Materials

2024

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15 pages, 5822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of As-Cast Al-10Ce-3Mg-xZn Alloys

by Haiyang Zhang, Mingdong Wu, Zeyu Li, Daihong Xiao, Yang Huang, Lanping Huang and Wensheng Liu

Materials 2024, 17(16), 3999; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17163999 - 12 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1467

Abstract

The microstructure and mechanical properties of as-cast Al-10Ce-3Mg-xZn (x = 0, 1, 3, 5 wt.%) alloys were systematically investigated, with a focus on the effect of Zn on the Al₁₁Ce₃ reinforcing phase in the alloy. The results showed that the [...] Read more.

The microstructure and mechanical properties of as-cast Al-10Ce-3Mg-xZn (x = 0, 1, 3, 5 wt.%) alloys were systematically investigated, with a focus on the effect of Zn on the Al₁₁Ce₃ reinforcing phase in the alloy. The results showed that the Al-10Ce-3Mg alloy consists of α-Al, a Chinese-script Al₁₁Ce₃ eutectic phase, and a massive Al₁₁Ce₃ primary phase. With the addition of Zn content, most of the Zn atoms are enriched in the Al₁₁Ce₃ phase to form the acicular-like Al₂CeZn₂ phase within the Al₁₁Ce₃ phase. Increasing the Zn content can increase the volume fraction of the Al₁₁Ce₃ phase. Compared to the alloy without Zn addition, the microhardness and elastic modulus of the Al₂CeZn₂-reinforced Al₁₁Ce₃ phase in the alloy with 5 wt.% Zn increased by 18.9% and 9.0%, respectively. Moreover, the room-temperature mechanical properties of Al-10Ce-3Mg alloys were significantly improved due to the addition of Zn element. The alloy containing 5 wt.% Zn had the best tensile properties with an ultimate tensile strength of 210 MPa and a yield strength of 171MPa, which were 21% and 77% higher than those of the alloy without Zn, respectively. The alloy containing 5 wt.% Zn demonstrated a superior retention ratio of tensile strength at 200–300 °C, indicating that the alloy has excellent heat resistance. The improvement in the mechanical properties is primarily attributed to second-phase strengthening and solid solution strengthening. Full article

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29 pages, 32170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructural Evolution in a 6060 Extrudable Al-Alloy: Integrated Modeling and Experimental Validation

by John S. Aristeidakis, Gregory N. Haidemenopoulos, Ruben Bjørge, Calin D. Marioara, Helen Kamoutsi, Evangelos Giarmas and Nikolaos Rafailidis

Materials 2024, 17(3), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17030545 - 23 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1449

Abstract

Desirable properties including strength, ductility and extrudability of 6060 Al-alloys are highly dependent on processing to control the development of microstructural features. In this study, the process chain of an extrudable 6060 Al-alloy was modeled in an Integrated Computational Materials Engineering framework and [...] Read more.

Desirable properties including strength, ductility and extrudability of 6060 Al-alloys are highly dependent on processing to control the development of microstructural features. In this study, the process chain of an extrudable 6060 Al-alloy was modeled in an Integrated Computational Materials Engineering framework and validated experimentally via quantitative SEM-EDX and TEM. All critical processing stages were considered including casting, homogenization heating and holding, extrusion cooling and two-stage aging. Segregation and intermetallics formation were accurately predicted and experimentally verified in the as-cast condition. Diffusion simulations predicted the dissolution of intermetallics and completion of β-AlFeSi to α-AlFeSi transformation during homogenization, in excellent agreement with quantitative SEM-EDX characterization. Precipitation simulations predicted the development of a β″ strengthening dispersion during extrusion cooling and aging. Needle-shaped β″ precipitates were observed and analyzed with quantitative high-resolution TEM, validating predictions. Ensuing precipitation strengthening was modeled in terms of aging time, presenting good agreement with yield strength measurements. Precipitate-Free Zones and coarse, metastable β-type particles on dispersoids and grain boundaries were investigated. The proposed integrated modeling and characterization approach considers all critical processing stages and could be used to optimize processing of extrudable 6xxx Al-alloys, providing insight to mechanisms controlling microstructural evolution and resulting properties. Full article

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2023

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16 pages, 5890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Sr on Microstructure and Strengthening Mechanism of Al-4.6Mg Alloy

by Zhanshou Yang, Yaping Dong, Wu Li, Xin Liu and Haitao Feng

Materials 2023, 16(15), 5450; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16155450 - 3 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1307

Abstract

The as-cast Al-4.6Mg alloy was subjected to deformation and sensitization–desensitization heat treatment, and then the microstructure and the enhancement mechanism of Sr were investigated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive spectroscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy. The precipitation phases of Al-4.6Mg [...] Read more.

The as-cast Al-4.6Mg alloy was subjected to deformation and sensitization–desensitization heat treatment, and then the microstructure and the enhancement mechanism of Sr were investigated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive spectroscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy. The precipitation phases of Al-4.6Mg alloy were mainly β-Al₃Mg₂, Al₆Mn, and Al₆(Mn Cr), and the nanoscale precipitation phases were Al₃Mn and Al₁₁Mn₄. The formation of β-Al₃Mg₂ was hindered by the addition of 0.1 wt.% Sr. In addition, the precipitate phase Al₄Sr and the nano-sized precipitate phase τ-Al₃₈Mg₅₈Sr₄ were uniformly distributed in the spherical matrix. The addition of Sr promoted the redissolution of Mg atoms in Al-4.6Mg alloy, increasing the solubility of Mg in the α-Al matrix from 4.7 wt.% to 5.1 wt.%. The microstructure analysis showed that Sr addition inhibited the recovery and recrystallization of the alloy because the Sr element elevated the recrystallization temperature. As a result, the grain deformation was intensified, the grain size was decreased from 6.96 μm to 5.39 μm, the low-angle grain boundaries were increased from 78.7 at % to 84.6 at %, and the high-angle grain boundaries were increased from 21.3 at % to 15.4 at %. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of the alloy were significantly improved, and the plasticity degraded after the addition of the Sr element. The yield strength of the alloy was enhanced mainly through fine grain strengthening, dispersion strengthening, solid solution strengthening, and working hardening. The strengthening mechanisms were analyzed in detail. Full article

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2022

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15 pages, 5396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Mechanical Vibration on the Mechanical Properties and Solidification Feeding in Low-Pressure Sand Casting of Al-Cu-Mn-Ti Alloy

by Wei Chen, Shiping Wu and Rujia Wang

Materials 2022, 15(22), 8243; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228243 - 20 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1977

Abstract

The shrinkage defects of Al-Cu-Mn-Ti alloy seriously hinder its application in high-performance engineering. In this study, mechanical vibration was introduced to low-pressure sand casting (LPSC) by a waveguide rod to eliminate shrinkage defects and improve mechanical properties. Four LPSC castings were performed by [...] Read more.

The shrinkage defects of Al-Cu-Mn-Ti alloy seriously hinder its application in high-performance engineering. In this study, mechanical vibration was introduced to low-pressure sand casting (LPSC) by a waveguide rod to eliminate shrinkage defects and improve mechanical properties. Four LPSC castings were performed by changing the solidification conditions: 20 kPa solidification pressure without and with 14 Hz vibration and 40 kPa without and with 24 Hz (the natural frequency of a casting system) vibration. The shrinkage defects, microstructures, and mechanical tensile properties at room temperature and at 2 mm/min tensile rate were investigated. X-ray detections showed that applying vibration was more effective than increasing solidification pressure in improving solidification feeding, while the most effective method was applying both simultaneously, which eliminated the shrinkage defects and increased the density by 2.7%. Microstructures exhibited that the average size of primary α-Al grains were reduced by 29.5%; mechanical tests showed that the ultimate tensile strength and the elongation increased by 21.7% and 7.8%, respectively, by applying vibration and increasing the solidification pressure simultaneously, as compared to the casting with 20 kPa solidification pressure without vibration. Mechanical vibration was conducive to mass feeding by refining the primary grains, to interdendritic feeding by reducing the threshold pressure gradient, and to burst feeding by collapsing the barrier. Full article

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16 pages, 6201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Behavior and Constitutive Modeling of the Mg-Zn-Y Alloy in an Electrically Assisted Tensile Test

by Zhichao Xu, Wenju Yang, Jianfeng Fan, Tao Wu and Zeng Gao

Materials 2022, 15(20), 7203; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207203 - 15 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1881

Abstract

The Mg-Zn-Y alloy containing the LPSO phase has excellent mechanical properties and functional application prospects. In an effort to clarify the electrically assisted deformation behavior of the Mg-Zn-Y alloy, electrically assisted tensile tests of Mg_98.5Zn_0.5Y₁ alloy sheets were [...] Read more.

The Mg-Zn-Y alloy containing the LPSO phase has excellent mechanical properties and functional application prospects. In an effort to clarify the electrically assisted deformation behavior of the Mg-Zn-Y alloy, electrically assisted tensile tests of Mg_98.5Zn_0.5Y₁ alloy sheets were carried out at different temperatures, current densities, duty ratios, and frequencies. The experimental results showed that, after the pulse current was applied (26.58 A·mm⁻²), the peak stress of the sample deformed at 200 °C decreased by 8 MPa. The peak stress of the material decreased with the increase in current density. It is noticeable that the changes in duty ratios and frequencies have a small effect on the peak stress and strain. When the current was applied, more recrystallized grains appeared in the alloy and the basal texture was weakened. According to the experimental results, the Arrhenius model was derived based on the Zener–Hollomon parameter. Owing to the appearance of the stacking fault structure (LPSO), the activation energy Q of the Mg_98.5Zn_0.5Y₁ alloy was 389.41 KJ/mol, which is higher than conventional Mg alloys. Moreover, the constitutive equation of the electro plastic effect coupled with temperature and pulse current parameters was established by introducing electrically assisted characteristics. By comparing the experimental and predicted values, the established model can effectively predict the variation trend of flow stress under electrically assisted deformation. Moreover, the constitutive model was incorporated into the UHARD subroutine of ABAQUS software to study the deformation behavior of the Mg_98.5Zn_0.5Y₁ alloy. Full article

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12 pages, 5582 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individual Contribution of Zn and Ca on Age-Hardenability and Formability of Zn-Based Magnesium Alloy Sheet

by Sumi Jo, Jan Bohlen and Gerrit Kurz

Materials 2022, 15(15), 5239; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155239 - 29 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1536

Abstract

This paper reports on the dilemma of the strength and forming behavior of magnesium alloy sheets due to hot rolling and precipitation aging as an obstacle for property adjustment. The effect of the Zn content on the age-hardenability and formability of Mg-Zn-Al-Ca-Mn sheets [...] Read more.

This paper reports on the dilemma of the strength and forming behavior of magnesium alloy sheets due to hot rolling and precipitation aging as an obstacle for property adjustment. The effect of the Zn content on the age-hardenability and formability of Mg-Zn-Al-Ca-Mn sheets was investigated. Sheets of two alloys with 2 or 4 wt.% Zn, respectively, were produced by casting and subsequent hot rolling and their microstructure development, precipitation behavior and formability were examined. With higher Zn content the age-hardenability was increased, but at the same time the formability of the sheet decreased, concurrent to the basal-type texture development during rolling. On the other hand, the sheet containing a lower amount of Zn exhibited a weak rolling texture and rather high formability but low age-hardenability. The addition of a larger amount of Zn improved the age-hardenability through the formation of

β_{1}^{'}

and

β_{2}^{'}

phases. The basal texture was exhibited due to the consumption of solute Ca due to the formation of the Ca₂Mg₆Zn₃ phase. This study suggests that this contradictory exhibition of the age-hardenability and formability of Ca-containing and Zn-based alloy sheets requires a strategical approach in alloy and process design, which allows tailoring the alloying elements and processing for the respective purpose. Full article

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14 pages, 5916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Anisotropic Milling Machinability of DD407 Single Crystal Nickel-Based Superalloy

by Jun Qiu, Tao Yang, Ziyuan Zhang, Qiang Li, Zixin Yan and Libiao Wang

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2723; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082723 - 7 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1974

Abstract

The DD407 single crystal Ni-based superalloy with a face-centered cubic structure exhibits strong anisotropic characteristics. In order to reveal the material chip formation mechanism and the impact effect of crystal orientations on the materials’ milling machinability, a combination of experimental observations and theoretical [...] Read more.

The DD407 single crystal Ni-based superalloy with a face-centered cubic structure exhibits strong anisotropic characteristics. In order to reveal the material chip formation mechanism and the impact effect of crystal orientations on the materials’ milling machinability, a combination of experimental observations and theoretical analysis were applied in this study. Considering the resolved shear stress and slip system theories, a fundamental theoretical explanation of the milling force and surface quality along different crystal directions on the (001) crystal plane of the DD407 single crystal Ni-based superalloy was proposed based on a previously constructed anisotropic milling model. Our work in this research verifies that [110] crystal direction on the (001) crystal plane of the DD407 single crystal Ni-based superalloy is the most optimal feeding direction during milling, taking into account surface roughness and morphology, slot bottom plastic deformation, work hardening, and chip edge burr feature. Full article

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11 pages, 5619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Residual Deformation Energy and Critical Heating Rate on Cubic Texture and Grain Growth Behavior of Severely Deformed Aluminum Foil

by Yunlei Wang, Liping Ren, Qi Liu, Yu Cao and Guangjie Huang

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1395; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041395 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1922

Abstract

To clarify the microstructure, grain size, and recrystallization behavior during different annealing processes with controlled heating rates, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of residual deformation energy after cold rolling and critical heating rate on cubic texture components, and [...] Read more.

To clarify the microstructure, grain size, and recrystallization behavior during different annealing processes with controlled heating rates, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of residual deformation energy after cold rolling and critical heating rate on cubic texture components, and grain growth behavior of aluminum plate, which was subjected to severe deformation. The experimental results revealed that the stored energy can be inferred from a calculation that fast annealing (FA) for 30 s was 2.2 times as large as slow annealing (SA) at 320 °C, which provided the driving force for grain growth during subsequent heating and resulted in a significant coarsening of grains in the FA process. In contrast, the intensity of cubic texture in SA was significantly higher than that in the FA process. A critical heating rate of 50 °C/min had been obtained to produce a homogeneous microstructure and strong cubic texture during the annealing processes with controlled heating rates and was verified by experiment. The relationship of Δη_sur > 0.02η_b was as a criterion used to determine whether abnormal grain growth happened in aluminum foil, while the grain size exceeded the thickness of aluminum foil by examined calculation. Full article

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2021

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10 pages, 4620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Characteristic of Fe as a β-Ti Stabilizer in Ti Alloys

by Jin Min, Yanhua Guo, Jingzhe Niu, Juexian Cao, Zhonggang Sun and Hui Chang

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7516; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247516 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2677

Abstract

It is well known that adding elements, especially β-Ti stabilizers, are holding a significant effect on titanium alloy strength due to the solution and precipitate strengthening mechanisms. In order to reveal the Fe strengthening mechanism in titanium, this study investigate the effect [...] Read more.

It is well known that adding elements, especially β-Ti stabilizers, are holding a significant effect on titanium alloy strength due to the solution and precipitate strengthening mechanisms. In order to reveal the Fe strengthening mechanism in titanium, this study investigate the effect of Fe on the stability of β-Ti and the phase transition between α, β and ω phase with first-principle calculations. According to our study, Fe is a strong β-Ti phase stabilizer could owe to the 3d orbital into e_g and t_2g states which results in strong hybridization between Fe-d orbital and Ti-d orbital. The phase transition from ω to β or from α to β becomes easier for Fe-doped Ti compared to pure titanium. Based on our results, it is found that one added Fe atom can lead the phase transition (ω → β) of at least nine titanium atoms, which further proves that Fe has a strong stabilizing effect on β-Ti phase. This result provides a solid guide for the future design of high-strength titanium with the addition of Fe. Full article

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17 pages, 13014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Effects on the Compressive Behaviors of Closed-Cell Copper Foams Prepared by Powder Metallurgy

by Bin Han, Yunyu Li, Zeyu Wang, Xi Gu and Qi Zhang

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6405; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216405 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2248

Abstract

A fabrication technology of closed-cell copper foams (CCCFs) based on powder metallurgy is proposed, by using the expanded polystyrene foams (EPS) spheres with the prescribed diameter as the space holder before sintering. The material characterization and the quasi-static compressive behaviors of both uniform [...] Read more.

A fabrication technology of closed-cell copper foams (CCCFs) based on powder metallurgy is proposed, by using the expanded polystyrene foams (EPS) spheres with the prescribed diameter as the space holder before sintering. The material characterization and the quasi-static compressive behaviors of both uniform and graded CCCFs at different temperatures were experimentally studied. A high temperature weakens the initial compressive modulus, plateau stress, and effective energy absorption for both uniform and graded CCCFs; meanwhile, the onset strain of densification and the maximum energy absorption efficiency are less sensitive to temperature, especially for the graded CCCFs. Compared with the uniform CCCF, the graded CCCF with even a small relative density exhibits superiority in terms of the effective energy absorption and the maximum energy absorption efficiency, attributed to the much larger onset strain of densification for the gradient pore arrangement. Finite element simulations based on the ideal sphere foam model can basically mimic the compressive performance of the CCCF samples. It is also found that both the decrease of pore diameter and the increase of cell wall thickness could improve the compressive performance of the CCCFs. Full article

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15 pages, 35996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigations of High-Strength Mg–Al–Ca–Mn Alloys with a Broad Range of Ca+Al Contents

by Stefan Gneiger, Nikolaus P. Papenberg, Aurel R. Arnoldt, Carina M. Schlögl and Martin Fehlbier

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5439; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185439 - 20 Sep 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2766

Abstract

The low mass and high specific stiffness of Mg alloys make them particularly interesting as means of transportation. Due to further desirable properties, such as good machinability and excellent castability, Mg alloys have gained acceptance as castings in high-volume applications, such as gearbox [...] Read more.

The low mass and high specific stiffness of Mg alloys make them particularly interesting as means of transportation. Due to further desirable properties, such as good machinability and excellent castability, Mg alloys have gained acceptance as castings in high-volume applications, such as gearbox housings and automotive steering wheels. However, in forming processes, such as extrusion and forging, Mg alloys find little to no industrial use at the moment. The reasons for this are their poor formability, which is reflected in limited processing speeds and low ductility, and their modest mechanical performance, compared to competing materials, such as Al alloys and high-strength steels. Much research is being conducted worldwide on high-strength Mg alloys, most of which rely on high levels of rare earths, making these materials both ecologically and economically questionable. Here, it is shown that high yield strengths (>300 MPa) can be achieved in the Mg–Al–Ca system while maintaining good ductility, using only low-cost elements. The investigations have shown that these properties can be adjusted over broad alloy compositions, which greatly simplifies both the processing and recyclability. Full article

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30 pages, 3895 KiB

Open AccessReview

Lean Wrought Magnesium Alloys

by Nikolaus P. Papenberg, Stefan Gneiger, Peter J. Uggowitzer and Stefan Pogatscher

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4282; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154282 - 31 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2537

Abstract

Lean magnesium alloys are considered attractive candidates for easy and economical hot forming. Such wrought alloys, defined here as materials with a maximum alloying content of one atomic or two weight percent, are known to achieve attractive mechanical properties despite their low alloy [...] Read more.

Lean magnesium alloys are considered attractive candidates for easy and economical hot forming. Such wrought alloys, defined here as materials with a maximum alloying content of one atomic or two weight percent, are known to achieve attractive mechanical properties despite their low alloy content. The good mechanical properties and the considerable hardening potential, combined with the ease of processing, make them attractive for manufacturers and users alike. This results in potential uses in a wide range of applications, from rolled or extruded components to temporary biomedical implants. The characteristic behavior of these alloys and the optimal use of suitable alloying elements are discussed and illustrated exemplarily. Full article

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37 pages, 32964 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Influence of Fe and Mn on the Microstructure Formation in 5xxx Alloys—Part II: Evolution of Grain Size and Texture

by Jakob Grasserbauer, Irmgard Weißensteiner, Georg Falkinger, Peter J. Uggowitzer and Stefan Pogatscher

Materials 2021, 14(12), 3312; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14123312 - 15 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2827

Abstract

In recent decades, microstructure and texture engineering has become an indispensable factor in meeting the rising demands in mechanical properties and forming behavior of aluminum alloys. Alloying elements, such as Fe and Mn in AlMg(Mn) alloys, affect the number density, size and morphology [...] Read more.

In recent decades, microstructure and texture engineering has become an indispensable factor in meeting the rising demands in mechanical properties and forming behavior of aluminum alloys. Alloying elements, such as Fe and Mn in AlMg(Mn) alloys, affect the number density, size and morphology of both the primary and secondary phases, thus altering the grain size and orientation of the final annealed sheet by Zener pinning and particle stimulated nucleation (PSN). The present study investigates the grain size and texture of four laboratory processed AlMg(Mn) alloys with various Fe and Mn levels (see Part I). Common models for deriving the Zener-limit grain size are discussed in the light of the experimental data. The results underline the significant grain refinement by dispersoids in high Mn alloys and show a good correlation with the Smith–Zener equation, when weighting the volume fraction of the dispersoids with an exponent of 0.33. Moreover, for high Fe alloys a certain reduction in the average grain size is obtained due to pinning effects and PSN of coarse primary phases. The texture analysis focuses on characteristic texture transformations occurring with pinning effects and PSN. However, the discussion of the texture and typical PSN components is only possible in terms of trends, as all alloys exhibit an almost random distribution of orientations. Full article

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36 pages, 11113 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Influence of Fe and Mn on the Microstructure Formation in 5xxx Alloys—Part I: Evolution of Primary and Secondary Phases

by Jakob Grasserbauer, Irmgard Weißensteiner, Georg Falkinger, Thomas M. Kremmer, Peter J. Uggowitzer and Stefan Pogatscher

Materials 2021, 14(12), 3204; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14123204 - 10 Jun 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3222

Abstract

The increasing demands for Al sheets with superior mechanical properties and excellent formability require a profound knowledge of the microstructure and texture evolution in the course of their production. The present study gives a comprehensive overview on the primary- and secondary phase formation [...] Read more.

The increasing demands for Al sheets with superior mechanical properties and excellent formability require a profound knowledge of the microstructure and texture evolution in the course of their production. The present study gives a comprehensive overview on the primary- and secondary phase formation in AlMg(Mn) alloys with varying Fe and Mn additions, including variations in processing parameters such as solidification conditions, homogenization temperature, and degree of cold rolling. Higher Fe alloying levels increase the primary phase fraction and favor the needle-shaped morphology of the constituent phases. Increasing Mn additions alter both the shape and composition of the primary phase particles, but also promote the formation of dispersoids as secondary phases. The size, morphology, and composition of primary and secondary phases is further affected by the processing parameters. The average dispersoid size increases significantly with higher homogenization temperature and large primary particles tend to fragment during cold rolling. The microstructures of the final soft annealed states reflect the important effects of the primary and secondary phase particles on their evolution. The results presented in this paper regarding the relevant secondary phases provide the basis for an in-depth discussion of the mechanisms underlying the microstructure formation, such as Zener pinning, particle stimulated nucleation, and texture evolution, which is presented in Part II of this study. Full article

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12 pages, 8513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Properties of Laser-Welded Al–Zn–Mg–Cu Alloy Joints by Aging and Double-Sided Ultrasonic Impact Compound Treatment

by Furong Chen and Chenghao Liu

Materials 2021, 14(11), 2742; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112742 - 22 May 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2237

Abstract

To improve the loose structure and serious porosity of (Al–Zn–Mg–Cu) 7075 aluminum alloy laser-welded joints, aging treatment, double-sided ultrasonic impact treatment (DSUIT), and a combination of aging and DSUIT (A–DSUIT) were used to treat joints. In this experiment, the mechanism of A–DSUIT on [...] Read more.

To improve the loose structure and serious porosity of (Al–Zn–Mg–Cu) 7075 aluminum alloy laser-welded joints, aging treatment, double-sided ultrasonic impact treatment (DSUIT), and a combination of aging and DSUIT (A–DSUIT) were used to treat joints. In this experiment, the mechanism of A–DSUIT on the microstructure and properties of welded joints was analyzed. The microstructure of the welded joints was observed using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The hardness and tensile properties of the welded components under the different processes were examined via Vickers hardness test and a universal tensile testing machine. The results showed that, after the aging treatment, the dendritic structure of the welded joints transformed into an equiaxed crystal structure. Moreover, the residual tensile stress generated in the welding process was weakened, and the hardness and tensile strength were significantly improved. After DSUIT, a plastic deformation layer of a certain thickness was generated from the surface downward, and the residual compressive stress was introduced to a certain depth of the joint. However, the weld zone unaffected by DSUIT still exhibited residual tensile stress. The inner microhardness of the joint surface improved; the impact surface hardness was the largest and gradually decreased inward to the weld zone base metal hardness, with a small improvement in the tensile strength. Compared with the single treatment process, the microstructural and mechanical properties of the welded joint after A–DSUIT were comprehensively improved. The microhardness and tensile strength of the welded joint reached 200 HV and 615 MPa, respectively, for an increase of 45.8% and 61.8%, respectively. Observation of the fractures of the tensile specimens under the different treatment processes showed that the fractures before the aging treatment were mainly ductile fractures while those after were mainly brittle fractures. After DSUIT of the welded joints, a clear and dense plastic deformation layer was observed in the fracture of the tensile specimens and effectively improved the tensile properties of the welded joints. Under the EBSD characterization, the larger the residual compressive stress near the ultrasonic impact surface, the smaller the grain diameter and misorientation angle, and the lower the texture strength. Finally, after A–DSUIT, the hardness and tensile properties improved the most. Full article

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16 pages, 5258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Die Soldering and the Influence of Alloying Elements on the Intermetallic Interface

by Marius Kohlhepp, Peter J. Uggowitzer, Marc Hummel and Heinz Werner Höppel

Materials 2021, 14(7), 1580; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14071580 - 24 Mar 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2678

Abstract

Die soldering of die castings is a serious problem in the aluminum casting industry. The precise mechanism, the influence of the alloy composition, and the options for prevention have not yet been fully elaborated. A well-established solution for alloys with low iron content [...] Read more.

Die soldering of die castings is a serious problem in the aluminum casting industry. The precise mechanism, the influence of the alloy composition, and the options for prevention have not yet been fully elaborated. A well-established solution for alloys with low iron content is the addition of manganese. However, up to 0.8 wt.% is necessary, which increases the amount of brittle phases in the material and consequently reduces ductility. Immersion tests with 1.2343 tool steel and pure aluminum as well as a hypoeutectic AlSi-alloy with Mn, Mo, Co, and Cr additions were carried out to systematically investigate the formation of die soldering. Three different intermetallic layers and a scattered granular intermetallic phase formed at the interface between steel and Al-alloy after immersion into the melt for a duration of 6 min at 710 °C. The combined presence of the irregular, needle-shaped β-Al₅FeSi phase and the surrounding alloy was responsible for the bond between the two components. Mn and Mo inhibited the formation of the β-phase, and instead promoted the α_C-Al₁₅(Fe,X)₃Si₂ phase. This led to an evenly running boundary to the AlSi-alloy and thus prevented bonding. Cr has proven to be the most efficient addition against die soldering, with 0.2 wt.% being sufficient. Contrary to the other elements investigated, Cr also reduced the thickness of the intermetallic interface. Full article

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2020

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14 pages, 5021 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Heat Treatment of Ti6Al4V ELI as Implant Material

by Phuong Thao Mai, Therese Bormann, Robert Sonntag, Jan Philippe Kretzer and Jens Gibmeier

Materials 2020, 13(21), 4948; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13214948 - 4 Nov 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2219

Abstract

Due to its mechanical properties and good biocompatibility, Ti6Al4V ELI (extra low interstitials) is widely used in medical technology, especially as material for implants. The specific microstructures that are approved for this purpose are listed in the standard ISO 20160:2006. Inductive short-term heat [...] Read more.

Due to its mechanical properties and good biocompatibility, Ti6Al4V ELI (extra low interstitials) is widely used in medical technology, especially as material for implants. The specific microstructures that are approved for this purpose are listed in the standard ISO 20160:2006. Inductive short-term heat treatment is suitable for the adjustment of near-surface component properties such as residual stress conditions. A systematic evaluation of the Ti6Al4V microstructures resulting from short-term heat treatment is presently missing. In order to assess the parameter field that leads to suitable microstructures for load-bearing implants, dilatometer experiments have been conducted. For this purpose, dilatometer experiments with heating rates up to 1000 °C/s, holding times between 0.5 and 30 s and cooling rates of 100 and 1000 °C/s were systematically examined in the present study. Temperatures up to 950 °C and a holding time of 0.5 s led to microstructures, which are approved for medical applications according to the standard ISO 20160:2006. Below 950 °C, longer holding times can also be selected. Full article

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13 pages, 15829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strengthening of a Near β-Ti Alloy through β Grain Refinement and Stress-Induced α Precipitation

by Wei Chen, Chao Li, Kangtun Feng, Yongcheng Lin, Xiaoyong Zhang, Chao Chen and Kechao Zhou

Materials 2020, 13(19), 4255; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13194255 - 24 Sep 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2632

Abstract

Near β-Ti alloys with high strength and good ductility are desirable for application in aviation and aerospace industries. Nevertheless, strength and ductility are usually mutually exclusive in structural materials. Here we report a new thermo-mechanical process, that is, the alloy was cross-rolled in [...] Read more.

Near β-Ti alloys with high strength and good ductility are desirable for application in aviation and aerospace industries. Nevertheless, strength and ductility are usually mutually exclusive in structural materials. Here we report a new thermo-mechanical process, that is, the alloy was cross-rolled in β field then aged at 600 °C for 1 h. By such a process, a high strength (ultimate tensile strength: 1480 MPa) and acceptable ductility (elongation: 10%) can be simultaneously achieved in the near β-Ti alloy, based on the microscale β matrix and nanoscale α phase. The microstructure evolution, mechanical properties and strengthening mechanisms have been clarified by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results showed that the grain size of the β phase progressively decreased with the increasing of rolling reduction. Moreover, dense dislocation structures and martensite phases distributed in the cross-rolled β matrix can effectively promote the precipitation of nanoscale α particles. TEM analyses confirmed that a heat-treatment twin was generated in the newly formed α lath during aging. These findings provide insights towards developing Ti alloys with optimized mechanical properties. Full article

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61 pages, 58554 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mg-Alloys for Forging Applications—A Review

by Nikolaus P. Papenberg, Stefan Gneiger, Irmgard Weißensteiner, Peter J. Uggowitzer and Stefan Pogatscher

Materials 2020, 13(4), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13040985 - 22 Feb 2020

Cited by 78 | Viewed by 9206

Abstract

Interest in magnesium alloys and their applications has risen in recent years. This trend is mainly evident in casting applications, but wrought alloys are also increasingly coming into focus. Among the most common forming processes, forging is a promising candidate for the industrial [...] Read more.

Interest in magnesium alloys and their applications has risen in recent years. This trend is mainly evident in casting applications, but wrought alloys are also increasingly coming into focus. Among the most common forming processes, forging is a promising candidate for the industrial production of magnesium wrought products. This review is intended to give a general introduction into the forging of magnesium alloys and to help in the practical realization of forged products. The basics of magnesium forging practice are described and possible problems as well as material properties are discussed. Several alloy systems containing aluminum, zinc or rare earth elements as well as biodegradable alloys are evaluated. Overall, the focus of the review is on the process control and processing parameters, from stock material to finished parts. A discussion of the mechanical properties is included. These data have been comprehensively reviewed and are listed for a variety of magnesium forging alloys. Full article

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14 pages, 4908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Precipitation Hardening Parameters for High Strength Alloy AA 7068

by Julia Osten, Benjamin Milkereit, Michael Reich, Bin Yang, Armin Springer, Karina Nowak and Olaf Kessler

Materials 2020, 13(4), 918; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13040918 - 19 Feb 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3192

Abstract

The mechanical properties after age hardening heat treatment and the kinetics of related phase transformations of high strength AlZnMgCu alloy AA 7068 were investigated. The experimental work includes differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), differential fast scanning calorimetry (DFSC), sophisticated differential dilatometry (DIL), scanning electron [...] Read more.

The mechanical properties after age hardening heat treatment and the kinetics of related phase transformations of high strength AlZnMgCu alloy AA 7068 were investigated. The experimental work includes differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), differential fast scanning calorimetry (DFSC), sophisticated differential dilatometry (DIL), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), as well as hardness and tensile tests. For the kinetic analysis of quench induced precipitation by dilatometry new metrological methods and evaluation procedures were established. Using DSC, dissolution behaviour during heating to solution annealing temperature was investigated. These experiments allowed for identification of the appropriate temperature and duration for the solution heat treatment. Continuous cooling experiments in DSC, DFSC, and DIL determined the kinetics of quench induced precipitation. DSC and DIL revealed several overlapping precipitation reactions. The critical cooling rate for a complete supersaturation of the solid solution has been identified to be 600 to 800 K/s. At slightly subcritical cooling rates quench induced precipitation results in a direct hardening effect resulting in a technological critical cooling rate of about 100 K/s, i.e., the hardness after ageing reaches a saturation level for cooling rates faster than 100 K/s. Maximum yield strength of above 600 MPa and tensile strength of up to 650 MPa were attained. Full article

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13 pages, 10788 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Friction-Stir Welding of a Wrought Al-Si-Mg Alloy in As-Fabricated and Heat-Treatment States

by Chunxia Wang, Hongbo Cui, Xin Tang and Kezhun He

Materials 2020, 13(4), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13040861 - 14 Feb 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2636

Abstract

A wrought Al-11.3Si-0.6Mg alloy under hot extrusion (T1), solution treatment (T4), and solution treatment + artificial aging (T6) states were friction stir welded at welding speed of 100 mm/min and rotation rate of 800 rpm. The effect of prior heat-treatment on the microstructure [...] Read more.

A wrought Al-11.3Si-0.6Mg alloy under hot extrusion (T1), solution treatment (T4), and solution treatment + artificial aging (T6) states were friction stir welded at welding speed of 100 mm/min and rotation rate of 800 rpm. The effect of prior heat-treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the welds were investigated. The results show that the microstructures of the nugget zones have little dependence on the initial states of the base material. In the nugget zones, complete recrystallized structures with equaxied grains in the Al matrix were formed under all conditions. The Si particles in the nugget zones are almost unchanged compared with those of their base materials (BMs) in the three states. In contrast, the joint efficiency of the obtained welds was very sensitive to the initial material condition. The joint efficiency under the T1 state is more than 90% due to the fact that the microstructure is almost unchanged, except for the slight coarsening of the Al matrix grains and some of the Mg₂Si phases during the friction stir welding process. However, the joint efficiency in the T4 and T6 conditions is only 77.22% and 62.03%, respectively. The relatively low weld strength in the T4 and T6 conditions is due to the elimination of the solid solution strengthening and age hardening effects during friction stir welding. The hardness distributions along the cross section of joints are all W-shaped under T1, T4, and T6 conditions. Full article

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10 pages, 24740 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ageing Behaviour of Al–Mg–Si Alloys After Cryogenic and Room Temperature Deformation

by Belinda Gruber, Florian Grabner, Werner Fragner, Alexander Schökel, Florian Spieckermann, Peter J. Uggowitzer and Stefan Pogatscher

Materials 2020, 13(3), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13030554 - 23 Jan 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3162

Abstract

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of cryogenic and room temperature pre-deformation on subsequent artificial ageing of Al–Mg–Si alloys. Naturally aged and pre-aged samples were strained to 5%, 10% and 20% at RT (25 °C) and under liquid nitrogen, [...] Read more.

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of cryogenic and room temperature pre-deformation on subsequent artificial ageing of Al–Mg–Si alloys. Naturally aged and pre-aged samples were strained to 5%, 10% and 20% at RT (25 °C) and under liquid nitrogen, and artificially aged at 185 °C. Pre-deformation generally increases ageing kinetics for both the naturally aged and pre-aged alloys, which increase in proportion to the degree of pre-deformation, and which are slightly more pronounced for the cryogenic condition. The peak strength is constant, except for when a low degree of pre-deformation is used, in which case it is slightly reduced. Cryogenically deformed samples show an increased strength and hardness, compared to samples pre-deformed at RT, when subjected to an equal magnitude of strain. This difference is reduced during artificial ageing. Synchrotron measurements reveal that this behaviour can be linked to the greater dislocation density, which is not completely recovered even after prolonged ageing at 185 °C. Full article

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19 pages, 5074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Microstructure and Texture in Laboratory- and Industrial-Scaled Production of Automotive Al-Sheets

by Jakob Grasserbauer, Irmgard Weißensteiner, Georg Falkinger, Stefan Mitsche, Peter J. Uggowitzer and Stefan Pogatscher

Materials 2020, 13(2), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13020469 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4705

Abstract

With the rising importance of aluminum sheets for automotive applications, the influence of microstructure and texture on mechanical properties and on forming behavior has gained re-increased interest in recent years. This paper provides an introduction to the topic and demonstrates the evolution of [...] Read more.

With the rising importance of aluminum sheets for automotive applications, the influence of microstructure and texture on mechanical properties and on forming behavior has gained re-increased interest in recent years. This paper provides an introduction to the topic and demonstrates the evolution of microstructure and texture in the standard alloys EN AW-5182 and EN AW-6016 for different processing scales. Moreover, strategies for texture and microstructure characterization of automotive Al-sheets are discussed. As the development of alloys or processes usually starts in laboratory facilities, the transferability to the industrial scale of the results thereof is studied. A detailed analysis of the entire processing chain shows good conformity of careful laboratory production with the industrial production concerning microstructure as well as qualitative and quantitative texture evolution for EN AW-5182. While comparable grain sizes can be achieved in final annealed sheets of EN AW-6016, quantitative discrepancies in texture occur between the different production scales for some sample states. The results are discussed in light of the basics of plasticity and recrystallisation including the effect of solutes, primary phases, and secondary phases in the alloys. Full article

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20 pages, 5898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alloying and Processing Effects on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Degradation Behavior of Extruded Magnesium Alloys Containing Calcium, Cerium, or Silver

by Jan Bohlen, Sebastian Meyer, Björn Wiese, Bérengère J. C. Luthringer-Feyerabend, Regine Willumeit-Römer and Dietmar Letzig

Materials 2020, 13(2), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13020391 - 15 Jan 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4078

Abstract

Magnesium alloys attract attention as degradable implant materials due to their adjustable corrosion properties and biocompatibility. In the last few decades, especially wrought magnesium alloys with enhanced mechanical properties have been developed, with the main aim of increasing ductility and formability. Alloying and [...] Read more.

Magnesium alloys attract attention as degradable implant materials due to their adjustable corrosion properties and biocompatibility. In the last few decades, especially wrought magnesium alloys with enhanced mechanical properties have been developed, with the main aim of increasing ductility and formability. Alloying and processing studies allowed demonstrating the relationship between the processing and the microstructure development for many new magnesium alloys. Based on this experience, magnesium alloy compositions need adjustment to elements improving mechanical properties while being suitable for biomaterial applications. In this work, magnesium alloys from two Mg-Zn series with Ce (ZE) or Ca (ZX) as additional elements and a series of alloys with Ag and Ca (QX) as alloying elements are suggested. The microstructure development was studied after the extrusion of round bars with varied processing parameters and was related to the mechanical properties and the degradation behavior of the alloys. Grain refinement and texture weakening mechanisms could be improved based on the alloy composition for enhancing the mechanical properties. Degradation rates largely depended on the nature of second phase particles rather than on the grain size, but remained suitable for biological applications. Furthermore, all alloy compositions exhibited promising cytocompatibility. Full article

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2019

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92 pages, 52118 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Review of the Quench Sensitivity of Aluminium Alloys: Analysis of the Kinetics and Nature of Quench-Induced Precipitation

by Benjamin Milkereit, Marco J. Starink, Paul A. Rometsch, Christoph Schick and Olaf Kessler

Materials 2019, 12(24), 4083; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12244083 - 6 Dec 2019

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 6809

Abstract

For aluminium alloys, precipitation strengthening is controlled by age-hardening heat treatments, including solution treatment, quenching, and ageing. In terms of technological applications, quenching is considered a critical step, because detrimental quench-induced precipitation must be avoided to exploit the full age-hardening potential of the [...] Read more.

For aluminium alloys, precipitation strengthening is controlled by age-hardening heat treatments, including solution treatment, quenching, and ageing. In terms of technological applications, quenching is considered a critical step, because detrimental quench-induced precipitation must be avoided to exploit the full age-hardening potential of the alloy. The alloy therefore needs to be quenched faster than a critical cooling rate, but slow enough to avoid undesired distortion and residual stresses. These contrary requirements for quenching can only be aligned based on detailed knowledge of the kinetics of quench-induced precipitation. Until the beginning of the 21st century, the kinetics of relevant solid-solid phase transformations in aluminium alloys could only be estimated by ex-situ testing of different properties. Over the past ten years, significant progress has been achieved in this field of materials science, enabled by the development of highly sensitive differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) techniques. This review presents a comprehensive report on the solid-solid phase transformation kinetics in Al alloys covering precipitation and dissolution reactions during heating from different initial states, dissolution during solution annealing and to a vast extent quench-induced precipitation during continuous cooling over a dynamic cooling rate range of ten orders of magnitude. The kinetic analyses are complemented by sophisticated micro- and nano-structural analyses and continuous cooling precipitation (CCP) diagrams are derived. The measurement of enthalpies released by quench-induced precipitation as a function of the cooling rate also enables predictions of the quench sensitivities of Al alloys using physically-based models. Various alloys are compared, and general aspects of quench-induced precipitation in Al alloys are derived. Full article

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14 pages, 10242 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nanoindentation and Microstructure in the Shear Band in a Near Beta Titanium Alloy Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Cr-1Fe

by Bingfeng Wang, Xu Ding, Ying Mao, Lanyi Liu and Xiaoyong Zhang

Materials 2019, 12(24), 4065; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12244065 - 5 Dec 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2644

Abstract

Shear localization is the main deformation mode for the near beta titanium alloy Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Cr-1Fe loaded at high strain rates at either room temperature or cryogenic temperature. Nanoindentation, transmission electron microscopy, and high-resolution electron microscopy technique are applied to character the microstructure features and [...] Read more.

Shear localization is the main deformation mode for the near beta titanium alloy Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Cr-1Fe loaded at high strain rates at either room temperature or cryogenic temperature. Nanoindentation, transmission electron microscopy, and high-resolution electron microscopy technique are applied to character the microstructure features and mechanical properties in the shear band of near beta titanium alloy. A white and straight band is observed in the shear region. Both microhardness and nanoindentaion hardness in the shear region are inferior to those in matrix. The different microstructure in the edge and the center in the shear band contribute to different mechanical properties. The plasticity of the entire shear band is almost homogenous when specimens are deformed at the cryogenic temperature. Rotational dynamic recrystallization is responsible for the formation of the ultrafine grains in the shear band. The edge of the shear band is composed of elongated grains, while there are ultrafine equiaxed grains in the center of the shear band. Deformation temperature has significant influence on the process of the grain refinement and the phase transformation in the shear band (SB). The grain sizes of the shear band in the specimen deformed at room temperature are larger than those in the specimens deformed at cryogenic temperature. The shear band consists of α phase grains in the specimen deformed at room temperature, and the shear band consists of α phase and lath-like α′ phase grains in the specimen deformed at cryogenic temperature. Finally, the mechanisms for phase transformation in the shear band are illustrated. Full article

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17 pages, 5634 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Different Influences of Rare Earth Eu Addition on Primary Si Refinement in Hypereutectic Al–Si Alloys with Varied Purity

by Feng Mao, Shizhong Wei, Liming Ou, Cheng Zhang, Chong Chen, Xiaodong Wang and Zhiqiang Cao

Materials 2019, 12(21), 3505; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12213505 - 25 Oct 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2886

Abstract

The effect of alloying the Eu element on primary Si refinement in varied purity Al–16Si alloys was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermal analysis, micro x–ray diffraction (μ–XRD), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results indicate that the [...] Read more.

The effect of alloying the Eu element on primary Si refinement in varied purity Al–16Si alloys was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermal analysis, micro x–ray diffraction (μ–XRD), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results indicate that the P impurity element in hypereutectic Al–Si alloys has a great influence on the rare earths’ refinement efficiency of primary Si. Coinstantaneous primary Si refinement and eutectic Si modification by Eu was obtained in high purity (HP) Al–16Si and commercial purity (CP) Al–16Si–0.06P alloys, but the primary Si was gradually coarsened in CP Al–16Si alloys. An excellent integration of ultimate tensile strength (144.8 MPa) and elongation (9.8%) of CP hypereutectic Al–16Si–0.06P alloy was obtained by adding 0.15% Eu. The refinement of primary Si in Eu–modified HP Al–16Si alloys was related to the constitutional undercooling of Eu. There was no sufficient Eu element partition into the primary Si particles, and fewer parallel twins, rather than multiple twins, were observed within them. The refinement of primary Si in CP Al–16Si–0.06P alloys was caused by the overlay of two kinds of mechanisms including the heterogeneous nucleation mechanism of AlP and the constitutional supercooling mechanism of Eu. However, in order to refine the primary Si in CP hypereutectic Al–16Si alloys, the Eu:P weight ratio should not exceed 3.33, otherwise the refinement efficiency of primary Si will be reduced due to mutual poisoning between Eu and P. This work can be used to interpret the controversy concerning the influence of rare earths on the primary Si in hypereutectic Al–Si alloys, thereby elucidating the importance of alloy purity to primary Si refinement by rare earths. Full article

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10 pages, 3074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship between Residual Amount of Sr and Morphology of Eutectic Si Phase in A356 Alloy

by Wenda Zhang, Shixuan Ma, Zhenhua Wei and Peikang Bai

Materials 2019, 12(19), 3222; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12193222 - 1 Oct 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3030

Abstract

This paper studied the relationship between the residual amount of Sr and the morphology of the eutectic Si phase in A356 obtained through different modification treatment processes; additionally, the cooling rates of molds were studied. The eutectic Si phase revealed a satisfactory modification [...] Read more.

This paper studied the relationship between the residual amount of Sr and the morphology of the eutectic Si phase in A356 obtained through different modification treatment processes; additionally, the cooling rates of molds were studied. The eutectic Si phase revealed a satisfactory modification effect at residual Sr amounts above 0.01 wt % in A356 alloys cast using an iron mould. Complete modification of the eutectic Si phase could be achieved at a Sr additive amount 0.03 wt % in an A356 melt. The addition of higher amounts of Sr (~0.04–0.06 wt %) did not improve the modification effect. With the addition of 0.06 wt % Sr into A356 alloy melt and holding at 750 °C, the anti-fading capacity of Sr modification effect could be sustained for 120 minutes. More Sr is needed to obtain a good modification of eutectic Si for an A356 alloy cast using a sand mold. Full article

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13 pages, 4131 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Refinement of Primary Si and Modification of Eutectic Si in A390 Alloy Assisting by Sr-Modifier and Serpentine Pouring Channel Process

by Pengyu Yan, Weimin Mao, Jing Fan and Bingkun Wang

Materials 2019, 12(19), 3109; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12193109 - 24 Sep 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2721

Abstract

In this study, A390 alloy was prepared using the combined process of a water-cooled copper serpentine pouring channel (SPC) and strontium (Sr) modifier, in order to simultaneously refine primary silicon (Si) and modify eutectic silicon (Si). The nucleation and growth mechanisms of the [...] Read more.

In this study, A390 alloy was prepared using the combined process of a water-cooled copper serpentine pouring channel (SPC) and strontium (Sr) modifier, in order to simultaneously refine primary silicon (Si) and modify eutectic silicon (Si). The nucleation and growth mechanisms of the Si phase were discussed by morphology analysis and non-isothermal analytical kinetics. The results indicate that the size of primary Si is refined to 25.2–28.5 µm and the morphology of eutectic Si is modified from acicular into fibrous. The serpentine pouring channel process stimulates primary Si nucleation due to chilling effect and has no influence on eutectic Si nucleation. Impacts of Sr-modifier on primary and eutectic Si are similar, including three aspects: (1) poisoning of the nucleation site; (2) decreasing the interface energy between Si phase and liquid; (3) raising the activation energy for diffusion across solid-liquid interface. The content of Sr determines which one of the three aspects mentioned above is the dominant factor to promote or restrain the nucleation and growth of the primary and eutectic Si in hypereutectic Al-Si alloy. Full article

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11 pages, 4753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Microstructural Evolution, Tensile Properties, and Phase Hardness of a TiAl Alloy with a High Content of the β Phase

by Ning Cui, Qianqian Wu, Zhiyuan Yan, Haitao Zhou and Xiaopeng Wang

Materials 2019, 12(17), 2757; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12172757 - 28 Aug 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3246

Abstract

In this paper, the microstructure, deformability, tensile properties, and phase hardness of the Ti–43Al–2Cr–0.7Mo–0.1Y alloy with a high β phase content were investigated. Microstructural analysis showed that the β phase precipitated not only at the colony boundaries but also inside the lamellae due [...] Read more.

In this paper, the microstructure, deformability, tensile properties, and phase hardness of the Ti–43Al–2Cr–0.7Mo–0.1Y alloy with a high β phase content were investigated. Microstructural analysis showed that the β phase precipitated not only at the colony boundaries but also inside the lamellae due to its high content. A high-quality forging stock was prepared through one-step noncanned forging. The total deformation reached above 80%, suggesting that the alloy has good hot deformability compared to other TiAl alloys. The deformed microstructure was composed of fine and equiaxed grains due to dynamic recrystallization. The high β phase content was shown to contribute to the decomposition of the initial coarse lamellae. Tensile testing showed that the alloy has good room-temperature ductility, even if the β phase content reaches above 20%. This is inconsistent with a previous study that showed that a large amount of the hard β phase is detrimental to the room-temperature ductility of TiAl alloys. Nanoindentation testing showed that the hardness of the β phase in the current alloy is about 6.3 GPa, which is much lower than that in the Nb-containing TiAl alloys. Low hardness benefits the compatible deformation among various phases, which could be the main reason for the alloy’s good room-temperature ductility. Additionally, the influence of various β stabilizers on the hardness of the β phase was also studied. The β phase containing Nb had the highest hardness, whereas the β phase containing Cr had the lowest hardness. Full article

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13 pages, 3544 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Influence of Zn and Sn on the Precipitation Behavior of New Al–Mg–Si Alloys

by Felix Glöckel, Peter J. Uggowitzer, Peter Felfer, Stefan Pogatscher and Heinz Werner Höppel

Materials 2019, 12(16), 2547; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12162547 - 10 Aug 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4189

Abstract

In this study, we demonstrate how Zn and Sn influence hardening behavior and cluster formation during pre-aging and paint bake treatment in Al–Mg–Si alloys via hardness tests, tensile tests, and atom probe tomography. Compared to the standard alloy, the Sn-modified variant shows reduced [...] Read more.

In this study, we demonstrate how Zn and Sn influence hardening behavior and cluster formation during pre-aging and paint bake treatment in Al–Mg–Si alloys via hardness tests, tensile tests, and atom probe tomography. Compared to the standard alloy, the Sn-modified variant shows reduced cluster size and yield strength in the pre-aged condition. During the paint bake cycle, the clusters start to grow very fast and the alloy exhibits the highest strength increment. This behavior is attributed to the high vacancy binding energy of Sn. Adding Zn increases the formation kinetics and the size of Mg–Si co-clusters, generating higher yield strength values for both the pre-aged and paint baked conditions. Simultaneous addition of Zn and Sn creates a synergistic effect and produces an alloy that exhibits moderate strength (and good formability) in the pre-aged condition and accelerated hardening behavior during the paint bake cycle. Full article

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19 pages, 4935 KiB

Open AccessReview

Regulating Precipitates by Simple Cold Deformations to Strengthen Mg Alloys: A Review

by Bo Song, Jia She, Ning Guo, Risheng Qiu, Hucheng Pan, Linjiang Chai, Changlin Yang, Shengfeng Guo and Renlong Xin

Materials 2019, 12(16), 2507; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12162507 - 7 Aug 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4618

Abstract

Regulating precipitates is still an important issue in the development of high-strength Mg alloys, due to it determining the precipitation hardening effect. Cold deformation, as a simple and low-cost method, can remarkably influence the precipitate features. It is found that pre-cold deformation before [...] Read more.

Regulating precipitates is still an important issue in the development of high-strength Mg alloys, due to it determining the precipitation hardening effect. Cold deformation, as a simple and low-cost method, can remarkably influence the precipitate features. It is found that pre-cold deformation before aging can be utilized to enhance the precipitation hardening effect of Mg alloys. Moreover, post-deformation after aging could be an effective method to regulate precipitation orientation. In this review, recent research on the regulation of precipitation behavior by cold deformation in Mg-Al, Mg-Zn, and Mg-RE (RE: rare-earth elements) alloy systems was critically reviewed. The changes in precipitate features and mechanical properties of peak-aged Mg alloys via cold deformation were summarized. The corresponding strengthening mechanisms were also discussed. Finally, further research directions in this field were proposed. Full article

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13 pages, 16644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution and Strengthening Effects of the Heat-Resistant Phases in Al–Si Piston Alloys with Different Fe/Ni Ratios

by Fanchao Meng, Yuying Wu, Kaiqi Hu, Yang Li, Qianqian Sun and Xiangfa Liu

Materials 2019, 12(16), 2506; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12162506 - 7 Aug 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3024

Abstract

The evolution of three major heat-resistant phases (δ-Al₃CuNi, γ-Al₇Cu₄Ni, T-Al₉FeNi) and its strengthening effects at high temperature in Al–Si piston alloys with various Fe/Ni ratios were studied using field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM), electron [...] Read more.

The evolution of three major heat-resistant phases (δ-Al₃CuNi, γ-Al₇Cu₄Ni, T-Al₉FeNi) and its strengthening effects at high temperature in Al–Si piston alloys with various Fe/Ni ratios were studied using field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). With the increase of Fe/Ni ratios, the heat-resistant phases begin to evolve in category, morphology, and distribution. The results show that a suitable Fe/Ni ratio will cause the T-Al₉FeNi phase to appear and form a closed or semi-closed network with δ-Al₃CuNi and γ-Al₇Cu₄Ni phases instead of the originally isolated heat-resistant phases. As a result, the ultimate tensile strength of the optimized alloy reached 106 MPa with a Fe/Ni ratio of 0.23, which was 23.3% higher than that of base alloy at 350 °C, which is attributed to the fact that a closed or semi-closed network microstructure is advantageous to the bearing of mechanical loads. This work may provide useful ideas for the development of high temperature resistant piston alloys. Full article

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12 pages, 3955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hot Deformation Behavior and Microstructural Evolution of a Novel β-Solidifying Ti–43Al–3Mn–2Nb–0.1Y Alloy

by Qianqian Wu, Ning Cui, Xiaohong Xiao, Xiaopeng Wang and Ertuan Zhao

Materials 2019, 12(13), 2172; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12132172 - 6 Jul 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2597

Abstract

In this paper, the hot deformability and mechanical properties of a novel Mn- and Nb- containing TiAl alloy were studied systematically with the use of isothermal compression experiments. The results show that the alloy has low deformation resistance and a low activation energy [...] Read more.

In this paper, the hot deformability and mechanical properties of a novel Mn- and Nb- containing TiAl alloy were studied systematically with the use of isothermal compression experiments. The results show that the alloy has low deformation resistance and a low activation energy (392 KJ/mol), suggesting that the alloy has good hot deformability. A processing map was established, which shows that the present alloy has a smaller instability region and wider hot working window compared with other TiAl alloys. Microstructural observation shows that the initial lamellae completely transformed into fine equiaxial γ grains when the alloy was compressed at 1200 °C/0.01 s⁻¹, which corresponds to the optimum deformation condition. Based on the above results, an intact TiAl billet was successfully fabricated by one-step large deformation using a four-column hydraulic machine. The microstructure of the billet is almost completely composed of recrystallized γ grains with large angle boundaries. Tensile testing shows the billet exhibits high tensile strength (780 MPa) and high elongation (1.44%) simultaneously, which benefits from fine γ grains with an average size of 4.9 μm. The ductile–brittle transition temperature is between 750–800 °C. Full article

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19 pages, 8328 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Thermal Treatments on Sn-Alloyed Al-Mg-Si Alloys

by Florian Schmid, Peter J. Uggowitzer, Robin Schäublin, Marion Werinos, Thomas Ebner and Stefan Pogatscher

Materials 2019, 12(11), 1801; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12111801 - 3 Jun 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3303

Abstract

Sn-alloying, by deploying comparatively high vacancy binding energy, mitigates the undesired natural aging behavior of 6xxx-alloys. Targeted selection of pre-aging parameters can have a positive influence on natural aging and paint-bake performance. In this study, we aimed to combine the two approaches of [...] Read more.

Sn-alloying, by deploying comparatively high vacancy binding energy, mitigates the undesired natural aging behavior of 6xxx-alloys. Targeted selection of pre-aging parameters can have a positive influence on natural aging and paint-bake performance. In this study, we aimed to combine the two approaches of Sn-alloying and pre-aging. Our results indicate that alloys modified with 100 at.-ppm Sn require altered heat treatment. In terms of solution aging and quenching, we show that the cooling rate needed depends on the types of alloy. The rate must be adapted, according to the number of intermetallic particles, to guarantee a sufficiently high level of Sn atoms in solid solution. The rather high number of intermetallic phases in alloy EN-AW-6061 means that it requires fast quenching, while the comparatively low number of precipitate-forming elements in alloy EN-AW-6016 makes it less sensitive to quenching variations. We also show that Sn reduces pre-aging kinetics. The optimal pre-aging temperature and time were consequently found to increase when Sn is added. We also studied the effect of adding a further thermal spike to the usual long-term pre-aging, at different positions within the processing route. The results we present are discussed based on a simulation of vacancy evolution in the alloy when subjected to these treatments. Full article

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12 pages, 9024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Heat Treatment on Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of a Novel β-Solidifying TiAl Alloy

by Ning Cui, Qianqian Wu, Kexiao Bi, Tiewei Xu and Fantao Kong

Materials 2019, 12(10), 1672; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12101672 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4097

Abstract

The effect of heat treatment on the microstructures and mechanical properties of a novel β-solidifying Ti–43Al–2Cr–2Mn–0.2Y alloy was investigated. A fully lamellar (FL) microstructure with a colony size of about 100 μm was obtained by heat treatment at 1320 °C/10 min/furnace cooling (FC). [...] Read more.

The effect of heat treatment on the microstructures and mechanical properties of a novel β-solidifying Ti–43Al–2Cr–2Mn–0.2Y alloy was investigated. A fully lamellar (FL) microstructure with a colony size of about 100 μm was obtained by heat treatment at 1320 °C/10 min/furnace cooling (FC). A duplex (DP) microstructure with globular γ grains and γ/α₂ lamellae was obtained by heat treatment at 1250 °C/4 h/FC. The residual hard–brittle β₀ phase was also eliminated after heat treatment. The mechanical properties of the β-solidifying TiAl alloy depended closely on the heat treatment. The FL alloy had better fracture toughness, and the fracture toughness (K_IC) value was 24.15 MPa·m^1/2. The DP alloy exhibited better ductility, and the room temperature (RT) elongation of the alloy could reach 1%. The elongation of the alloy with different microstructures sharply increased when the temperature increased from 700 to 750 °C, indicating that the microstructure had no effect on the ductile–brittle transition temperature of the β-solidifying TiAl alloy. The fracture morphologies of different tensile specimens were observed. Interlamellar and translamellar fractures were the main fracture features of the FL alloy. Intergranular, translamellar, and interlamellar fractures were the main fracture features of the DP alloy. Full article

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