Toxics

16 pages, 3484 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Toxicity Induced by Varying Degrees of Polymerization of Tristyrylphenol Ethoxylates in Male Mice

by Chunmei Li, Fen Jin, Fengzhong Wang and Bei Fan

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100827 (registering DOI) - 28 Sep 2025

Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs) are widely utilized in pesticide formulations and industrial products but are known for their endocrine-disrupting properties. Consequently, substitutes such as tristyrylphenol ethoxylates (TSPEOs) have been introduced as inert ingredients in pesticide formulations. Here, we showed that TSPEOs exhibited subacute toxicity [...] Read more.

Nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs) are widely utilized in pesticide formulations and industrial products but are known for their endocrine-disrupting properties. Consequently, substitutes such as tristyrylphenol ethoxylates (TSPEOs) have been introduced as inert ingredients in pesticide formulations. Here, we showed that TSPEOs exhibited subacute toxicity in male mice. For the first time, we studied the differences in subacute toxicity (28-day exposure) and the potential toxic effects of TSPEOs with varying polymerization degrees, specifically agricultural emulsifier (AE) #602 and AE #604, in male mice. We demonstrate that AE #602 can induce liver injury, as evidenced by hepatocyte swelling and vacuolar degeneration across all treated groups, along with significant hepatocellular necrosis in the high-dose group. These pathological changes were associated with alterations in oxidative stress biomarkers, including a significant decrease in malondialdehyde levels (0.57 times in the high-dose group, p < 0.05) and increased activities of glutathione peroxidase (up to 1.27 times, p < 0.05) and glutathione, suggesting a potential adaptive compensatory response. Both TSPEOs were found to cause gastric injury according to the results of organ indices and histopathological analyses. AE #604, with lower polymerization degree, caused more severe gastric injury than AE #602. Our findings indicate that NPEO substitutes should be tested for hepatotoxicity and gastrotoxicity and highlight the need for further research into the toxicity differences induced by varying degrees of polymerization of TSPEOs on human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)

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20 pages, 1782 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unexpected High Blood Lead Levels in a Remote Indigenous Community in the Northeastern Peruvian Amazon

by Pedro Mayor, Guillem Rius-Taberner, Gabriela M. Ulloa and Martí Orta-Martínez

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100826 (registering DOI) - 27 Sep 2025

Abstract

Recent studies suggest that Pb-based ammunition could be an important route of Pb exposure for Indigenous Peoples in tropical rainforests. We analyzed blood lead levels (BLL) and isotopic signatures in 111 humans, 97 wild animals, 81 fish, and potential environmental Pb sources in [...] Read more.

Recent studies suggest that Pb-based ammunition could be an important route of Pb exposure for Indigenous Peoples in tropical rainforests. We analyzed blood lead levels (BLL) and isotopic signatures in 111 humans, 97 wild animals, 81 fish, and potential environmental Pb sources in an Indigenous community in the remote and well-preserved Peruvian Amazon with no history of industrial activity. Median BLL was 11.74 μg dL⁻¹, with BLL ≥ 5 µg dL⁻¹ in 95.8% children <12-yo and 94.5% adults. Pb concentrations in wild animals were 7.00 ± 22.40 mg kg⁻¹ DW in liver, 0.06 ± 0.09 mg kg⁻¹ DW in fish muscle tissues, 17.1 ± 10.8 mg kg⁻¹ in soils and 3.4–3.8 mg L⁻¹ in the main river, although 0.43-0.53 mg L⁻¹ were the Pb levels in decanted water used for drinking and cooking. The similarity of isotopic signatures (^207/206Pb and ^208/206Pb) shows that the main Pb sources for humans are river waters (97.6%) and Pb-based ammunition (78.7%). Fish and wildlife act as Pb transporters from water, and wildlife act as Pb transporter from ammunition. Evidence of high human BLL in a remote, non-industrialized Amazonian area demonstrates the urgency of designing regional policies that include health prevention measures, focused on drinking water filtration systems and the use of non-toxic, Pb-free ammunitions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Exposure to Emerging Environmental Pollutants on Human Health)

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31 pages, 12220 KB

Open AccessArticle

Iron–Carbonate (Bi, Cu, Li) Composites with Antimicrobial Activity After Silver(I) Ion Adsorption

by Alexandra Berbentea, Mihaela Ciopec, Adina Negrea, Petru Negrea, Nicoleta Sorina Nemeş, Bogdan Pascu, Paula Svera, Narcis Duţeanu, Cătălin Ianăşi, Orsina Verdes, Mariana Suba, Daniel Marius Duda-Seiman and Delia Muntean

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100825 (registering DOI) - 27 Sep 2025

Abstract

In the present study three composite materials based on iron in combination with bismuth, copper or lithium carbonates FeNO₃@Li₂CO₃ (SFL), FeNO₃@CuCO₃ (SFC), and FeNO₃@(BiO)₂CO₃ (SFB) were synthesized by coprecipitation. The [...] Read more.

In the present study three composite materials based on iron in combination with bismuth, copper or lithium carbonates FeNO₃@Li₂CO₃ (SFL), FeNO₃@CuCO₃ (SFC), and FeNO₃@(BiO)₂CO₃ (SFB) were synthesized by coprecipitation. The purpose was to obtain materials that possess targeted adsorbent properties for the recovery of silver ions from aqueous solutions. After synthesis, to emphasize the adsorptive qualities of materials for the recovery of silver ions, the synthesized composite materials, as well as those doped with silver ions following the adsorption process (SFL-Ag, SFC-Ag, and SFB-Ag), were characterized and several adsorption-specific parameters were examined, including temperature, contact time, pH, adsorbent dose, and the initial concentration of silver ions in solution. Subsequently, the ideal adsorption conditions were determined to be as follows: pH > 4, contact time 60 min, temperature 298 K, and solid–liquid ratio (S–L) of 0.1 g of adsorbent to 25 mL of Ag (I) solution for all three materials. The Langmuir model properly fits the experimental equilibrium data of the adsorption process; however, the Ho–McKay model closely represents the adsorption kinetics. The maximum adsorption capacities of the materials, 19.7 mg Ag(I)/g for SFC, 19.3 mg Ag(I)/g for SFB, and 19.9 mg Ag(I)/g for SFL, are comparable. The adsorption mechanism is physical in nature, as evidenced by the activation energies of 1.6 kJ/mol for SFC, 4.15 kJ/mol for SFB, and 1.32 kJ/mol for SFL. The highest Ag(I) concentration used for doping all three materials in the study was 150 mg Ag(I)/L. The process is endothermic, spontaneous, and takes place at the interface between the adsorbent and the adsorbate, according to thermodynamic theory. Subsequently, the antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans microorganisms was evaluated by rate of inhibition assessment. The SFC-Ag material showed a percentage of 100% inhibition with respect to the positive control for each microorganism. All synthetized materials have better efficiency as antifungal agents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxic Agent Analysis and Removal for Healthy Living and Safe Environment)

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14 pages, 235 KB

Open AccessReview

Biomarkers of Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB) Exposure: A Comprehensive Review of Analytical and Forensic Advances

by Alice Voisin, Caroline Solas-Chesneau, Anne-Laure Pélissier-Alicot and Nicolas Fabresse

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100824 (registering DOI) - 27 Sep 2025

Abstract

Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a short-chain fatty acid with both endogenous and exogenous origins, complicating its detection in clinical and forensic toxicology. Due to its rapid metabolism and short detection window in conventional biological matrices, identifying reliable biomarkers of GHB exposure is crucial. [...] Read more.

Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a short-chain fatty acid with both endogenous and exogenous origins, complicating its detection in clinical and forensic toxicology. Due to its rapid metabolism and short detection window in conventional biological matrices, identifying reliable biomarkers of GHB exposure is crucial. This literature review aims to assess current knowledge on potential GHB biomarkers that may extend the detection window or improve specificity. A systematic search of scientific databases was conducted to identify studies investigating GHB metabolites, conjugates, and related biochemical markers using advanced analytical techniques such as LC-MS/MS and GC-MS. The review highlights promising candidates, including glycolic acid, carnitin-GHB, and glycin-GHB, as well as 3,4-dihydroxybutyric acid, which show potential for distinguishing exogenous intake. However, significant interindividual variability and limited validation studies hinder their widespread implementation. Despite promising findings, further research is needed to confirm the specificity, stability, and reproducibility of these biomarkers. This review underscores the importance of developing standardized protocols to enhance GHB exposure detection in both clinical and forensic settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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20 pages, 1208 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phytohormone-ROS Crosstalk Regulates Metal Transporter Expression in Sedum alfredii

by Shimiao Chen, Bin Shan, Yanyan Li, Fuhai Zheng, Xi Chen, Lilan Lv and Qinyu Lu

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100823 (registering DOI) - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Sedum alfredii is a cadmium (Cd) hyperaccumulator, but the regulatory mechanisms linking phytohormones and redox balance to Cd transporter expression remain unclear. In this study, we omitted external cadmium (Cd) stress to isolate and examine the interplay between phytohormone and reactive oxygen species [...] Read more.

Sedum alfredii is a cadmium (Cd) hyperaccumulator, but the regulatory mechanisms linking phytohormones and redox balance to Cd transporter expression remain unclear. In this study, we omitted external cadmium (Cd) stress to isolate and examine the interplay between phytohormone and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling. Exogenous treatments with abscisic acid (ABA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), gibberellic acid (GA₃), trans-zeatin (t-Z), and H₂O₂ were combined with analyses of hormone levels, antioxidant enzyme activities, and transporter gene expression. Correlation and PLS-SEM analyses identified the CAT–H₂O₂ module as a key node: ABA and IAA enhanced CAT activity and alleviated ROS-mediated repression of transporters, while GA₃ and t-Z exerted opposite effects. Functional validation using an H₂O₂ scavenger revealed that the regulation of HMA3 and Nramp5 by ABA and t-Z is H₂O₂-dependent. In contrast, IAA modulates Nramp5 through a ROS-independent pathway, while the regulatory effects of GA₃ were negligible. Functional validation under Cd exposure suggests a model wherein HMA3 and Nramp5 act in a complementary manner to sequester and redistribute Cd in leaves, thereby supporting hyperaccumulation. These findings highlight hormone-specific ROS pathways as central to transporter regulation and provide mechanistic insights to improve phytoremediation efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Responses to Heavy Metal)

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27 pages, 2965 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exogenous Spermidine Induces Cadmium Stress Tolerance in Cucumber Seedlings by Promoting Plant Growth and Defense System

by Guangchao Yu, Ming Wei, Zhipeng Wang, Lian Jia and Yue Qu

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100822 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the role of exogenous spermidine (Spd) in mitigating the adverse effects of cadmium (Cd) stress on the growth and development of cucumber (Cucumis sativus). The cucumber cultivar “Xintaimici” was used as the experimental material, and a [...] Read more.

This study aims to investigate the role of exogenous spermidine (Spd) in mitigating the adverse effects of cadmium (Cd) stress on the growth and development of cucumber (Cucumis sativus). The cucumber cultivar “Xintaimici” was used as the experimental material, and a hydroponic experiment was carried out. Based on a baseline Cd concentration of 10 mg·L⁻¹, Spd was supplemented at concentrations of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.5 mM, resulting in seven treatment groups: control group (CK), S0 group (Cd-only treatment, 10 mg·L⁻¹ Cd + 0 mM Spd), S1+ Cd group (10 mg·L⁻¹ Cd + 0.05 mM Spd), S2+ Cd group (10 mg·L⁻¹ Cd + 0.1 mM Spd), S3+ Cd group (10 mg·L⁻¹ Cd + 0.2 mM Spd), S4+ Cd group (10 mg·L⁻¹ Cd + 0.4 mM Spd), and S5+ Cd group (10 mg·L⁻¹ Cd + 0.5 mM Spd). This study analyzed the regulatory effects of Spd on the growth and development, antioxidant capacity and cadmium accumulation characteristics of cucumber seeds and seedlings. It was found that cadmium stress significantly inhibited their growth process and led to a decline in multiple physiological indicators. Under a Cd concentration of 10 mg·L⁻¹, the application of 0.2 mM Spd significantly improved these parameters. During the seedling stage, the application of 0.2 mM Spd under Cd stress significantly enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), as well as the content of soluble proteins, while significantly reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Cd content analysis revealed that 0.2 mM Spd promoted Cd accumulation in roots while suppressing its translocation to young leaves, thereby reducing Cd accumulation in aboveground tissues. Gene expression analysis demonstrated that this treatment significantly upregulated the expression levels of the phytochelatin synthase gene (CsPCS1) and the gene associated with reduced glutathione synthesis (CsGSHS). In conclusion, the exogenous application of 0.2 mM Spd effectively alleviates oxidative damage and osmotic stress induced by Cd stress in cucumber, promotes plant growth, and significantly enhances Cd tolerance. Full article

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14 pages, 1419 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nationwide Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Indoor Dust Across China: Pollution Characteristics, Sources, and Particle Size Distribution

by Mei-Hua Tian, Wen-Long Li, Liang Wang, Ting Cai, Shuang Du, Xin-Hong Wang and Chun-Yan Huo

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100821 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor dust pose significant health risks due to their persistence and carcinogenicity. This study comprehensively evaluates PAH concentrations, spatial distribution, sources and particle size distribution in indoor dust collected across 26 Chinese provinces. Each dust sample was fractionated [...] Read more.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor dust pose significant health risks due to their persistence and carcinogenicity. This study comprehensively evaluates PAH concentrations, spatial distribution, sources and particle size distribution in indoor dust collected across 26 Chinese provinces. Each dust sample was fractionated into six fractions: F1 (1000–2000 μm), F2 (500–1000 μm), F3 (250–500 μm), F4 (125–250 μm), F5 (63–125 μm), F6 (<63 μm). The total concentration of the 17 PAHs (∑₁₇PAHs) ranged from 0.63 to 247 μg·g⁻¹, with a median value of 4.3 μg·g⁻¹. High ∑₁₇PAH concentrations were found in North China. PAHs with three rings and four rings were the most prevalent PAHs, accounting for 80.8% of ∑₁₇PAHs. PAH concentration is negatively correlated with dust particle size, and there are certain differences in the particle size distribution patterns of different types of dust samples. The diagnostic ratios and principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that indoor dust mainly originated from fuel combustion and traffic emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomonitoring for Emerging Contaminants: From Detection to Risk Assessment)

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22 pages, 852 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio-Temporal Machine Learning for Marine Pollution Prediction: A Multi-Modal Approach for Hotspot Detection and Seasonal Pattern Analysis in Pacific Waters

by Sarthak Pattnaik and Eugene Pinsky

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100820 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Marine pollution incidents pose significant threats to marine ecosystems and coastal communities across Pacific Island nations, necessitating advanced predictive capabilities for effective environmental management. This study analyzes 8133 marine pollution incidents from 2001–2014 across 25 Pacific Island nations to develop predictive models for [...] Read more.

Marine pollution incidents pose significant threats to marine ecosystems and coastal communities across Pacific Island nations, necessitating advanced predictive capabilities for effective environmental management. This study analyzes 8133 marine pollution incidents from 2001–2014 across 25 Pacific Island nations to develop predictive models for pollution type classification, hotspot identification, and seasonal pattern forecasting. Our analysis reveals Papua New Guinea as the dominant pollution hotspot, experiencing 51.9% of all regional incidents, with plastic waste dumping comprising 78.8% of pollution events and exhibiting pronounced seasonal peaks during June (coinciding with critical fish breeding periods). Machine learning classification achieved 99.1% accuracy in predicting pollution types, with material composition emerging as the strongest predictor, followed by seasonal timing and geographic location. Temporal analysis identified distinct seasonal dependencies, with June representing peak pollution activity (755 average incidents), coinciding with vulnerable marine ecological periods. The predictive framework successfully distinguishes between persistent geographic hotspots and episodic pollution events, enabling targeted conservation interventions during high-risk periods. These findings demonstrate that pollution type and location are highly predictable from environmental and temporal variables, providing marine conservationists with tools to anticipate when and where pollution will most likely impact fish populations and ecosystem health. The study establishes the first comprehensive baseline for Pacific Island marine pollution patterns and validates machine learning approaches for proactive pollution monitoring, offering scalable solutions for protecting ocean ecosystems and supporting evidence-based policy formulation across the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)

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33 pages, 1074 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in the Analytical Determination and Toxicological Assessment of Dithiocarbamates and Their Hydrolysis Products in Fruits, Vegetables, and Cereals: Methodological Evolution, Challenges, and Future Directions

by Tommaso Pacini, Serenella Orsini, Emanuela Verdini, Elisa Cristofani, Alessandro Pelliccia, Stefano Sdogati, Claudio Colosio and Ivan Pecorelli

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100819 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Despite the widespread use of dithiocarbamate fungicides such as maneb, mancozeb, metiram, propineb, thiram, and ziram detected, according to EU legislation, via common degradation product carbon disulfide (CS₂), recent and comprehensive reviews on analytical methods for their determination in plant-based foods [...] Read more.

Despite the widespread use of dithiocarbamate fungicides such as maneb, mancozeb, metiram, propineb, thiram, and ziram detected, according to EU legislation, via common degradation product carbon disulfide (CS₂), recent and comprehensive reviews on analytical methods for their determination in plant-based foods are lacking. Given the well-documented toxicity shown by the experimental model for these pesticides, including neurotoxicity and endocrine disruption, harmonized and reliable analytical protocols are crucial for food safety monitoring and regulatory compliance. Dithiocarbamates, beyond CS₂ release, have been associated with immunotoxicity, thyroid dysfunction, and potential carcinogenicity, raising further concern regarding chronic dietary exposure. Their metabolites may disrupt enzymatic activity and oxidative balance, enhancing systemic toxicity. Early methods, had limited sensitivity, poor reproducibility, and relied on hazardous solvents, reducing practical value. Although later advancements improved detection limits, modern procedures, including those proposed by the European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL), still show limitations. The EURL-recommended protocol involves acid hydrolysis using concentrated HCl, extraction with isooctane, heating to 85 °C, and rapid ice-bath cooling, which poses environmental concerns. Recovery efficiency remains inconsistent in some cases, and reproducibility within commodity groups is poor. This review discusses the status of methods for determining dithiocarbamates as individual compounds and via CS₂ moiety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticide Risk Assessment, Emerging and Re-Emerging Problems)

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18 pages, 1280 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Toxicity of Polymethylmethacrylate Microparticles on Cells and Tissue of the Marine Mussel Mytilus trossulus After UV Irradiation

by Nadezhda Vladimirovna Dovzhenko, Victor Pavlovich Chelomin, Sergey Petrovich Kukla, Valentina Vladimirovna Slobodskova and Andrey Alexandrovich Mazur

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100818 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

In the marine environment, plastic fragments are constantly engaged in a complex degradation process under exposure to various physical and chemical factors, one of which is ultraviolet (UV) radiation. These processes result in the formation of smaller micro- and nano-sized plastic particles, which [...] Read more.

In the marine environment, plastic fragments are constantly engaged in a complex degradation process under exposure to various physical and chemical factors, one of which is ultraviolet (UV) radiation. These processes result in the formation of smaller micro- and nano-sized plastic particles, which are highly bioavailable to marine organisms. To clarify the toxicological effects of the exposure of degraded plastic on the marine organisms, the model used in this study was the Pacific mussel Mytilus trossulus and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), which is commonly found in marine debris. Using molecular and biochemical markers (DNA damage, lysosomal membrane stability, integral antiradical activity (IAA) of biological samples, and malondialdehyde (MDA) as a product of lipid peroxidation), the toxicity of pristine PMMA and photoaged (PMMA-UV) particles was assessed. Using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, the characteristics of the macromolecular changes in the chemical structure of PMMA-UV were obtained, with an oxidation index of 6.83 ± 0.46, compared to the pristine PMMA of 5.15 ± 0.54. Using a laser analyzer, the sizes of PMMA particles were determined, and it was found that after UV irradiation, the ratio of size groups changed—the proportion of particles with sizes of 500–1000 μm decreased, and the number of particles with sizes of 50–125 μm increased twofold. Analysis of mussel cell viability showed that after exposure to both types of PMMA microparticles, there was a decrease in the ability to retain neutral red dye in lysosomes: PMMA and PMMA-UV had a similar effect on hemocytes, reducing dye retention in cells to 55.2 ± 3.24% and 61.1 ± 1.99%, respectively. In gill and digestive gland cells, PMMA-UV particles reduced the stability of lysosomal membranes to a greater extent than PMMA. After PMMA and PMMA-UV particle exposure, the levels of DNA damage were as follows: in hemocytes, 10.1 ± 1.4% and 12.7 ± 0.8%, respectively; in gills, 7.8 ± 1.1% and 14.4 ± 2.9%, respectively; and in the digestive gland, 19.0 ± 1.3% and 21.9 ± 2.8%, respectively, according to the control values 3.6 ± 1.3%, 4.6 ± 1.1%, 5.1 ± 1.5%, respectively. According to the results of biochemical markers, the reaction of mussels to the presence of PMMA and PMMA-UV particles in the environment was tissue-specific: in the cells of the digestive gland, the level of IAA increased by 2 and 1.3 times compared to the control group of mussels (76.22 ± 6.77 nmol trolox/g wet weight and 52.43 ± 2.36 nmol trolox/g wet, respectively), while in the gill cells, the non-significant increase in antiradical activity was noted. An increase in MDA content was also observed in gill cells (255.8 ± 9.12 nmol MDA/g wet weight and 263.46 ± 9.45 nmol MDA/g wet weight, respectively) compared with the control group. This study showed that UV irradiation of PMMA microparticles increases their bioavailability and toxicity to M. trossulus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Toxicity of Microplastics in the Aquatic Compartment)

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24 pages, 5860 KB

Open AccessReview

Mapping the Rise in Machine Learning in Environmental Chemical Research: A Bibliometric Analysis

by Bojana Stanic and Nebojsa Andric

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100817 - 26 Sep 2025

Abstract

Machine learning (ML) is reshaping how environmental chemicals are monitored and how their hazards are evaluated for human health. Here, we mapped this landscape by analyzing 3150 peer-reviewed articles (1985–2025) from the Web of Science Core Collection. Co-citation, co-occurrence, and temporal trend analyses [...] Read more.

Machine learning (ML) is reshaping how environmental chemicals are monitored and how their hazards are evaluated for human health. Here, we mapped this landscape by analyzing 3150 peer-reviewed articles (1985–2025) from the Web of Science Core Collection. Co-citation, co-occurrence, and temporal trend analyses in VOSviewer and R reveal an exponential publication surge from 2015, dominated by environmental science journals, with China and the United States leading in output. Eight thematic clusters emerged, centered on ML model development, water quality prediction, quantitative structure–activity applications, and per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances, with XGBoost and random forests as the most cited algorithms. A distinct risk assessment cluster indicates migration of these tools toward dose–response and regulatory applications, yet keyword frequencies show a 4:1 bias toward environmental endpoints over human health endpoints. Emerging topics include climate change, microplastics, and digital soil mapping, while lignin, arsenic, and phthalates appear as fast-growing but understudied chemicals. Our findings expose gaps in chemical coverage and health integration. We recommend expanding the substance portfolio, systematically coupling ML outputs with human health data, adopting explainable artificial intelligence workflows, and fostering international collaboration to translate ML advances into actionable chemical risk assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)

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14 pages, 544 KB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Dinotefuran Residues in Fruits and Vegetables Using GC-MS/MS and Its Environmental Behavior and Dietary Risks

by Chengling Ma, Jiamin Li, Peng Xue and Hao Zhang

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 816; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100816 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study developed a gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) method for detecting dinotefuran residues in fruits and vegetables. The modified extraction procedure employed solvent conversion for GC-MS/MS compatibility, achieving a linear range of 0.001–2.0 mg/kg (r² > 0.999), a LOD of 0.003 [...] Read more.

This study developed a gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) method for detecting dinotefuran residues in fruits and vegetables. The modified extraction procedure employed solvent conversion for GC-MS/MS compatibility, achieving a linear range of 0.001–2.0 mg/kg (r² > 0.999), a LOD of 0.003 mg/kg, and a LOQ of 0.01 mg/kg. Recovery rates ranged from 88.2% to 104.5% (RSD: 3.5–5.8%). The analysis of 18 commercial samples from Weifang, China, revealed the highest residues in nectarines (0.12 mg/kg) and lowest residues in cucumbers (0.02 mg/kg), with the dietary exposure risk assessment indicating hazard quotients well below safety thresholds. The literature review showed that dinotefuran has a shorter soil half-life (10–30 days) than most neonicotinoids, a low adsorption coefficient (Koc 30–50), high leaching potential, and significant toxicity to pollinators (LD₅₀ = 0.023 μg/bee). The validated method provides reliable detection across diverse matrices, while the environmental behavior analysis highlights the need for the careful management of dinotefuran applications to minimize ecological impacts despite its favorable degradation profile compared to other neonicotinoids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)

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20 pages, 4640 KB

Open AccessArticle

Probing the Cardiovascular Toxic Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Dibutyl Phthalate in Sprague-Dawley Rats Based on Oxidative Inflammation and Metabolic Pathways: Implications for the Heart and Blood Vessel

by Xiao Liang, Qi Huang, Yang Wu, Deyu Zhu, Zhuangzhuang Wei, Qing Feng, Ping Ma, Xu Yang, Cuiyu Bao and Xinyu Bao

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100815 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a prevalent environmental pollutant that can accumulate in organisms, becoming amplified after the food cycle and ultimately affecting human health. Recent studies have provided evidence suggesting a potential association between exposure to DBP and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Objectives: [...] Read more.

Background: Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a prevalent environmental pollutant that can accumulate in organisms, becoming amplified after the food cycle and ultimately affecting human health. Recent studies have provided evidence suggesting a potential association between exposure to DBP and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Objectives: This study’s objective is to investigate the toxic cardiovascular effects of long-term exposure to DBP, particularly its impact on the heart and blood vessels. To be specific, we hypothesized and verified the potential mechanisms underlying DBP-induced cardiac and vascular injuries, focusing on oxidative stress, pyroptosis, inflammatory responses, and metabolic pathways. Methods: The rats were divided into 5 groups: Control group, DBP-Low group, DBP-Medium group, DBP-High group, and DBP-High + Vitamin E group. The entire experimental period lasted 12 weeks. We conducted examinations on echocardiography, histopathology, oxidative stress biomarkers, pyroptosis-related biomarkers, and inflammatory cytokine biomarkers. Additionally, we carried out serum metabolomics analysis. Result: Our research findings indicate that long-term exposure to DBP can cause significant toxic effects on the cardiovascular system. Specifically, DBP leads to changes in oxidative stress indicators (ROS and an increase in MDA levels, alongside a decrease in GSH levels) and protein levels related to pyroptosis (NLRP3, Caspase-1 and GSDMD levels increase) in cardiac and vascular tissues, triggering oxidative inflammatory responses (IL-1β and IL-18 levels increase), damaging the heart and blood vessels (organizational structure deformation and collagen fiber infiltration) and ultimately affecting their functions (abnormalities in cardiac function and hemodynamics). Additionally, the results of metabolomics studies suggest that metabolic pathways (Biotin metabolism, TCA cycle, Vitamin B6 metabolism, Pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis, and Riboflavin metabolism) and metabolites may also be of great significance. Conclusion: Long-term exposure to DBP can induce cardiovascular toxicity in rats, manifesting as cardiac and vascular damage, as well as alterations in organ function. This process is characterized by oxidative stress, activation of the pyroptosis pathway, inflammatory responses, and modifications to metabolic pathways. Full article

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18 pages, 582 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review on the Application of Magnetic Nanomaterials for Environmental and Ecological Remediation

by Nan Lu, Yingying Sun, Yan Li, Zhe Liu, Na Wang, Tingting Meng and Yuhu Luo

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100814 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

Despite the immense potential in environmental remediation, the translation of magnetic nanomaterials (MNMs) from laboratory innovations to practical, field-scale applications remains hindered by significant technical and environmental challenges. This is particularly evident in soil environments—which are inherently more complex than aquatic systems and [...] Read more.

Despite the immense potential in environmental remediation, the translation of magnetic nanomaterials (MNMs) from laboratory innovations to practical, field-scale applications remains hindered by significant technical and environmental challenges. This is particularly evident in soil environments—which are inherently more complex than aquatic systems and have received comparatively less research attention. Beginning with an outline of the fundamental properties that make iron-based MNMs effective as adsorbents and catalysts for heavy metals and organic pollutants, this review systematically examines their core contaminant removal mechanisms. These include adsorption, catalytic degradation (e.g., via Fenton-like reactions), and magnetic recovery. However, the practical implementation of MNMs is constrained by several key limitations, such as particle agglomeration, oxidative instability, and reduced efficacy in multi-pollutant systems. More critically, major uncertainties persist regarding their long-term environmental fate and biocompatibility. In light of these challenges, we propose that future efforts should prioritize the rational design of stable, selective, and intelligent MNMs through advanced surface engineering and interdisciplinary collaboration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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21 pages, 11297 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Contamination of Microplastic Debris in Blue Swimming Crab Portunus pelagicus (Linnaeus, 1758) from Artisanal Fisheries in the Eastern Gulf of Thailand

by Poratape Jendanklang, Chakhrit Ruengsorn, Shettapong Meksumpun and Pattira Kasamesiri

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100813 - 24 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Microplastics have become a significant concern for human health, primarily because aquatic animals can ingest these particles, which then enter the human food chain. Crabs (Portunus pelagicus) were collected along the coastline of Rayong Province in January, April, and August 2024. [...] Read more.

Microplastics have become a significant concern for human health, primarily because aquatic animals can ingest these particles, which then enter the human food chain. Crabs (Portunus pelagicus) were collected along the coastline of Rayong Province in January, April, and August 2024. Crabs were then examined for MP contamination. Our results revealed that MPs were present at all sampling sites, with a detection rate of 62.5% in external body parts and 72.2% in internal body parts. The gut was the most contaminated tissue, followed by the gills, while no MPs were found in the hepatopancreas or muscle tissues. Although overall MP detection and contamination levels were similar across sites, significant differences in abundance were observed between seasons (p < 0.05), with August showing the highest contamination levels. Polyethylene terephthalate glycol was the most common polymer detected, followed by nylon, polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, and polyester. Anthropogenic and fishing activities contribute significantly to MP pollution in these crabs. Fibers from household laundry, followed by damaged fishing gear, are major sources of MP pollution. Enhancing the quality and durability of fishing equipment is crucial to reducing the amount of abandoned fishing gear that may be ingested by marine organisms, while the proper collection and management of discarded gear in the ocean should also be emphasized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Accumulation, and Impacts of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems)

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16 pages, 975 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

The Silent Conquest: The Journey of Micro- and Nanoplastics Through Children’s Organs

by Elena Esposito, Francesco Fabrizio Comisi, Vassilios Fanos and Antonio Ragusa

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100812 - 24 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging environmental contaminants with increasing evidence of bioaccumulation in human tissues and potential toxicological effects. While extensive studies in the literature have investigated MNP exposure and health risks in adult populations, data specific to pediatric age remain scarce [...] Read more.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging environmental contaminants with increasing evidence of bioaccumulation in human tissues and potential toxicological effects. While extensive studies in the literature have investigated MNP exposure and health risks in adult populations, data specific to pediatric age remain scarce and fragmented. This narrative review represents the first integrated synthesis of current evidence on MNP exposure during early life, including the critical period of the first 1000 days, examining routes of absorption (oral, inhalational, dermal, and iatrogenic), biological distribution, and organ-specific effects in infants and children. Special attention is given to the presence of MNPs in pediatric lungs, thyroid, and intestinal microbiota, as well as to emerging non-invasive biomarkers for exposure assessment. The developing physiology of children, characterized by immature detoxification systems, critical windows of vulnerability, and prolonged life-course exposure, amplifies concern for long-term health consequences, including endocrine disruption, immune dysregulation, and neurodevelopmental impairment. This work fills a critical knowledge gap by consolidating pediatric data into a single comprehensive resource, and it is intended to serve both as a reference point for clinicians and researchers and a catalyst for future studies aimed at safeguarding child health in an increasingly plastic-contaminated world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Toxicology and Epidemiology)

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15 pages, 1362 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Malic Acid on Cadmium Uptake and Translocation and Essential Element Accumulation in Rice

by Shuo Zhang, Yiteng Zhang, Guoyi Lv, Tianqi Liu, Zhongqi Liu, Yubo Jiang, Yubo Hao, Yang Yu, Wenjun Dong and Chunrong Qian

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100811 - 24 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) contamination poses a serious threat to rice safety and productivity. This study investigated the potential of malic acid (MA), a key metabolic organic acid, to mitigate Cd toxicity and its genotype-dependent effects on cadmium uptake and essential element homeostasis in rice. [...] Read more.

Cadmium (Cd) contamination poses a serious threat to rice safety and productivity. This study investigated the potential of malic acid (MA), a key metabolic organic acid, to mitigate Cd toxicity and its genotype-dependent effects on cadmium uptake and essential element homeostasis in rice. Using hydroponic experiments with multiple genotypes, we found that MA application (0.5–1.5 mmol·L⁻¹) significantly reduced Cd accumulation in both roots and shoots, with the most effective reduction (up to 68.0%) achieved at 1.5 mmol·L⁻¹. Notably, genotype X24 was a low-Cd accumulator, while genotypes 20, 58, and 65 were high accumulators. Beyond Cd reduction, this study reveals the profound and genotype-specific modulation of nutrient homeostasis by MA, including consistent suppression of K and enhancement of Ca across genotypes, and highly divergent responses in Mg, Mn, Fe, and Zn accumulation. Furthermore, MA dramatically alleviated Cd-induced inhibition of root morphology, particularly in the high-Cd genotype 58, increasing root length and tip number by 42.8% and 57.8%, respectively. Our results provide novel insights into the genotype-dependent rebalancing of essential elements under MA amendment, highlighting the crucial role of genetic background in plant responses to organic acid treatments. These findings provide a mechanistic basis for developing MA-based foliar conditioners and genotype-specific strategies for managing Cd contamination in rice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation Process and Toxic Effects of Pollutants in Agricultural Environment)

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4 pages, 162 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Nanomaterial-Enabled Environmental Remediation and Removal of Emerging Pollutants

by Chuanjia Jiang, Shengwei Liu, Tanapon Phenrat and Qian Sui

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100810 - 23 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Rapid industrialization and urbanization in recent decades have benefited human society unprecedentedly [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomaterial-Enabled Environmental Remediation and Removal of Emerging Pollutants)

20 pages, 4577 KB

Open AccessArticle

Epigenetic Alterations in PAH-Induced Childhood Asthma: An Intervention Using Sulforaphane

by Xinyao Jiang, Xinfeng Xu, Jinyan Hui, Yuling Bao, Shuyuan Cao and Qian Wu

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100809 - 23 Sep 2025

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Abstract

DNA methylation holds promise for the early detection of tissue damage, making it crucial for identifying polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-associated epigenetic biomarkers in childhood asthma. Sulforaphane (SFN), as a potential epigenetic modulator, can alleviate the adverse effects of environmental pollutants. This study quantified [...] Read more.

DNA methylation holds promise for the early detection of tissue damage, making it crucial for identifying polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-associated epigenetic biomarkers in childhood asthma. Sulforaphane (SFN), as a potential epigenetic modulator, can alleviate the adverse effects of environmental pollutants. This study quantified serum PAHs in 370 children via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, assessed the methylation of target genes using bisulfite sequencing PCR (BSP), and performed mediation analysis to estimate the mediating effects of methylation levels between PAHs and childhood asthma. Murine models exposed to PAHs prenatally or postnatally, with offspring challenged with ovalbumin (OVA), were analyzed for lung DNA methylation. In vitro, HBE cells and HBSMCs treated with benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and/or SFN were tested for inflammatory cytokines, methylation-related enzymes, and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9) modifications. The results showed total PAHs were associated with childhood asthma, with mediating effects of long interspersed nuclear element-1 (LINE-1) methylation. Prenatal PAH exposure enriched differentially methylated genes in the extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction pathway, while postnatal exposure enriched those in purine metabolism, and postnatal exposure also elevated Mmp9 expression via hypomethylation. BaP increased the expression of interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-17A (IL-17A), transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β), and ten-eleven translocation methylcytosine dioxygenases (TETs), and it upregulated MMP9 via enhancer hypomethylation and H3K27ac enrichment, while SFN reversed these effects by downregulating histone methyltransferase (HMT), leading to reduced H3K4me1 and subsequent H3K27ac depletion, thus suppressing MMP9 transcription. This study demonstrates that DNA methylation mediates PAH–childhood asthma associations, with distinct patterns in different exposure windows; MMP9 could serve as a crucial target for epigenetic modification during lung inflammation induced by PAH exposure, and SFN reverses PAH-induced epigenetic changes, aiding prevention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants in the Air and Health Risks)

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22 pages, 10565 KB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Recovery of Phosphorus from Wastewater Using Calcium-Based Modified Biochar: Removal Performance, Adsorption Mechanism, and Resource Utilization

by Yihe Qin, Run Yuan, Han Li and Haiming Huang

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100808 - 23 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Phosphorus, a crucial yet nonrenewable resource, is essential for agriculture, life processes, and various industries. In this study, we employed co-pyrolysis of eggshells and peanut shells to prepare calcium-based biochar (EPB) with a high adsorption capacity and ecological non-toxicity, enabling effective phosphorus recovery [...] Read more.

Phosphorus, a crucial yet nonrenewable resource, is essential for agriculture, life processes, and various industries. In this study, we employed co-pyrolysis of eggshells and peanut shells to prepare calcium-based biochar (EPB) with a high adsorption capacity and ecological non-toxicity, enabling effective phosphorus recovery from wastewater. EPB was characterized via X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller analysis. Additionally, its phosphate adsorption characteristics were investigated under varying temperature, pH, and coexisting ion conditions. Phosphate adsorption followed the Langmuir isotherm with a maximum adsorption capacity of 178.08 mg/g, and the kinetics aligned with those of the quasi-second-order kinetic model. Phosphate adsorption by EPB was driven by electrostatic attraction and chemical precipitation. Moreover, we investigated the effects of phosphorus-enriched biochar on the growth and development of tobacco and soil microbial communities. Phosphorus-enriched biochar increased organic and inorganic phosphorus levels and promoted tobacco growth compared with conventional fertilizers. Phosphorus-enriched biochar reshaped tobacco rhizosphere microbial communities, promoting beneficial taxa, such as Nitrospira. Structural equation analysis showed that EPB enhanced microbial alpha diversity and key microbial communities, improving phosphorus availability and tobacco growth and development. Conclusively, this study provides a theoretical reference for phosphorus-containing wastewater treatment and reuse. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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18 pages, 5589 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Investigation Approach for Solid Waste Landfill Hazards—A Case Study of Two Decommissioned Industrial Sites

by Xiaoyu Zhang, Aijing Yin, Yuanyuan Lu, Zhewei Hu, Li Sun, Wenbing Ji, Qi Li, Caiyi Zhao, Yanhong Feng, Lingya Kong and Rongrong Ying

Toxics 2025, 13(10), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13100807 - 23 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Historical chemical production sites often harbor irregularly distributed solid waste landfills, posing significant environmental risks. Traditional drilling methods, while accurate, are inefficient for comprehensive characterization due to high costs and spatial limitations. This study aims to develop an integrated geophysical drilling approach to [...] Read more.

Historical chemical production sites often harbor irregularly distributed solid waste landfills, posing significant environmental risks. Traditional drilling methods, while accurate, are inefficient for comprehensive characterization due to high costs and spatial limitations. This study aims to develop an integrated geophysical drilling approach to accurately delineate the spatial distribution and volume of landfilled solid waste (predominantly organic pollutants) at two decommissioned chemical plant sites (total area: 8954 m²). Methods: We combined (1) geophysical surveys (transient electromagnetic (TEM, 50 profiles, 2936 points), high-density resistivity (HDR, 2 profiles, 192 points), and ground-penetrating radar (GPR, 22 profiles, 1072.1 m)) and (2) systematic drilling verification (136 boreholes, ≤10 m × 10 m density). Anomalies were interpreted through integrating geophysical responses, historical records, and borehole validation. Spatial modeling was conducted using Kriging interpolation in EVS software. The results show that (1) the anomalies exhibited a “sparse multi-point distribution” across zones A2 (primary waste concentration), A4, and A6, which were differentiated into solid waste, foundations, contaminated soil, voids, and cracks; (2) drilling confirmed solid waste at nine locations (A2: “multi-point, small-quantity” residues; A6: contaminated clay layers with garbage) with irregular thicknesses (0.2–1.3 m); (3) TEM identified diagnostic medium–high-resistivity anomalies (e.g., 28–37 m in A4L3), while GPR detected 17 shallow anomalies (only one validated as waste); and (4) the total waste volume was quantified as 266.9 m³. The methodology reduced the field effort by ∼35% versus drilling-only approaches, resolved geophysical limitations (e.g., HDR’s volume effect overestimating the thickness), and provided a validated framework for efficient characterization of complex historical landfills. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Remediation Strategies for Soil Pollution)

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Toxics, Volume 13, Issue 10 (October 2025) – 21 articles

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