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Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications
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Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymeric Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2023) | Viewed by 19828

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Jeremie Soulestin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Center for Materials and Processes, Institut Mines-Télécom, IMT Nord Europe, Lille, France
Interests: additive manufacturing; recycling; functional polymers; polymer blends; polymer processing

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymer Additive manufacturing technologies open a new way for the production of industrial tools or products, consumer goods, personalized medical devices, and other types of applications. It opens up the field of possibilities and offers new perspectives in many areas. These emerging technologies are disrupting the entire chain, from design to manufacturing up to applications.

Among the different additive manufacturing technologies, those based on polymers represent the largest proportion in volume. This huge interest has resulted in an intensive research effort in both industry and academia, leading to the publication of many scientific papers during the last years. This special issue offers to all the researchers in this area to publish their research work through research papers or their vision through review papers.

The topics covered by this special issue range from polymer materials for additive manufacturing to studies of the process up to applications of additive manufacturing. The topics of interest include but are not limited to:

  • Novel and specific materials for AM, influence of polymer characteristics 
  • Structure and microstructure evolution of AM parts, Influence of processing strategies on microstructure
  • Optimization of AM processes, process monitoring, and control
  • Innovative applications of AM parts e.g. for high temperature or high performance polymers
  • 3D Bioprinting, 4D printing, additive manufacturing of multimaterials, composite additive manufacturing
  • Medical applications, novel applications of AM
  • Innovative AM technologies in aerospace, energy, transport

Prof. Dr. Jeremie Soulestin
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • additive manufacturing
  • recycling
  • functional polymers
  • polymer blends
  • polymer processing

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

35 pages, 12582 KiB  
Article
Comparative Analysis of the Influence of Mineral Engine Oil on the Mechanical Parameters of FDM 3D-Printed PLA, PLA+CF, PETG, and PETG+CF Materials
by Elvis Hozdić and Emine Hozdić
Materials 2023, 16(18), 6342; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16186342 - 21 Sep 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2529
Abstract
Polymer materials and composites play a pivotal role in modern industry, prized for their durability, light weight, and resistance to corrosion. This study delves into the effects of mineral engine oil exposure on the mechanical parameters of 3D-printed materials created through fused deposition [...] Read more.
Polymer materials and composites play a pivotal role in modern industry, prized for their durability, light weight, and resistance to corrosion. This study delves into the effects of mineral engine oil exposure on the mechanical parameters of 3D-printed materials created through fused deposition modeling (FDM). The research scrutinizes prototype materials under diverse environmental conditions, with a particular focus on the tensile parameters. The primary aim is to analyze and compare how mineral engine oil affects the mechanical parameters of four commonly used FDM 3D-printed materials: PLA, PLA+CF composites, PETG, and PETG+CF composites. In the case of the PLA specimens, the tensile strength decreased by approximately 36%, which, considering the 30% infill, remained acceptable. Simultaneously, the nominal strain at the point of breaking increased by 60.92% after 7 days and 47.49% after 30 days, indicating enhanced ductility. Interestingly, the PLA’s Young’s modulus remained unaffected by the oil. The 3D-printed PLA+CF materials exposed to 30 days of mineral engine oil displayed a substantial Young’s modulus increase of over 49.93%. The PETG specimens exhibited intriguing behavior, with a tensile strength decrease of 16.66% after 7 days and 16.85% after 30 days, together with a notable increase in the nominal strain at breaking by 21.34% for 7 days and 14.51% for 30 days, signifying enhanced ductility. In PETG material specimens, the Young’s modulus increased by 55.08% after 7 days and 66.27% after 30 days. The PETG+CF samples initially exhibited increases in tensile strength (1.78%) and nominal strain at breaking (6.08%) after 7 days, but later experienced an 11.75% reduction in the tensile strength after 30 days. This research underscores the critical role of material selection in oil-exposed environments and suggests avenues for future exploration, encompassing microstructural analysis, the long-term impact of oil exposure, and broader considerations related to environmental and oil-specific factors. It contributes to a deeper understanding of the intricate interactions between polymer materials and mineral engine oil, offering valuable insights that can enhance industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications)
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12 pages, 1665 KiB  
Article
Three-Dimensional Printed Resin: Impact of Different Cleaning Protocols on Degree of Conversion and Tensile Bond Strength to a Composite Resin Using Various Adhesive Systems
by Valerie Lankes, Marcel Reymus, Felicitas Mayinger, Andrea Coldea, Anja Liebermann, Moritz Hoffmann and Bogna Stawarczyk
Materials 2023, 16(9), 3580; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093580 - 7 May 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2234
Abstract
The present investigation tested the effect of cleaning methods and adhesives on the tensile bond strength (TBS) of a resin-based composite luted to a temporary 3D printed resin. Substrates (n= 360) were printed using a Rapidshape D20II and cleaned with a [...] Read more.
The present investigation tested the effect of cleaning methods and adhesives on the tensile bond strength (TBS) of a resin-based composite luted to a temporary 3D printed resin. Substrates (n= 360) were printed using a Rapidshape D20II and cleaned with a butyldiglycol-based solution, isopropanol, or by centrifugation. Specimens were air-abraded with Al2O3 (mean particle size 50 µm) at 0.1 MPa followed by pretreatment (n = 30/subgroup) with: (1) Clearfil Ceramic Primer (CCP); (2) Clearfil Universal Bond (CUB); (3) Scotchbond Universal Plus (SUP) or 4. Visio.link (VL) and luted to PanaviaV5. TBS (n = 15/subgroup) was measured initially (24 h at 37 °C water) or after thermal cycling (10,000×, 5/55 °C). The degree of conversion (DC) for each cleaning method was determined prior and after air-abrasion. Univariate ANOVA followed by post-hoc Scheffé test was computed (p < 0.05). Using Ciba-Geigy tables and chi-square, failure types were analyzed. The DC values were >85% after all cleaning methods, with centrifugation showing the lowest. CCP pretreatment exhibited the lowest TBS values, with predominantly adhesive failures. The combination of CCP and centrifugation increased the TBS values (p < 0.001) compared to the chemical cleaning. CUB, SUP, and VL, regardless of cleaning, can increase the bond strength between the 3D printed resin and the conventional luting resin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications)
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16 pages, 1404 KiB  
Article
Compression Strength of PLA Bolts Produced via FDM
by Mateusz Kukla, Igor Sieracki, Wojciech Maliga and Jan Górecki
Materials 2022, 15(24), 8740; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248740 - 7 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2028
Abstract
The aim of this research was to define the compression strength of polylactic acid bolts produced using the fused deposition modelling method. In accomplishing this, static and cyclic compression tests for different metric thread sizes were carried out in accordance with ISO 4014. [...] Read more.
The aim of this research was to define the compression strength of polylactic acid bolts produced using the fused deposition modelling method. In accomplishing this, static and cyclic compression tests for different metric thread sizes were carried out in accordance with ISO 4014. Tests were conducted on M42, M48, M56, M60, and M64 threads, while samples with three different types of pitch—one nominal and two fine threads—were prepared for each diameter. Standard ISO 604 for defining the compression modulus Ec was implemented as the test basis. Accordingly, the mean compression modulus value Ec for all measurements was 917.79 ± 184.99 MPa. Cyclic compression tests were then carried out on samples with the M64 × 4 thread. Fifty thread loading cycles were carried out for each variant to obtained different strain amplitude values and strain frequencies. Our work indicated that the values of the storage modulus defined in cyclic tests E′ increased, while the values of the loss modulus E″ decreased when the value of the strain frequency increased. We found it not possible to determine the nature of the changes in the value of the storage modulus E′ in the function of the strain amplitude. We did, however, observe an increase in the value of the loss modulus E″, together with the increase in the tested range of the strain amplitude. The determined mechanical values can be therefore be used for designing threaded connections made of polylactic acid using the fused deposition modelling method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications)
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12 pages, 2234 KiB  
Article
Effects of Post-Curing Light Intensity on the Mechanical Properties and Three-Dimensional Printing Accuracy of Interim Dental Material
by Min-Jung Kang, Jung-Hwa Lim, Chan-Gyu Lee and Jong-Eun Kim
Materials 2022, 15(19), 6889; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196889 - 4 Oct 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2741
Abstract
This study evaluated the effects of the light intensity of curing and the post-curing duration on the mechanical properties and accuracy of the interim dental material. After designing the specimen, 3D printing was performed, and the light intensity was divided into groups G20, [...] Read more.
This study evaluated the effects of the light intensity of curing and the post-curing duration on the mechanical properties and accuracy of the interim dental material. After designing the specimen, 3D printing was performed, and the light intensity was divided into groups G20, G60, G80, and G120 (corresponding to 1.4–1.6, 2.2–3.0, 3.8–4.4, and 6.4–7.0 mW/cm2, respectively), with no post-curing or 5, 10, or 20 min of post-curing being performed. The flexural properties, Vickers microhardness, degree of conversion (DC), and 3D accuracy were then evaluated. The flexural properties and Vickers microhardness showed a sharp increase at the beginning of the post-curing and then tended to increase gradually as the light intensity and post-curing time increased (p < 0.001). On the other hand, there was no significant difference between groups in the accuracy analysis of a 3D-printed three-unit bridge. These results indicate that the light intensity of the post-curing equipment influences the final mechanical properties of 3D-printed resin and that post-curing can be made more efficient by optimizing the light intensity and post-curing time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications)
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20 pages, 24273 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Study for Material Selection in 3D Printing of Scoliosis Back Brace
by Alfredo Ronca, Valentina Abbate, Davide Felice Redaelli, Fabio Alexander Storm, Giacomo Cesaro, Cristina De Capitani, Andrea Sorrentino, Giorgio Colombo, Paolo Fraschini and Luigi Ambrosio
Materials 2022, 15(16), 5724; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165724 - 19 Aug 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3150
Abstract
In recent years, many research studies have focused on the application of 3D printing in the production of orthopaedic back braces. Several advantages, such as the ability to customise complex shapes, improved therapeutic effect and reduced production costs place this technology at the [...] Read more.
In recent years, many research studies have focused on the application of 3D printing in the production of orthopaedic back braces. Several advantages, such as the ability to customise complex shapes, improved therapeutic effect and reduced production costs place this technology at the forefront in the ongoing evolution of the orthopaedic sector. In this work, four different materials, two of them poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and two of them poly(ethylene terephthalate glycol) (PETG), were characterised from a thermal, mechanical, rheological and morphological point of view. Our aim was to understand the effects of the material properties on the quality and functionality of a 3D-printed device. The specimens were cut from 3D-printed hemi-cylinders in two different orientation angles. Our results show that PETG-based samples have the best mechanical properties in terms of elastic modulus and elongation at break. The PLA-based samples demonstrated typical brittle behaviour, with elongation at break one order of magnitude lower. Impact tests demonstrated that the PETG-based samples had better properties in terms of energy absorption. Moreover, 3D-printed PETG samples demonstrated a better surface finishing with a more homogenous fibre–fibre interface. In summary, we demonstrate that the right choice of material and printing conditions are fundamental to satisfy the quality and functionality required for a scoliosis back brace. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications)
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Graphical abstract

19 pages, 4581 KiB  
Article
Pellet-Based Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)-Derived Process for the Development of Polylactic Acid/Hydroxyapatite Scaffolds Dedicated to Bone Regeneration
by Marie Bayart, Marie Dubus, Sébastien Charlon, Halima Kerdjoudj, Nicolas Baleine, Samira Benali, Jean-Marie Raquez and Jérémie Soulestin
Materials 2022, 15(16), 5615; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165615 - 16 Aug 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2752
Abstract
Scaffolds can be defined as 3D architectures with specific features (surface properties, porosity, rigidity, biodegradability, etc.) that help cells to attach, proliferate, and to differentiate into specific lineage. For bone regeneration, rather high mechanical properties are required. That is why polylactic acid (PLA) [...] Read more.
Scaffolds can be defined as 3D architectures with specific features (surface properties, porosity, rigidity, biodegradability, etc.) that help cells to attach, proliferate, and to differentiate into specific lineage. For bone regeneration, rather high mechanical properties are required. That is why polylactic acid (PLA) and PLA/hydroxyapatite (HA) scaffolds (10 wt.%) were produced by a peculiar fused filament fabrication (FFF)-derived process. The effect of the addition of HA particles in the scaffolds was investigated in terms of morphology, biological properties, and biodegradation behavior. It was found that the scaffolds were biocompatible and that cells managed to attach and proliferate. Biodegradability was assessed over a 5-month period (according to the ISO 13781-Biodegradability norm) through gel permeation chromatography (GPC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and compression tests. The results revealed that the presence of HA in the scaffolds induced a faster and more complete polymer biodegradation, with a gradual decrease in the molar mass (Mn) and compressive mechanical properties over time. In contrast, the Mn of PLA only decreased during the processing steps to obtain scaffolds (extrusion + 3D-printing) but PLA scaffolds did not degrade during conditioning, which was highlighted by a high retention of the mechanical properties of the scaffolds after conditioning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications)
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18 pages, 6863 KiB  
Article
The Use of Nanoscale Montmorillonite (MMT) as Reinforcement for Polylactide Acid (PLA) Prepared by Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)—Comparative Study with Biocarbon and Talc Fillers
by Jacek Andrzejewski, Mateusz Markowski and Mateusz Barczewski
Materials 2022, 15(15), 5205; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155205 - 27 Jul 2022
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3032
Abstract
The subject of the presented research focuses on a comparative assessment of three types of polymer fillers used to modify highly crystalline poly(lactic acid) PLA intended for the FDM technique. The aim of the presented work was to determine the performance of the [...] Read more.
The subject of the presented research focuses on a comparative assessment of three types of polymer fillers used to modify highly crystalline poly(lactic acid) PLA intended for the FDM technique. The aim of the presented work was to determine the performance of the developed materials. The key aspect of the work was the use of polymer fillers of three different types. Nano-sized montmorillonite (MMT), biobased biocarbon (BC) and mineral talc. The several types of composites were prepared using extrusion technique. The maximum content for BC and talc filler was limited to 20 wt%, while for MMT it was 5 wt%. Prepared samples were subjected to detailed material analysis including mechanical tests (tensile, flexural, Charpy), thermal analysis (DSC, DMTA), HDT/Vicat tests and structure analysis. The results of the test confirmed that even relatively small amount of nano-type filler can be more efficient than micrometric particles. The used type of matrix was highly crystalline PLA, which resulted in a significant nucleation effect of the crystalline structure. However, thermomechanical tests revealed no improvement in thermal resistance. Microscopic survey confirmed that for MMT and talc filler the structure anisotropy was leading to more favorable properties, especially when compared to structures based on spherical BC particles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymers: Materials and Applications)
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