. Peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities were significantly increased, while no significant changes were observed for catalase (CAT) activities, demonstrating activation of the primary antioxidant defense system against oxidative stress in earthworms after exposure to 6:2 FTAB. The significant increase of glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities suggested indirect evidence on the conjugation of 6:2 FTAB or its metabolites in phase II of detoxication. This study provides important information on the fate of 6:2 FTAB in earthworms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exposure and Toxicity of Emerging Organic Pollutants in Environment and Human)
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50 pages, 2373 KB  
Review
Assessing Heavy Metal Contamination in Food: Implications for Human Health and Environmental Safety
by Magdalena Mititelu, Sorinel Marius Neacșu, Ștefan Sebastian Busnatu, Alexandru Scafa-Udriște, Octavian Andronic, Andreea-Elena Lăcraru, Corina-Bianca Ioniță-Mîndrican, Dumitru Lupuliasa, Carolina Negrei and Gabriel Olteanu
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050333 - 23 Apr 2025
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6444
Abstract
Ensuring food security is essential for achieving sustainable global development, requiring a balance between sufficient food production and maintaining its safety and nutritional value. However, this objective faces considerable challenges due to the infiltration of toxic metal species into the food supply. Heavy [...] Read more.
Ensuring food security is essential for achieving sustainable global development, requiring a balance between sufficient food production and maintaining its safety and nutritional value. However, this objective faces considerable challenges due to the infiltration of toxic metal species into the food supply. Heavy metals and metalloids, depending on their molecular form and daily dose, exhibit varying degrees of toxicity, making the precise identification of their species essential for assessing their impact on human health and the environment. This study focuses on identifying the primary anthropogenic sources and dissemination pathways of heavy metal pollutants, with an emphasis on their speciation and bioavailability. It examines how toxic metal species, such as Pb2+, Cd2+, Hg2+, and various arsenic species (AsIII and AsV), infiltrate ecosystems, bioaccumulate within the food chain, and ultimately compromise food safety and nutritional value. Furthermore, the research explores the physiological and biochemical disruptions caused by these toxic metal species, including the displacement of essential ions from enzymatic active sites and transport proteins due to competitive binding by pollutants, oxidative stress induced by reactive oxygen species generation, and cellular dysfunction affecting metabolic pathways and signaling cascades, all of which contribute to both chronic and acute health conditions. By providing a detailed analysis of exposure routes and toxicological processes, this paper highlights the far-reaching consequences of heavy metal contamination on public health and agricultural sustainability. Special attention is given to the need for precise terminology, as the toxicity of metals is inherently linked to their daily dose and chemical species rather than their elemental form. Finally, this study advocates for integrated, multidisciplinary strategies aimed at mitigating these risks, enhancing ecosystem stability, and ensuring long-term food security in the face of environmental challenges. Full article
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16 pages, 4293 KB  
Article
Bisphenol A Exposure Induces Small Intestine Damage Through Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Microbiota Alteration in Rats
by Kai Wang, Juan Tang, Dan Shen, Yansen Li, Kentaro Nagaoka and Chunmei Li
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050331 - 23 Apr 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1093
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA), a widespread environmental contaminant used in plastics and resins, poses significant health risks due to its endocrine-disrupting properties and potential for inducing intestinal toxicity. This study explored the toxicological effects of BPA on the small intestine of rats, focusing on [...] Read more.
Bisphenol A (BPA), a widespread environmental contaminant used in plastics and resins, poses significant health risks due to its endocrine-disrupting properties and potential for inducing intestinal toxicity. This study explored the toxicological effects of BPA on the small intestine of rats, focusing on the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Histopathological evaluation revealed that the duodenum experienced the most severe structural damage, including villous atrophy, epithelial shedding, and mitochondrial degeneration. BPA exposure disrupted oxidative stress homeostasis by reducing superoxide dismutase activity and increasing malondialdehyde levels, along with upregulating antioxidant-related genes like GPX2 and HO-1 upregulated, indicating lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage. Inflammatory markers such as IL-1 and NFκB were significantly upregulated, highlighting an active inflammatory response and epithelial cell apoptosis. BPA also altered lipid metabolism, with increased expression of lipogenic genes such as SREBP-1c and FAS, indicating metabolic dysregulation. Fecal microbiota analysis revealed reduced α-diversity, enrichment of pathogenic taxa like Escherichia-Shigella, and depletion of beneficial genera such as Lachnospiraceae NK4A136 group, exacerbating gut inflammation and barrier dysfunction. These findings suggest that BPA-induced small intestinal damage is driven by oxidative stress, inflammation, and gut dysbiosis, with the duodenum and jejunum being the more vulnerable segments. Full article
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24 pages, 3359 KB  
Article
Eco-Friendly Synthesis of Zirconia Nanoparticles Using Sonchus asper Extract: A Sustainable Approach to Enhancing Chinese Cabbage Growth and Remediating Chromium-Contaminated Soil
by Guojie Weng, Weidong Li, Fengyue Qin, Menglu Dong, Shuangqi Yue, Sajid Mehmood and Xu Wang
Toxics 2025, 13(5), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13050324 - 22 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 817
Abstract
Chromium (Cr) contamination poses severe risks to plant health and soil quality, requiring sustainable remediation methods. This study explored the synthesis of zirconia nanoparticles (PF-ZrO2 NPs) from Sonchus asper extract and assessed their potential to alleviate Cr toxicity in Chinese cabbage ( [...] Read more.
Chromium (Cr) contamination poses severe risks to plant health and soil quality, requiring sustainable remediation methods. This study explored the synthesis of zirconia nanoparticles (PF-ZrO2 NPs) from Sonchus asper extract and assessed their potential to alleviate Cr toxicity in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. pekinensis). The characterization of nanoparticles was performed through XRD, SEM, and FTIR analyses, confirming their crystalline nature, structure, and surface chemistry. The results indicated significant declines in plant growth, chlorophyll content, biomass, and nutrient uptake under Cr stress (treatments T2 and T4), accompanied by elevated oxidative stress indicators (H2O2, MDA) and Cr accumulation. The application of PF-ZrO2 NPs (T3 and T5) notably reduced shoot Cr concentrations (by 58.94% and 35.90%) and improved the chlorophyll level (by 5.41% and 14.41%). Additionally, nanoparticles increased antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD, POD, CAT) and improved soil properties (pH, cation exchange capacity, nutrient retention). These findings suggest green-synthesized PF-ZrO2 NPs are effective, environmentally friendly candidates for Cr remediation in contaminated soils. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Remediation of Heavy Metal Contamination in Soil)
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40 pages, 4566 KB  
Review
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Freshwater Systems: A Comprehensive Review of Sources, Distribution, and Ecotoxicological Impacts
by Pedro J. Berríos-Rolón, María C. Cotto and Francisco Márquez
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040321 - 20 Apr 2025
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4973
Abstract
This comprehensive review offers new perspectives on the distribution, sources, and ecotoxicological impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in freshwater systems. Unlike previous reviews, this work integrates recent findings on PAH dynamics within environmental matrices and emphasizes spatiotemporal variability across geographic regions. It [...] Read more.
This comprehensive review offers new perspectives on the distribution, sources, and ecotoxicological impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in freshwater systems. Unlike previous reviews, this work integrates recent findings on PAH dynamics within environmental matrices and emphasizes spatiotemporal variability across geographic regions. It critically examines both anthropogenic and natural sources, as well as the physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms driving PAH transport and fate. Special attention is given to the ecotoxicological effects of PAHs on freshwater organisms, including bioaccumulation, endocrine disruption, and genotoxicity. Notably, this review identifies key knowledge gaps and proposes an interdisciplinary framework to assess ecological risk and guide effective monitoring and management strategies for the protection of freshwater ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Transport and Transformation of Pollutants)
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24 pages, 3161 KB  
Review
Pollution Characterization and Environmental Impact Evaluation of Atmospheric Intermediate Volatile Organic Compounds: A Review
by Yongxin Yan, Yan Nie, Xiaoshuai Gao, Xiaoyu Yan, Yuanyuan Ji, Junling Li and Hong Li
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040318 - 19 Apr 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 960
Abstract
Atmospheric intermediate volatile organic compounds (IVOCs) are important precursors of secondary organic aerosols (SOAs), and in-depth research on them is crucial for atmospheric pollution control. This review systematically synthesizes global advancements in understanding IVOC sources, emissions characterization, compositional characteristics, ambient concentrations, SOA contributions, [...] Read more.
Atmospheric intermediate volatile organic compounds (IVOCs) are important precursors of secondary organic aerosols (SOAs), and in-depth research on them is crucial for atmospheric pollution control. This review systematically synthesizes global advancements in understanding IVOC sources, emissions characterization, compositional characteristics, ambient concentrations, SOA contributions, and health risk assessments. IVOCs include long-chain alkanes (C12~C22), sesquiterpenes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phenolic compounds, ketones, esters, organic acids, and heterocyclic compounds, which originate from primary emissions and secondary formation. Primary emissions include direct emissions from anthropogenic and biogenic sources, while secondary formation mainly results from radical reactions or particulate surface reactions. Recently, the total IVOC emissions have decreased in some countries, while emissions from certain sources, such as volatile chemical products, have increased. Ambient IVOC concentrations are generally higher in urban rather than in rural areas, higher indoors than outdoors, and on land rather than over oceans. IVOCs primarily generate SOAs via oxidation reactions with hydroxyl radicals, nitrate radicals, the ozone, and chlorine atoms, which contribute more to SOAs than traditional VOCs, with higher SOA yields. SOA tracers for IVOC species like naphthalene and β-caryophyllene have been identified. Integrating IVOC emissions into regional air quality models could significantly improve SOA simulation accuracy. The carcinogenic risk posed by naphthalene should be prioritized, while benzo[a]pyrene requires a combined risk assessment and hierarchical management. Future research should focus on developing high-resolution online detection technologies for IVOCs, clarifying the multiphase reaction mechanisms involved and SOA tracers, and conducting comprehensive human health risk assessments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of the Sources and Components of Aerosols in Air Pollution)
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24 pages, 4815 KB  
Article
Personal PM2.5 Exposure and Associated Factors Among Adults with Allergic Diseases in an Urban Environment: A Panel Study
by Shin-Young Park, Hyeok Jang, Jaymin Kwon, Chan-Mi Park, Cheol-Min Lee and Dae-Jin Song
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040317 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 838
Abstract
This study analyzed the factors influencing personal PM2.5 exposure levels among adults with allergic diseases in Seoul using a linear mixed-effects (LMEs) model. The average personal PM2.5 exposure concentration of the study participants was 17.38 μg/m3, exceeding the World [...] Read more.
This study analyzed the factors influencing personal PM2.5 exposure levels among adults with allergic diseases in Seoul using a linear mixed-effects (LMEs) model. The average personal PM2.5 exposure concentration of the study participants was 17.38 μg/m3, exceeding the World Health Organization (WHO) daily recommended guideline (15.00 μg/m3), though it was relatively low compared to global levels. Inter-individual exposure variability was approximately 43.5%, with exposure levels varying significantly depending on microenvironments. Notably, 58% of participants exhibited higher exposure on weekends compared to weekdays, likely associated with increased outdoor activities. The LMEs model results identified smoking (90.81% higher in smokers), temperature, relative humidity, outdoor pollutants (PM2.5, O3, CO), indoor PM2.5 and CO concentrations, and time spent in residential environments as factors increasing exposure, while rainfall (91.23% reduction), wind speed, and air purifier use were identified as factors reducing exposure. These findings suggest that individual activity patterns and environmental factors significantly influence exposure levels, highlighting the need for personalized mitigation strategies and national fine dust policies. This study is expected to provide scientific evidence contributing to the reduction in health risks and improvement of quality of life for individuals with allergic diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)
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22 pages, 15221 KB  
Article
Effects of Benzo[k]fluoranthene at Two Temperatures on Viability, Structure, and Detoxification-Related Genes in Rainbow Trout RTL-W1 Cell Spheroids
by Telma Esteves, Fernanda Malhão, Eduardo Rocha and Célia Lopes
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040302 - 12 Apr 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 934
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and global warming impact aquatic ecosystems, eventually interacting. Monolayer (2D) cultures of cell lines, such as the rainbow trout liver RTL-W1, are employed for unveiling toxicological effects in fish. Nonetheless, three-dimensional (3D) models constitute an alternate paradigm, better emulating [...] Read more.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and global warming impact aquatic ecosystems, eventually interacting. Monolayer (2D) cultures of cell lines, such as the rainbow trout liver RTL-W1, are employed for unveiling toxicological effects in fish. Nonetheless, three-dimensional (3D) models constitute an alternate paradigm, better emulating in vivo responses. Here, ultra-low attachment (ULA) plates were used to generate ten-day-old RTL-W1 spheroids for exposure to a control, a solvent control (0.1% DMSO) and the model PAH benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF) at 10 and 100 nM and at 18 and 23 °C (thermal stress). After a 4-day exposure, spheroids were analyzed for viability (alamarBlue and lactate dehydrogenase), biometry (area, diameter and sphericity), histocytology (optical and electron microscopy), and mRNA levels of the detoxification-related genes cytochrome P450 (CYP)1A, CYP3A27, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), uridine diphosphate–glucuronosyltransferase (UGT), catalase (CAT), multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) and bile salt export protein (BSEP). Immunocytochemistry (ICC) was used to assess CYP1A protein expression. Neither temperature nor BkF exposure altered the spheroids’ viability or biometry. BkF modified the cell’s ultrastructure. The expression of CYP1A was augmented with both BkF concentrations, while AhR’s increased at the higher concentration. The CYP1A protein showed a dose-dependent increase. Temperature and BkF concurrently modelled UGT’s expression, which increased in the 100 nM condition at 23 °C. Conversely, CYP3A27, MRP2, and BSEP expressions lowered at 23 °C. CAT and GST mRNA levels were uninfluenced by either stressor. Overall, BkF and temperature impacted independently or interactively in RTL-W1 spheroids. These seem to be useful novel tools for studying the liver-related effects of temperature and PAHs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Ecotoxicology)
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15 pages, 2763 KB  
Review
Deciphering Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Mechanistic Insights and Environmental Risks
by Yang Pei, Péter Hamar and De-Sheng Pei
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040303 - 12 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2311
Abstract
The rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) presents a significant challenge to clinical treatment and environmental risks. This review delves into the complex mechanisms underlying MDR development in P. aeruginosa, such as genetic mutations, horizontal gene transfer (HGT), [...] Read more.
The rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) presents a significant challenge to clinical treatment and environmental risks. This review delves into the complex mechanisms underlying MDR development in P. aeruginosa, such as genetic mutations, horizontal gene transfer (HGT), and the interaction between virulence factors and resistance genes. It evaluates current detection methods, from traditional bacteriology to advanced molecular techniques, emphasizing the need for rapid and accurate diagnostics. This review also examines therapeutic strategies, including broad-spectrum antibiotics, novel drug candidates, combination therapies, and innovative approaches like RNA interference, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, and bridge RNA-guided gene editing. Importantly, this review highlights the distribution, migration, and environmental risks of MDR P. aeruginosa, underscoring its adaptability to diverse environments. It concludes by stressing the necessity for continued research and development in antimicrobial resistance, advocating for an integrated approach that combines genomics, clinical practice, and environmental considerations to devise innovative solutions and preserve antibiotic efficacy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characteristics, Sources, Occurrence and Toxicological Mechanisms of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems)
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12 pages, 4626 KB  
Article
Impact of Microplastics on Ciprofloxacin Adsorption Dynamics and Mechanisms in Soil
by Qian Xu, Hanbing Li, Sumei Li, Ziyi Li, Sha Chen, Yixuan Liang, Yuyang Li, Jianan Li and Mengxin Yuan
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040294 - 11 Apr 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1104
Abstract
The co-occurrence of microplastics (MPs) and antibiotics as emerging contaminants demonstrates significant ecological perturbations in soil matrices. Of particular scientific interest is the potential for MPs to mediate the environmental fate and transport dynamics of co-existing antibiotics. This study investigated MP-mediated ciprofloxacin (CIP) [...] Read more.
The co-occurrence of microplastics (MPs) and antibiotics as emerging contaminants demonstrates significant ecological perturbations in soil matrices. Of particular scientific interest is the potential for MPs to mediate the environmental fate and transport dynamics of co-existing antibiotics. This study investigated MP-mediated ciprofloxacin (CIP) adsorption in lateritic soils. Batch experiments with polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and poly (ethylene-terephthalate) (PET) revealed soil components dominated CIP retention, while 10% (w/w) MPs reduced soil adsorption capacity by ≥10.8%, with inhibition intensity following PET > PE > PP. Adsorption thermodynamics exhibited significant pH dependence, achieving maximum sorption efficiency at pH 5.0 (± 0.2), which was approximately 83%. Competitive adsorption analysis demonstrated inverse proportionality between ionic strength and CIP retention, with trivalent cations exhibiting superior competitive displacement capacity compared to mono- and divalent counterparts. Isothermal modeling revealed multilayer adsorption mechanisms governed by hybrid chemisorption/physisorption processes in both soil and MP substrates. Spectroscopic characterization suggested differential adsorption pathways: MP-CIP interactions were primarily mediated through hydrophobic partitioning and π-π electron coupling, while soil–MP composite systems exhibited dominant cation exchange capacity and surface complexation mechanisms. Notably, electrostatic attraction/repulsion forces modulated adsorption efficiency across all experimental conditions, particularly under varying pH regimes. This work advances understanding of co-contaminant dynamics in soil ecosystems, informing risk assessment frameworks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Plastic Contamination (Plastamination): An Environmental and Public Health-Related Concern)
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20 pages, 1081 KB  
Article
A Statistical Exploration of QSAR Models in Cancer Risk Assessment: A Case Study on Pesticide-Active Substances and Metabolites
by Serena Greco, Cecilia Bossa, Chiara Laura Battistelli and Alessandro Giuliani
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040299 - 11 Apr 2025
Viewed by 714
Abstract
Data generated using new approach methodologies (NAMs), including in silico, in vitro, and in chemico approaches, are increasingly important for the hazard identification of chemicals. Among NAMs, (quantitative) structure–activity relationship (Q)SAR models occupy a peculiar position by allowing (in principle) a toxicity estimate [...] Read more.
Data generated using new approach methodologies (NAMs), including in silico, in vitro, and in chemico approaches, are increasingly important for the hazard identification of chemicals. Among NAMs, (quantitative) structure–activity relationship (Q)SAR models occupy a peculiar position by allowing (in principle) a toxicity estimate on the sole basis of chemical structural information, leveraging upon toxicity profiles of already tested chemicals (a training set). Consequently, the metrics adopted for the estimation of both the congruence of the test chemicals with the training set and the risk categorization are of paramount importance. This paper comprises a small-scale, mainly methodological study to investigate these aspects and assess the general coherence between the results from different (Q)SAR models applied to the assessment of the carcinogenicity of pesticide-active substances and metabolites. The results of the present study underline the significant potential of using (Q)SAR models, together with limitations, such as inconsistencies in results across models and the intrinsic constraints of their applicability domain. The critical role of a priori strategies adopted in defining the applicability domain of the models is highlighted, emphasizing the need for user-transparent definitions. This is a crucial step for a sensible integration of the information coming from different NAMs. Full article
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16 pages, 512 KB  
Review
Pathophysiology of Doxorubicin-Mediated Cardiotoxicity
by Roberto Arrigoni, Emilio Jirillo and Carlo Caiati
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040277 - 5 Apr 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2839
Abstract
Doxorubicin (DOX) is used for the treatment of various malignancies, including leukemias, lymphomas, sarcomas, and bladder, breast, and gynecological cancers in adults, adolescents, and children. However, DOX causes severe side effects in patients, such as cardiotoxicity, which encompasses heart failure, arrhythmia, and myocardial [...] Read more.
Doxorubicin (DOX) is used for the treatment of various malignancies, including leukemias, lymphomas, sarcomas, and bladder, breast, and gynecological cancers in adults, adolescents, and children. However, DOX causes severe side effects in patients, such as cardiotoxicity, which encompasses heart failure, arrhythmia, and myocardial infarction. DOX-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC) is based on the combination of nuclear-mediated cardiomyocyte death and mitochondrial-mediated death. Oxidative stress, altered autophagy, inflammation, and apoptosis/ferroptosis represent the main pathogenetic mechanisms responsible for DIC. In addition, in vitro and in vivo models of DIC sirtuins (SIRT), and especially, SIRT 1 are reduced, and this event contributes to cardiac damage. In fact, SIRT 1 inhibits reactive oxygen species and NF-kB activation, thus improving myocardial oxidative stress and cardiac remodeling. Therefore, the recovery of SIRT 1 during DIC may represent a therapeutic strategy to limit DIC progression. Natural products, i.e., polyphenols, as well as nano formulations of DOX and iron chelators, are other potential compounds experimented with in models of DIC. At present, few clinical trials are available to confirm the efficacy of these products in DIC. The aim of this review is the description of the pathophysiology of DIC as well as potential drug targets to alleviate DIC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug and Pesticides-Induced Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis)
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28 pages, 2397 KB  
Article
Risk Assessment of Micropollutants for Human and Environmental Health: Alignment with the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive in Southeastern Spain
by Lissette Díaz-Gamboa, Agustín Lahora, Sofía Martínez-López, Luis Miguel Ayuso-García and Isabel Martínez-Alcalá
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040275 - 4 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1431
Abstract
The reuse of reclaimed water is essential for sustainable water management in arid regions. However, despite advancements in Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs), certain micropollutants may persist. To address these challenges, the recently enacted European Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD) has established strict standards [...] Read more.
The reuse of reclaimed water is essential for sustainable water management in arid regions. However, despite advancements in Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs), certain micropollutants may persist. To address these challenges, the recently enacted European Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD) has established strict standards focused on monitoring twelve specific indicator compounds. In line with this, the present study aims to evaluate the concentrations and potential risks of these twelve UWWTD-designated compounds across various water sources, including surface water, groundwater, and effluents from a WWTP in the southeast of Spain. Although none of the evaluated water sources are, as expected, intended for human consumption, risks were assessed based on worst-case scenarios that could amplify their impact. The study assessed potential risks to human health across different age groups and ecosystems, focusing on key organisms such as fish, daphnia, and algae, using empirical assessment approaches. The risk assessment identified a low risk for most compounds regarding human health, except for citalopram (HRQ = 19.116) and irbesartan (HRQ = 1.104), which showed high human risk quotients (HQR > 1) in babies, particularly in reclaimed water. In terms of ecotoxicological risk, irbesartan presented the highest ecological risk quotient (ERQ = 3.500) in fish, followed by clarithromycin, with algae (ERQ = 1.500) being the most vulnerable organism. Furthermore, compounds like citalopram, venlafaxine, and benzotriazole exhibited moderate ecological risks (ERQ between 0.1 and 1) in the reclaimed water, and their risk was reduced in surface water and groundwater. Finally, this study discussed the potential impacts of elevated concentrations of these emerging compounds, emphasizing the need for rigorous wastewater monitoring to protect human health and ecosystem integrity. It also revealed notable differences in risk assessment outcomes when comparing two distinct evaluation approaches, further highlighting the complexities of accurately assessing these risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment: Monitoring, Impacts and Ecological Risk)
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13 pages, 3473 KB  
Article
The Mechanisms of Tetracycline in Shaping Antibiotic Resistance Gene Dynamics in Earthworm Casts During Vermicomposting
by Zhonghan Li, Fengxia Yang, Ming Yang, Renkai Yan and Keqiang Zhang
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040273 - 3 Apr 2025
Viewed by 825
Abstract
Earthworm gut digestion plays a crucial role in reducing antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) during vermicomposting, offering significant potential for controlling ARG dissemination in livestock manure. However, the impact of residual tetracycline antibiotics on this process remains poorly understood. Herein, this study systematically evaluated [...] Read more.
Earthworm gut digestion plays a crucial role in reducing antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) during vermicomposting, offering significant potential for controlling ARG dissemination in livestock manure. However, the impact of residual tetracycline antibiotics on this process remains poorly understood. Herein, this study systematically evaluated the impact of tetracycline of three concentrations (0, 10, and 100 mg/kg) on ARG dynamics and microbial community evolution during 35-day vermicomposting of cattle manure. The results demonstrated that earthworm intestinal digestion effectively eliminated over 96% of initial ARG load in raw manure. Noticeably, tetracycline stress significantly enhanced total ARG abundance in the casts (p < 0.05), with distinct response patterns observed among different ARG types. Mechanistic analysis revealed that tetracycline potentially enhanced ARG persistence through two pathways: (1) promoting horizontal transfer via mobile genetic elements, and (2) altering gut microbial succession patterns that influence ARG host–microbe relationships. These discoveries contribute to our comprehension of antibiotic interference in vermi-remediation processes and provide insights for optimizing ARG mitigation strategies in contaminated livestock manure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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22 pages, 4650 KB  
Article
An Experimental Study to Assess the Ecotoxicity of Warfarin and Tinzaparin on Meiobenthic Amphipods: Original Taxonomic Data from Saudi Arabia and Computational Modeling
by Amal Lassoued, Fehmi Boufahja, Gabriel Plavan, Naoufel Ben Hamadi, Mohamed A. M. Ali, Walid Elfalleh, Riadh Badraoui, Hamdi Bendif and Amor Hedfi
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040264 - 31 Mar 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 526
Abstract
In the current research, we examined the effects of warfarin (W1 = 5 mg/L and W2 = 25 mg/L) and tinzaparin (T1 = 5 mg/L and T2 = 25 mg/L) on meiofauna using microcosms. These microcosms were intentionally contaminated with both anticoagulants for [...] Read more.
In the current research, we examined the effects of warfarin (W1 = 5 mg/L and W2 = 25 mg/L) and tinzaparin (T1 = 5 mg/L and T2 = 25 mg/L) on meiofauna using microcosms. These microcosms were intentionally contaminated with both anticoagulants for one month. The findings indicated that nematodes and amphipods demonstrated the greatest resistance to the two anticoagulants evaluated. Specifically, the number of amphipods increased after exposure to the treatment that included T2. Following the separate introduction of each drug, amphipods displayed a taxonomic restructuring, with a more significant impact observed from T2 and T2W1. Results were derived from multivariate analyses of a compilation of sensitive amphipod taxa in response to tinzaparin and warfarin. In contrast, different species were identified as positive indicators for tinzaparin. Ultimately, the similarity between the control amphipod replicates and those subjected to mixed anticoagulants (T1W1 and T2W2) suggests that warfarin may have reduced the toxicity of tinzaparin. Additionally, the computational study indicated that warfarin interacts with 4XNN and forms strong molecular interactions with several key residues, which contribute to the toxicokinetic characteristics observed in the empirical findings. Full article
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22 pages, 12534 KB  
Article
A Multi-Omics Study of Neurodamage Induced by Growth-Stage Real-Time Air Pollution Exposure in Mice via the Microbiome–Gut–Brain Axis
by Zijun Yang, Yi Zhang, Shanshan Ran, Jingyi Zhang, Fei Tian, Hui Shi, Shengtao Wei, Xiuxiu Li, Xinyue Li, Yonggui Gao, Guang Jia, Hualiang Lin, Zhangjian Chen and Zilong Zhang
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040260 - 29 Mar 2025
Viewed by 1218
Abstract
Air pollution has been widely recognized as a risk factor for neurological disorders, and the gut microbiome may play a mediating role. However, current evidence remains limited. In this study, a mouse model was employed with continuous exposure to real-time air pollution from [...] Read more.
Air pollution has been widely recognized as a risk factor for neurological disorders, and the gut microbiome may play a mediating role. However, current evidence remains limited. In this study, a mouse model was employed with continuous exposure to real-time air pollution from conception to late adolescence. Effects of growth-stage air pollution exposure on the gut microbiome, host metabolites, and brain tissue were assessed. Pathological damage in the hippocampus and cortex was observed. Fecal metagenomic sequencing revealed alterations in both compositions and functions of the gut microbiome. Metabolic disturbances in unsaturated fatty acids and glycerophospholipids were identified in the intestine, serum, and brain tissues, with significant changes in metabolites (e.g., gamma-linolenic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylserine (PS). Serum levels of the pro-inflammatory mediator leukotriene C4 were also elevated. Correlation analysis identified a group of different gut microbiome species that were associated with host metabolites. Furthermore, mediation analysis showed that intestinal and serum metabolites mediated the associations between the key gut microbiome and brain microbiome. These findings indicate that the metabolic crosstalk in the gut–brain axis mediates the neuronal damage in mice induced by growth-stage air pollution exposure, potentially through pathways involving lipid metabolism and inflammation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Effects of Exposure to Environmental Pollutants)
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26 pages, 6304 KB  
Article
A Global Overview of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance Regulatory Strategies and Their Environmental Impact
by Ren-Shou Yu, Hui-Ching Yu, Ying-Fei Yang and Sher Singh
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040251 - 28 Mar 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3555
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), while possessing desirable properties for human society, have increasingly raised concerns due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and ecotoxicity. One of the major challenges with PFASs is the inconsistent adoption of regulatory strategies by authorities across different countries [...] Read more.
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), while possessing desirable properties for human society, have increasingly raised concerns due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and ecotoxicity. One of the major challenges with PFASs is the inconsistent adoption of regulatory strategies by authorities across different countries and regions, making it difficult to address the issue on a global scale. To obtain a global overview of PFAS regulatory patterns, this study utilized the most recent PFAS regulatory databases across different jurisdictions, both local and global. Among all geographic regions, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and European Union (EU) Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) encompass the most jurisdictions for PFASs. However, most PFASs are without regulation under the current regulatory status. We also assessed the regulatory ecotoxicity status of PFASs under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) of the USEPA. The results showed that 36.3% of PFASs are of Unknown or Variable composition, Complex reaction products, or Biological materials (UVCB) and classified as E;P (persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic), followed by 31.3% as P (persistent) and 13.2% as P;S (persistent and toxic). We highlight the regulatory patterns, industrial applications, and categorization of PFASs under different regulatory frameworks. The need for international cooperation and harmonized regulatory standards to mitigate PFAS pollution is also addressed. A coordinated effort involving regulatory agencies, industry, researchers, and the public will be essential to facilitate harmonized regulations of PFASs and ensure a sustainable and healthy environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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29 pages, 8272 KB  
Article
A Hybrid Wavelet-Based Deep Learning Model for Accurate Prediction of Daily Surface PM2.5 Concentrations in Guangzhou City
by Zhenfang He, Qingchun Guo, Zhaosheng Wang and Xinzhou Li
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040254 - 28 Mar 2025
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 2448
Abstract
Surface air pollution affects ecosystems and people’s health. However, traditional models have low prediction accuracy. Therefore, a hybrid model for accurately predicting daily surface PM2.5 concentrations was integrated with wavelet (W), convolutional neural network (CNN), bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM), and bidirectional [...] Read more.
Surface air pollution affects ecosystems and people’s health. However, traditional models have low prediction accuracy. Therefore, a hybrid model for accurately predicting daily surface PM2.5 concentrations was integrated with wavelet (W), convolutional neural network (CNN), bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM), and bidirectional gated recurrent unit (BiGRU). The data for meteorological factors and air pollutants in Guangzhou City from 2014 to 2020 were utilized as inputs to the models. The W-CNN-BiGRU-BiLSTM hybrid model demonstrated strong performance during the predicting phase, achieving an R (correlation coefficient) of 0.9952, a root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.4935 μg/m3, a mean absolute error (MAE) of 1.2091 μg/m3, and a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 7.3782%. Correspondingly, the accurate prediction of surface PM2.5 concentrations is beneficial for air pollution control and urban planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Evolution of Atmospheric Composition and Its Impact on Human Health and Ecosystem)
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16 pages, 7595 KB  
Article
Phytotoxicity of Zero-Valent Iron-Based Nanomaterials in Mung Beans: Seed Germination and Seedling Growth Experiments
by Huan Wu, Sha Li, Yu He, Bin Zhou, Guoming Zeng, Yuanyuan Huang and Da Sun
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040250 - 27 Mar 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 704
Abstract
The extensive utilization of nano-zero-valent iron (nZVI) and its engineered derivatives has prompted significant environmental concerns, particularly regarding their phytotoxicological impacts, which remain inadequately characterized. This investigation systematically evaluated the phytotoxicological responses induced by nZVI, Chlorella vulgaris biochar (BC), and Chlorella vulgaris biochar [...] Read more.
The extensive utilization of nano-zero-valent iron (nZVI) and its engineered derivatives has prompted significant environmental concerns, particularly regarding their phytotoxicological impacts, which remain inadequately characterized. This investigation systematically evaluated the phytotoxicological responses induced by nZVI, Chlorella vulgaris biochar (BC), and Chlorella vulgaris biochar loaded with nano-zero-valent iron (BC/nZVI) on mung bean seed germination and subsequent seedling development. The experimental data revealed that both the nZVI and BC/nZVI treatments significantly suppressed the germination indices, including germination rate, radicle and plumule elongation, and biomass accumulation, with nZVI demonstrating the most pronounced inhibitory effects. During the vegetative growth phases, nZVI exposure substantially impaired plant morphogenesis, manifested through reduced vertical growth, diminished fresh and dry biomass production, and the onset of premature foliar chlorosis, necrosis, desiccation, and, ultimately, plant mortality. A comparative analysis indicated that the BC/nZVI composites exhibited less severe photosynthetic inhibition relative to pristine nZVI. Biochemical assays demonstrated that nZVI exposure elicited the substantial upregulation in antioxidant enzyme activities, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD), concomitant with abnormal ferric ion accumulation in root tissues. Notably, BC/nZVI composites demonstrated the partial mitigation of these physiological disturbances. These empirical findings underscore that excessive iron bioavailability from nZVI induces substantial phytotoxicological stress, while BC matrix incorporation provides the partial amelioration of these adverse effects on seedling ontogeny. Full article
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24 pages, 5904 KB  
Article
Ecotoxicological Effects of Polystyrene Particle Mix (20, 200, and 430 µm) on Cyprinus carpio
by Ştefania Gheorghe, Anca-Maria Pătraşcu, Catălina Stoica, Mihaela Balas and Laura Feodorov
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040246 - 26 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2791
Abstract
Global consumption led to increased and persistent plastic pollution in aquatic environments, affecting aquatic biota. Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic polymer and one of the most widely used plastics. This study aims to investigate the acute and chronic effects of PS microplastics on [...] Read more.
Global consumption led to increased and persistent plastic pollution in aquatic environments, affecting aquatic biota. Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic polymer and one of the most widely used plastics. This study aims to investigate the acute and chronic effects of PS microplastics on Cyprinus carpio using an adapted OECD methodology. For the acute test, PS was tested in different particle sizes (20, 200, and 430 µm), each at concentrations of 0, 1, 10, and 100 mg PS/L. Mortality and clinical signs were monitored after 96 h of exposure. No acute effects were recorded. In the chronic test, a mix of PS particles of different sizes (20, 200, and 430 µm) at a total concentration of 1.2 mg PS/L was used for a 75-day fish exposure. Mortality, biometric parameters, physiological indices, and antioxidant enzyme activities, including catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GRed), glutathione S-transferase (GST), 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD), lipid peroxidation (MDA), hepatic enzymes (alanine aminotransferase—ALT and aspartate aminotransferase—AST), vitellogenin (VTG), and acetylcholinesterase (ACh), were assessed. Fish exposed to the PS mix exhibited a 40% change in hepatosomatic indices after 75 days. Additionally, the PS mix induced oxidative stress in fish organs. CAT activity increased fourfold in the intestine, GRed activity increased thirtyfold in the gonads, and GST activity doubled in the brain. GRed activity also increased in the gills but was not statistically significant compared to the control. Lipid peroxidation was observed in the kidney (twofold increase) and was also detected in the gills and intestine; however, these changes were not statistically significant. EROD activity increased by 15% compared to the control group, indicating an amplification of stress enzyme expression. The activity of hepatic enzymes ALT and AST increased nine to tenfold compared to the control. VTG activity increased by 47%, and ACh activity showed more than 80% inhibition in the brain and muscle. Furthermore, an overall amplification of protein expression in the intestine and liver was observed compared to the control group. Our study revealed the incidence and severity of PS microplastic effects on freshwater fish and emphasized the urgent need for prevention, monitoring, and mitigation measures to combat microplastic pollution. Full article
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44 pages, 551 KB  
Review
The Dark Side of “Smart Drugs”: Cognitive Enhancement vs. Clinical Concerns
by Mariarosaria Ingegneri, Erika Smeriglio, Younes Zebbiche, Laura Cornara, Letterio Visalli, Antonella Smeriglio and Domenico Trombetta
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040247 - 26 Mar 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 11145
Abstract
The European Union Drugs Agency has emphasized the increasing difficulty in monitoring the drug market due to the emergence of new psychoactive substances, often marketed as legal highs. The proliferation of fake pharmacies, drugstores, and e-commerce platforms has made access to illicit substances [...] Read more.
The European Union Drugs Agency has emphasized the increasing difficulty in monitoring the drug market due to the emergence of new psychoactive substances, often marketed as legal highs. The proliferation of fake pharmacies, drugstores, and e-commerce platforms has made access to illicit substances alarmingly rapid and inexpensive. These substances are readily available without medical prescriptions, lacking proper risk assessments or monitoring of potential adverse effects, raising significant public health concerns. Today, the relentless pursuit of validation and success—often, at any cost—has led to an exponential rise in the use of cognitive and mood enhancers. Such substances are frequently consumed to manage demands related to work, diet, sexuality, sleep, achievement, and interpersonal relationships. Consequently, investigating these phenomena is critically important for institutions, as they represent a serious threat to individual development and health. Developing effective preventive and protective systems is essential. This review provides an overview of currently available smart drugs, discussing their desired and adverse neuropharmacological effects, psychological implications, and cognitive decline resulting from their excessive and unregulated use. This review concludes that a multidisciplinary approach combining molecular identification, micro-morphological analysis, and chemical characterization is crucial for the accurate detection, monitoring, and risk mitigation of new psychoactive substances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Central Nervous System (CNS) Modulators)
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15 pages, 273 KB  
Review
Synergistic Toxicity of Fine Particulate Matter and Ozone and Their Underlying Mechanisms
by Jing He, Tong Wang, Han Li, Yemian Zhou, Yun Liu and An Xu
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040236 - 24 Mar 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1178
Abstract
The co-occurrence of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone has emerged as a critical environmental challenge in recent years. The individual harmful impacts of PM2.5 and ozone exposure have been well studied; however, their combined toxicity under co-exposure conditions remains [...] Read more.
The co-occurrence of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone has emerged as a critical environmental challenge in recent years. The individual harmful impacts of PM2.5 and ozone exposure have been well studied; however, their combined toxicity under co-exposure conditions remains mechanistically undefined. This paper provides an extensive evaluation of the current pollution levels, epidemiological investigation, and new findings on the toxicological mechanisms of combined exposure to PM2.5 and ozone. The synergistic toxicity of PM2.5 and ozone depends on different factors, including the physicochemical properties of PM2.5, the dose and duration of exposure, and the specific target organs. Through extensive research, we identified the main targets of toxic responses to PM2.5 and ozone exposure and summarized their synergistic toxic mechanisms. Given the current research priorities, there is an urgent need to improve scientific research regarding PM2.5 and ozone co-exposure with priority given to characterizing their properties and toxicological responses while updating relevant guidelines and standards. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unraveling the Health Impacts of Air Pollution: Assessments and Mechanisms)
19 pages, 2050 KB  
Review
Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Agricultural Soils: A Comprehensive Review of the Hidden Crisis and Exploring Control Strategies
by Yuanye Zeng, Runqiu Feng, Chengcheng Huang, Jie Liu and Fengxia Yang
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040239 - 24 Mar 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2806
Abstract
This paper aims to review the sources, occurrence patterns, and potential risks of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in agricultural soils and discuss strategies for their reduction. The pervasive utilization of antibiotics has led to the accumulation of ARGs in the soil. ARGs can [...] Read more.
This paper aims to review the sources, occurrence patterns, and potential risks of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in agricultural soils and discuss strategies for their reduction. The pervasive utilization of antibiotics has led to the accumulation of ARGs in the soil. ARGs can be transferred among microorganisms via horizontal gene transfer, thereby increasing the likelihood of resistance dissemination and heightening the threat to public health. In this study, we propose that physical, chemical, and bioremediation approaches, namely electrokinetic remediation, advanced oxidation, and biochar application, can effectively decrease the abundance of ARGs in the soil. This study also highlights the significance of various control measures, such as establishing a strict regulatory mechanism for veterinary drugs, setting standards for the control of ARGs in organic fertilizers, and conducting technical guidance and on-farm soil monitoring to reduce the environmental spread of ARGs and protect public health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)
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10 pages, 234 KB  
Article
Banknotes as a Source of Drug and Pharmaceutical Contamination of the Population
by Nina Petrovičová, Jarmila Látalová, Paula Bimová, Anna Krivjanská, Veronika Svitková, Ján Híveš, Miroslav Gál, Miroslav Fehér, Andrea Vojs Staňová, Alexandra Tulipánová, Alexandra Paulína Drdanová, Jozef Ryba, Zuzana Imreová, Peter Nemeček, Barbora Jančiová and Tomáš Mackuľak
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040242 - 24 Mar 2025
Viewed by 880
Abstract
This study investigates the potential contamination of cash register employees in the Slovak Republic with 148 selected pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, and their metabolites. Of these, 42 substances were detected, and it was found that the target group—cashiers—regularly handle large volumes of banknotes, increasing [...] Read more.
This study investigates the potential contamination of cash register employees in the Slovak Republic with 148 selected pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, and their metabolites. Of these, 42 substances were detected, and it was found that the target group—cashiers—regularly handle large volumes of banknotes, increasing their exposure to contaminants compared to the general population. This study revealed that commonly prescribed and over-the-counter medications significantly contribute to the contamination of cash registers. This study found that cashiers exhibited notably higher detection rates of antibiotics, including penicillin-V (2×), azithromycin (23×), and erythromycin (up to 64×), than the general population. Additionally, there was an alarming increase in illegal substances, with methamphetamine levels rising fivefold and cocaine up to fifteenfold. This study highlights a broader environmental concern, suggesting that routine handling of contaminated banknotes may lead to the transfer of micropollutants. Furthermore, personal hygiene practices, particularly handwashing, could play a role in introducing pharmaceuticals and narcotics into wastewater, potentially contributing several milligrams of contaminants daily. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Strategies to Decompose Pollutants)
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15 pages, 667 KB  
Article
Semi-Correlations for the Simulation of Dermal Toxicity
by Andrey A. Toropov, Alla P. Toropova, Alessandra Roncaglioni and Emilio Benfenati
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040235 - 23 Mar 2025
Viewed by 492
Abstract
The skin is the primary pathway for harmful substances to enter the body and a susceptible target organ, making compound-induced acute dermal toxicity a significant health risk. In this work, the possibility of modelling dermal toxicity using so-called semi-correlations is studied. Semi-correlations are [...] Read more.
The skin is the primary pathway for harmful substances to enter the body and a susceptible target organ, making compound-induced acute dermal toxicity a significant health risk. In this work, the possibility of modelling dermal toxicity using so-called semi-correlations is studied. Semi-correlations are a specific case of correlations, where one variable takes only two values. For example, 0 denotes the absence of activity (e.g., dermal toxicity), and 1 denotes the presence of activity. The described computational experiments can be carried out by interested readers using the freely available software CORAL. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)
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20 pages, 46005 KB  
Article
Size-Dependent Cytotoxicity and Multi-Omic Changes Induced by Amorphous Silicon Nanoparticles in HepG2 Cells
by Jiaqi Shi, Huifang Zhang, Yi Zhang, Ying Ma, Nairui Yu, Wenhao Liu, Ying Liu, Jisheng Nie, Zhangjian Chen and Guang Jia
Toxics 2025, 13(4), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13040232 - 21 Mar 2025
Viewed by 871
Abstract
(1) Background: Silica nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) have a high potential for human exposure and tend to accumulate in the liver. This study aimed to explore the size-dependent cytotoxicity induced by SiO2 NPs and identify key molecular pathways at the in vitro [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Silica nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs) have a high potential for human exposure and tend to accumulate in the liver. This study aimed to explore the size-dependent cytotoxicity induced by SiO2 NPs and identify key molecular pathways at the in vitro level through proteomics, metabolomics, and a combination of multiple omics methods. (2) Methods: The human hepatoma cells (HepG2) cells were exposed to SiO2 NPs of three different sizes (60, 250, and 400 nm) at doses of 0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 μg/mL for 24 h. (3) Results: Exposure to 60 nm SiO2 NPs induced more reduction in cell viability than the other two larger-scale particles. Changes in the metabolomic and proteomic profiles of HepG2 cells induced by SiO2 NPs were also size-dependent. The main pathways that were significantly affected in the 60 nm SiO2 NPs treatment group represented cholesterol metabolism in proteomics and central carbon metabolism in metabolomics. Moreover, common enrichment pathways between differential proteins and metabolites included protein digestion and absorption and vitamin digestion and absorption. (4) Conclusions: Exposure to SiO2 NPs could induce size-dependent cytotoxicity and changes in proteomics and metabolomics, probably mainly by interfering with energy metabolism pathways. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health Effects of Exposure to Environmental Pollutants)
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29 pages, 3514 KB  
Review
Mesoplastics: A Review of Contamination Status, Analytical Methods, Pollution Sources, Potential Risks, and Future Perspectives of an Emerging Global Environmental Pollutant
by Dioniela Mae C. Ellos, Mei-Fang Chien, Chihiro Inoue, Haruka Nakano, Atsuhiko Isobe, Deo Florence L. Onda, Kozo Watanabe and Hernando P. Bacosa
Toxics 2025, 13(3), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13030227 - 20 Mar 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2310
Abstract
Mesoplastics are emerging environmental pollutants that can pose a threat to the environment. Researching mesoplastics is crucial as they bridge the gap between macroplastics and microplastics by determining their role in plastic fragmentation and pathways, as well as their ecological impact. Investigating mesoplastic [...] Read more.
Mesoplastics are emerging environmental pollutants that can pose a threat to the environment. Researching mesoplastics is crucial as they bridge the gap between macroplastics and microplastics by determining their role in plastic fragmentation and pathways, as well as their ecological impact. Investigating mesoplastic sources will help develop targeted policies and mitigation strategies to address plastic pollution. These pollutants are found across aquatic, terrestrial, and agricultural ecosystems. Unlike microplastics, mesoplastics are reviewed in the scientific literature. This paper focuses on existing published research on mesoplastics, determining the trends and synthesizing key findings related to mesoplastic pollution. Research primarily focused on marine and freshwater ecosystems, with surface water and beach sediments being the most studied compartments. Mesoplastics research often offers baseline data, with increased publications from 2014 to 2024, particularly in East Asia. However, certain ecosystems and regions remain underrepresented. Also, mesoplastics can disrupt ecosystems by degrading biodiversity, contaminating soils and waters, and affecting food chains. Mesoplastics can also become vectors for additives and pathogenic microorganisms, highlighting their environmental risks. Various factors influence mesoplastics’ prevalence, including anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic activities. With this, future research should expand into less-studied ecosystems and regions, explore mesoplastic interactions with pollutants and organisms, and promote public awareness, education, and policy measures to reduce plastic use and mitigate pollution globally. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment of Priority Substances)
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15 pages, 7345 KB  
Article
Acrylamide and Its Metabolite Glycidamide Induce Reproductive Toxicity During In Vitro Maturation of Bovine Oocytes
by Marwa El-Sheikh, Ahmed Atef Mesalam, Ayman Mesalam and Il-Keun Kong
Toxics 2025, 13(3), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13030223 - 19 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1152
Abstract
Acrylamide (ACR) and its metabolite glycidamide (GLY) are contaminants with known toxic effects, especially in reproductive systems. However, the mechanisms underlying their embryotoxic effects remain inadequately understood. In the current study, we investigated the effects of ACR and GLY exposure on oocyte and [...] Read more.
Acrylamide (ACR) and its metabolite glycidamide (GLY) are contaminants with known toxic effects, especially in reproductive systems. However, the mechanisms underlying their embryotoxic effects remain inadequately understood. In the current study, we investigated the effects of ACR and GLY exposure on oocyte and embryo developmental competence, focusing on DNA damage, apoptosis, autophagy, and epigenetic regulation. Oocytes were exposed to varying concentrations of ACR and GLY during in vitro maturation. The results demonstrated that both ACR and GLY significantly reduced cleavage and blastocyst developmental rates in a dose-dependent manner. Consequently, treated oocytes exhibited actin organization disruption, increased DNA damage, and heightened apoptosis compared to the control. Autophagy-related markers, including LC3A, LC3B, and ATG7, were significantly elevated in the treatment groups. Moreover, both ACR and GLY compounds altered the expression of the epigenetic and MAPK signaling pathway regulators, such as DPPA3, EZH1, EZH2, EED, DUSP1, and ASK1. These disruptions collectively impaired embryonic development. This study underscores the adverse effects of ACR and GLY on reproductive health, driven by oxidative stress, genotoxicity, dysregulated autophagy, and epigenetic alterations. Full article
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17 pages, 2043 KB  
Article
Progestin Pollution in Surface Waters of a Major Southwestern European Estuary: The Douro River Estuary (Iberian Peninsula)
by Frederico Silva, Rodrigo F. Alves, Eduardo Rocha and Maria João Rocha
Toxics 2025, 13(3), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13030225 - 19 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 801
Abstract
The concentrations and spreading of eight synthetic and two natural progestins (PGs) were investigated in surface waters from ten sites at the Douro River Estuary. Samples were filtrated and subjected to solid-phase extraction (SPE) to isolate and concentrate the target PGs. The extracts [...] Read more.
The concentrations and spreading of eight synthetic and two natural progestins (PGs) were investigated in surface waters from ten sites at the Douro River Estuary. Samples were filtrated and subjected to solid-phase extraction (SPE) to isolate and concentrate the target PGs. The extracts were cleaned by silica cartridges and analyzed by LC-MS/MS. The finding of biologically relevant amounts of gonanes (22.3 ± 2.7 ng/L), progesterone derivatives (12.2 ± 0.5 ng/L), drospirenone (4.1 ± 0.8 ng/L), and natural PGs (9.4 ± 0.9 ng/L) support the possibility of these compounds acting as endocrine disruptors. Despite the absence of significant differences amongst sampling sites and seasons, the principal component analysis (PCA) and the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) approaches reveal that spring and summer have different patterns of PG distribution compared to autumn and winter. The assessment of risk coefficients (RQs) and the potential concentrations of synthetic progestins in fish blood sustains that all tested compounds pose a significant risk to local biota (RQs > 1). Additionally, three progestins—norethindrone, norethindrone acetate, and medroxyprogesterone acetate—should reach human-equivalent therapeutic levels in fish plasma. Overall, the current data show PGs’ presence and potential impacts in one of the most important estuaries of the Iberian Peninsula. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment: Monitoring, Impacts and Ecological Risk)
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20 pages, 9215 KB  
Review
Atmospheric Heavy Metal Pollution Characteristics and Health Risk Assessment Across Various Type of Cities in China
by Zhichun Cha, Xi Zhang, Kai Zhang, Guanhua Zhou, Jian Gao, Sichu Sun, Yuanguan Gao and Haiyan Liu
Toxics 2025, 13(3), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13030220 - 17 Mar 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1892
Abstract
This study investigates the spatiotemporal trends and health risks of nine atmospheric heavy metals (Pb, As, Mn, Ni, Cr, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe) in PM2.5 across 50 Chinse cities, comparing resource-industrial cities (RICs) and general cities (GCs) before (2014–2018) and after (2019–2021) [...] Read more.
This study investigates the spatiotemporal trends and health risks of nine atmospheric heavy metals (Pb, As, Mn, Ni, Cr, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe) in PM2.5 across 50 Chinse cities, comparing resource-industrial cities (RICs) and general cities (GCs) before (2014–2018) and after (2019–2021) China’s 2018 Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan. Post-2018, concentrations of all metals except Fe declined significantly (33–77%), surpassing PM2.5 reductions (25%). Geospatial analysis revealed elevated heavy metal levels in northern and southern regions in China, aligning with industrial and mining hotspots. While RICs exhibited persistently higher metal concentrations than GCs, the inter-city gap narrowed post-2018, with RICs achieving greater reduction. Pre-2018, the combined non-carcinogenic hazard index (HI < 1) remained below safety thresholds, but the combined carcinogenic risk total (CRT) for children exceeded 10−4, driven primarily by As and Cr(VI). HIs were 1.5–2.0 times higher in RICs than in GCs. Post-2018, the CRT declined by 69.0–71.1%, aligning with reduced heavy metal levels. Despite improvements, CRTs necessitate targeted mitigation for As (contributing 81.1–86.2% to CRT) and Cr(VI) (11.7–14.0%). These findings validate the policy’s effectiveness in curbing industrial and vehicular emissions but underscore the need for metal-specific controls in resource-intensive regions to safeguard child health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Source and Components Analysis of Aerosols in Air Pollution)
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