Journal of Intelligence

4 pages, 642 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

An Editorial Introduction to Critical Thinking in Everyday Settings

by Christopher P. Dwyer

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070084 - 9 Jul 2025

When I was first invited to guest edit a Special Issue of the Journal of Intelligence on critical thinking (CT), I was quite excited by the prospect for what I saw as two important reasons [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Thinking in Everyday Life)

32 pages, 3815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Synchrony in Bodily Interaction Enhances the Aha! Experience: Evidence for an Implicit Metacognitive Predictive Processing Mechanism

by Jiajia Su and Haosheng Ye

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070083 - 7 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Grounded in the theory of metacognitive prediction error minimization, this study is the first to propose and empirically validate the mechanism of implicit metacognitive predictive processing by which bodily interaction influences the Aha! experience. Three experimental groups were designed to manipulate the level [...] Read more.

Grounded in the theory of metacognitive prediction error minimization, this study is the first to propose and empirically validate the mechanism of implicit metacognitive predictive processing by which bodily interaction influences the Aha! experience. Three experimental groups were designed to manipulate the level of temporal synchrony in bodily interaction: Immediate Mirror Group, Delayed Mirror Group, and No-Interaction Control Group. A three-stage experimental paradigm—Prediction, Execution, and Feedback—was constructed to decompose the traditional holistic insight task into three sequential components: solution time prediction (prediction phase), riddle solving (execution phase), and self-evaluation of Aha! experience (feedback phase). Behavioral results indicated that bodily interaction significantly influenced the intensity of the Aha! experience, likely mediated by metacognitive predictive processing. Significant or marginally significant differences emerged across key measures among the three groups. Furthermore, fNIRS results revealed that low-frequency amplitude during the “solution time prediction” task was associated with the Somato-Cognitive Action Network (SCAN), suggesting its involvement in the early predictive stage. Functional connectivity analysis also identified Channel 16 within the reward network as potentially critical to the Aha! experience, warranting further investigation. Additionally, the high similarity in functional connectivity patterns between the Mirror Game and the three insight tasks implies that shared neural mechanisms of metacognitive predictive processing are engaged during both bodily interaction and insight. Brain network analyses further indicated that the Reward Network (RN), Dorsal Attention Network (DAN), and Ventral Attention Network (VAN) are key neural substrates supporting this mechanism, while the SCAN network was not consistently involved during the insight formation stage. In sum, this study makes three key contributions: (1) it proposes a novel theoretical mechanism—implicit metacognitive predictive processing; (2) it establishes a quantifiable, three-stage paradigm for insight research; and (3) it outlines a dynamic neural pathway from bodily interaction to insight experience. Most importantly, the findings offer an integrative model that bridges embodied cognition, enactive cognition, and metacognitive predictive processing, providing a unified account of the Aha! experience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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24 pages, 1600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Value of Individual Screen Response Time in Predicting Student Test Performance: Evidence from TIMSS 2019 Problem Solving and Inquiry Tasks

by Bin Tan and Okan Bulut

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070082 - 6 Jul 2025

Viewed by 99

Abstract

The time students spend on answering a test item (i.e., response time) and its relationship to performance can vary significantly from one item to another. Thus, using total or average response time across all items to predict overall test performance may lead to [...] Read more.

The time students spend on answering a test item (i.e., response time) and its relationship to performance can vary significantly from one item to another. Thus, using total or average response time across all items to predict overall test performance may lead to a loss of information, particularly with respect to within-person variability, which refers to fluctuations in a student’s standardized response times across different items. This study aims to demonstrate the predictive and explanatory value of including within-person variability in predicting and explaining students’ test scores. The data came from 13,829 fourth-grade students who completed the mathematics portion of Problem Solving and Inquiry (PSI) tasks in the 2019 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). In this assessment, students navigated through a sequence of interactive screens, each containing one or more related items, while response time was recorded at the screen level. This study used a profile analysis approach to show that students’ standardized response times—used as a practical approximation of item-level timing—varied substantially across screens, indicating within-person variability. We further decompose the predictive power of response time for overall test performance into pattern effect (the predictive power of within-person variability in response time) and level effect (the predictive power of the average response time). Results show that the pattern effect significantly outweighed the level effect, indicating that most of the predictive power of response time comes from within-person variability. Additionally, each screen response time had unique predictive power for performance, with the relationship varying in strength and direction. This finding suggests that fine-grained response time data can provide more information to infer the response processes of students in the test. Cross-validation and analyses across different achievement groups confirmed the consistency of results regarding the predictive and explanatory value of within-person variability. These findings offer implications for the design and administration of future educational assessments, highlighting the potential benefits of collecting and analyzing more fine-grained response time data as a predictor of test performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

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14 pages, 943 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Predictive Role of Contemporary Filial Piety and Academic Achievement on Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Among Chinese Undergraduates

by Longlong Zhao and Xiaohui Zhang

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070081 - 6 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This study investigates the quantitative relationship between the four dimensions of emotional intelligence and the two types of contemporary filial piety, academic achievement in a Chinese university setting. Based on a sample of 240 Chinese undergraduates, the regression analysis was employed to examine [...] Read more.

This study investigates the quantitative relationship between the four dimensions of emotional intelligence and the two types of contemporary filial piety, academic achievement in a Chinese university setting. Based on a sample of 240 Chinese undergraduates, the regression analysis was employed to examine how academic achievement and the two types of contemporary filial piety, namely Pragmatic Obligation (PO) and Compassionate Reverence (CR), relate to four dimensions of emotional intelligence—Self-Emotional Monitoring (SEM), Emotional Utilization (EU), Social Competence (SC), and Others’ Emotional Appraisal (OEA). Results revealed that CR, PO, and Grade Point Average (GPA) predicted emotional intelligence positively and significantly. Notably, PO was the strongest predictor of emotional intelligence compared to CR and GPA. These findings advance theoretical understanding in two aspects. Firstly, they challenge the traditional dichotomy of filial piety by demonstrating that both CR and PO serve as cultural resources enhancing emotional competencies. Afterwards, the study bridges collectivistic values by filial piety with emotional intelligence, offering a culturally nuanced framework for interpreting academic success in Confucian societies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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22 pages, 1895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of (Dis)similarities Between the Creator and the Assessor on Assessing Creativity: A Comparison of Humans and LLMs

by Martin op ‘t Hof, Ke Hu, Song Tong and Honghong Bai

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070080 - 3 Jul 2025

Viewed by 166

Abstract

Current research predominantly involves human subjects to evaluate AI creativity. In this explorative study, we questioned the validity of this practice and examined how creator–assessor (dis)similarity—namely to what extent the creator and the assessor were alike—along two dimensions of culture (Western and English-speaking [...] Read more.

Current research predominantly involves human subjects to evaluate AI creativity. In this explorative study, we questioned the validity of this practice and examined how creator–assessor (dis)similarity—namely to what extent the creator and the assessor were alike—along two dimensions of culture (Western and English-speaking vs. Eastern and Chinese-speaking) and agency (human vs. AI) influences the assessment of creativity. We first asked four types of subjects to create stories, including Eastern participants (university students from China), Eastern AI (Kimi from China), Western participants (university students from The Netherlands), and Western AI (ChatGPT 3.5 from the US). Both Eastern participants and AI created stories in Chinese, which were then translated into English, while both Western participants and AI created stories in English, which were then translated into Chinese. A subset of these stories (2 creative and 2 uncreative per creator type, in total 16 stories) was then randomly selected as assessment materials. Adopting a within-subject design, we then asked new subjects from the same four types (n = 120, 30 per type) to assess these stories on creativity, originality, and appropriateness. The results confirmed that similarities in both dimensions of culture and agency influence the assessment of originality and appropriateness. As for the agency dimension, human assessors preferred human-created stories for originality, while AI assessors showed no preference. Conversely, AI assessors rated AI-generated stories higher in appropriateness, whereas human assessors showed no preference. Culturally, both Eastern and Western assessors favored Eastern-created stories in originality. And as for appropriateness, the assessors always preferred stories from the creators with the same cultural backgrounds. The present study is significant in attempting to ask an often-overlooked question and provides the first empirical evidence to underscore the need for more discussion on using humans to judge AI agents’ creativity or the other way around. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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22 pages, 780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive Ability and Non-Ability Trait Predictors of Academic Achievement: A Four-Year Longitudinal Study

by Phillip L. Ackerman and Ruth Kanfer

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070079 - 30 Jun 2025

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Abstract

Prediction of individual differences in academic achievement is one of the most prominent longstanding goals of differential psychology. Historically, the main source of prediction has been measures of intelligence and related cognitive abilities. Researchers have suggested that non-ability traits, such as personality, may [...] Read more.

Prediction of individual differences in academic achievement is one of the most prominent longstanding goals of differential psychology. Historically, the main source of prediction has been measures of intelligence and related cognitive abilities. Researchers have suggested that non-ability traits, such as personality, may also provide useful information in predicting academic achievement. Meta-analyses have indicated that there are significant correlations between such variables, but most of the existing studies have been conducted with cross-sectional designs, or with a limited inclusion of intelligence/cognitive ability variables, making it difficult to determine whether the non-ability measures provide incremental predictive validity for academic achievement. In this longitudinal study, both extensive cognitive ability and non-ability trait measures (personality, interests, self-concept/self-estimates of abilities, and motivational traits) were administered at the beginning of secondary school, and criterion measures of ability and academic achievement were obtained after four years of secondary school. The results indicate that although non-ability trait measures have significant and meaningful correlations with the criterion measures, their incremental predictive validity over cognitive abilities alone is somewhat diminished. Nonetheless, there is potential utility for including assessments of non-ability traits for predicting future academic performance and elective course enrollments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interplay of Intelligence and Non-cognitive Constructs in Predicting Achievement)

46 pages, 16522 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Review of User Attitudes Toward GenAI: Influencing Factors and Industry Perspectives

by Junjie Chen, Wei Xie, Qing Xie, Anshu Hu, Yiran Qiao, Ruoyu Wan and Yuhan Liu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070078 - 27 Jun 2025

Viewed by 304

Abstract

In the era of GenAI, user attitude—shaped by cognition, emotion, and behavior—plays a critical role in the sustainable development of human–AI interaction. Human creativity and intelligence, as core drivers of social progress, are important factors influencing user attitudes. This paper systematically reviews 243 [...] Read more.

In the era of GenAI, user attitude—shaped by cognition, emotion, and behavior—plays a critical role in the sustainable development of human–AI interaction. Human creativity and intelligence, as core drivers of social progress, are important factors influencing user attitudes. This paper systematically reviews 243 peer-reviewed studies on GenAI user attitudes published since 2019, identifying major research methods and theoretical perspectives, including the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), and the AI Device Use Acceptance (AIDUA) model. Drawing on contemporary creativity theories—such as Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence, the 4C Model by Kaufman and Beghetto, and the Dynamic Creativity Framework—we analyze how creativity and intelligence are conceptualized in current studies and how they affect user responses to GenAI. Through cross-cultural analysis and multimodal comparison, this review offers a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between GenAI and human creativity, aiming to support more inclusive and sustainable human–AI collaboration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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28 pages, 2996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individual Differences in Strategy and the Item-Position Effect in Reasoning Ability Measures

by Helene M. von Gugelberg and Stefan J. Troche

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070077 - 26 Jun 2025

Viewed by 427

Abstract

Despite the high similarity of reasoning ability items, research indicates that individuals apply different strategies when solving them. The two distinct strategies are response elimination and constructive matching. The latter, frequently showing a positive correlation with reasoning ability, entails the individual systematically investigating [...] Read more.

Despite the high similarity of reasoning ability items, research indicates that individuals apply different strategies when solving them. The two distinct strategies are response elimination and constructive matching. The latter, frequently showing a positive correlation with reasoning ability, entails the individual systematically investigating the presented problem matrix of an item before scanning the response alternatives. To further understand the sources of individual differences in strategy use during test taking, three different eye-tracking metrics were investigated in participants (N = 210) solving the Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM). Relying on the fixed-links modeling approach, bifactor models were fit to the data. The latent model approach revealed, in line with other research, a positive correlation between reasoning ability and constructive matching. The results further indicated that a change in strategy use was correlated with the item-position effect and not reasoning ability. The former exhibited a different direction of effect, depending on the eye-tracking metric analyzed. When investigating the toggle rate, the participants used more constructive matching towards the end of the APM. The proportional time to first fixation on response alternatives indicated less constructive matching as the test progressed, and the proportional time on the problem matrix exhibited no distinct pattern regarding a change in strategy use. These diverging results point towards the possibility of a more nuanced problem-solving behavior than previously assumed. By including the item-position effect in the analyses, the increasing individuals differences in problem-solving behavior can be taken into account, which could be a necessary step in attaining a more comprehensive understanding of problem-solving behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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20 pages, 1147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Adaptation of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—5th Edition (WISC-V) for Indonesia: A Pilot Study

by Whisnu Yudiana, Marc P. H. Hendriks, Christiany Suwartono, Shally Novita, Fitri Ariyanti Abidin and Roy P. C. Kessels

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070076 - 24 Jun 2025

Viewed by 660

Abstract

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is a widely used instrument for assessing cognitive abilities in children. While the latest fifth edition (WISC-V) has been adapted in various countries, Indonesia still relies on the outdated first edition, a practice that raises substantial [...] Read more.

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is a widely used instrument for assessing cognitive abilities in children. While the latest fifth edition (WISC-V) has been adapted in various countries, Indonesia still relies on the outdated first edition, a practice that raises substantial concerns about the validity of diagnoses, outdated norms, and cultural bias. This study aimed to (1) adapt the WISC-V to the Indonesian linguistic and cultural context (WISC-V-ID), (2) evaluate its psychometric properties in a pilot study with an Indonesian sample, (3) reorder the item sequence of the subtests according to the empirical item difficulty observed in Indonesian children’s responses, and (4) evaluate the factor structure of the WISC-V-ID using confirmatory factor analysis. The adaptation study involved a systematic translation procedure, followed by psychometric evaluation with respect to gender, age groups, and ethnicity, using a sample of 221 Indonesian children aged 6 to 16 years. The WISC-V-ID demonstrated good internal consistency. Analysis of item difficulty revealed discrepancies in item ordering compared to the original WISC-V, suggesting a need for item reordering in future studies. In addition, the second-order five-factor model, based on confirmatory factor analysis, indicated that the data did not adequately fit the model, stressing the need for further investigation. Overall, the WISC-V-ID appears to be a reliable measure of intelligence for Indonesian children, though a comprehensive norming study is necessary for full validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

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15 pages, 1949 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Box Interaction Game: Action-Based Divergent Thinking Tests for Chinese Preschoolers

by Ying Du, Yiduo Xiao, Haoran Yang, Yunqi Ning, Fei Zhi, Jing Chen, Yinghui Guo and Qunlin Chen

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070075 - 24 Jun 2025

Viewed by 464

Abstract

The current methodologies for assessing divergent thinking in children are predominantly based on verbal response, which limits their applicability for evaluating the creative potential of preschoolers and toddlers. This study introduces the Box Interaction Game (BIG), which is an adaptation of the Unusual [...] Read more.

The current methodologies for assessing divergent thinking in children are predominantly based on verbal response, which limits their applicability for evaluating the creative potential of preschoolers and toddlers. This study introduces the Box Interaction Game (BIG), which is an adaptation of the Unusual Box Test (UBT) to make it more suitable for Chinese children. By simplifying, reorganizing, and expanding the actions in the UBT, the BIG employs action-based assessments that are relevant to the Chinese context and evaluate validity and test-retest reliability in preschoolers. The results revealed statistically significant but modest correlations between the verbal Unusual Uses Task (UUT) and the BIG test. Specifically, total scores (τ = 0.24, p = 0.02), fluency scores (τ = 0.23, p = 0.029), and originality scores (τ = 0.21, p = 0.04) showed low-to-moderate associations, indicating preliminary support for convergent validity, although further refinement is needed to strengthen these relationships. Additionally, the BIG demonstrates strong internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.83 for both fluency and originality) and moderate test-retest reliability (ICC for fluency = 0.67, for originality = 0.74). These findings suggest that BIG is a promising and developmentally appropriate tool for assessing divergent thinking in Chinese preschoolers, offering a foundation for future work on early creative thinking in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Creativity and Stimulating Creativity)

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35 pages, 6199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of the Reading Circle Method on Curiosity and Exploration, Creative Reading and Visual Literacy

by Yasemin Baki

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070074 - 23 Jun 2025

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Abstract

This study examined the effects of the reading circle method on the curiosity and discovery perceptions, creative reading skills and visual literacy competencies of Turkish teacher candidates. The study group of the study conducted for this purpose consists of 48 teacher candidates studying [...] Read more.

This study examined the effects of the reading circle method on the curiosity and discovery perceptions, creative reading skills and visual literacy competencies of Turkish teacher candidates. The study group of the study conducted for this purpose consists of 48 teacher candidates studying in the Turkish language teaching department of a university in the north of Türkiye. A sequential mixed design was used in this study, which was conducted with mixed methods. In the quantitative dimension of this study, a pre-test and post-test, control-group-free experimental design was used, while in the qualitative dimension, a case study design was used. The Life Skills Scale, Individual Innovation Scale and semi-structured interview form were used to collect the data in this study. To examine the effect of the experimental process in this study, the data obtained were analyzed with a t-test for dependent groups; the data obtained from the interviews were analyzed with content analysis. According to the results obtained from this study, the reading circle method significantly affected the curiosity and discovery perceptions of teacher candidates. It was determined that creative reading skills have a significant effect on the sum of the scales and all other subdimensions except for the dimension of interpreting the text and the dimension of giving importance to visuality and interpreting visuals using Office software in visual literacy competencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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19 pages, 910 KiB

Open AccessEssay

Why Critical Thinking Can and Often Does Fail Us in Solving Serious Real-World Problems: A Three-Track Model of Critical Thinking

by Robert J. Sternberg and Aurora Jo Hayes

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070073 - 23 Jun 2025

Viewed by 343

Abstract

This article deals with how love and hatred of ideas can influence, and often distort or suppress, critical thinking. Love and hate can serve adaptive intellectual functions, but in practice, they often manifest in maladaptive ways. The article reviews the role of critical [...] Read more.

This article deals with how love and hatred of ideas can influence, and often distort or suppress, critical thinking. Love and hate can serve adaptive intellectual functions, but in practice, they often manifest in maladaptive ways. The article reviews the role of critical thinking in adaptation, then discusses how love and hate can influence critical thinking. The article suggests that teaching critical thinking needs to take into account that real-world critical thinking often bears little resemblance to that shown in tests or in school. We need to teach critical thinking as it exists in the world, not in rarefied settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Thinking in Everyday Life)

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33 pages, 946 KiB

Open AccessReview

Intelligence and Moral Development: A Critical Historical Review and Future Directions

by Frank Fair and Daniel Fasko

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070072 - 22 Jun 2025

Viewed by 542

Abstract

This paper is a critical, historical review of the literature on intelligence and moral development. In this review we come to a number of conclusions. For example, we identify methodological issues in past research on intelligence in relation to moral development, from Wiggam’s [...] Read more.

This paper is a critical, historical review of the literature on intelligence and moral development. In this review we come to a number of conclusions. For example, we identify methodological issues in past research on intelligence in relation to moral development, from Wiggam’s paper in 1941 through the first quarter of the 21st century, and we commend research done with methodological improvements we specify. Also, we conclude that Heyes’ evolutionary psychology that humans have a specifiable “starter kit” of processes that produce “cognitive gadgets,” including those used in normative thinking, should be given further attention. But, importantly, we note that these “gadgets” may be “malware” or be missing. Another conclusion is that Gert’s account of harms and benefits, of the moral rules, of how the rules are justified, and of how violations are justified, can be a fruitful component of the study of moral development. Furthermore, we argue that the work on wisdom by Sternberg, Kristjansson, and others is important to grasp for its relevance to putting morality into action. Lastly, we discuss areas for future research, especially in neuroscience, and we recommend paying attention to practices for the building of practical wisdom and morality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Changes in Intelligence Across the Lifespan)

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J. Intell., Volume 13, Issue 7 (July 2025) – 13 articles

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