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J. Intell., Volume 13, Issue 8 (August 2025) – 15 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This article urges cyber-creativity to be considered a new disciplinary field, drawing from philosophy, psychology, computer science, sociology, engineering and cybernetics. Human creativity faces critical extremes: a utopian future, in which AI enhances human imagination and greatly expands creative frontiers, versus dystopian risk, in which human creative agency is sadly eclipsed by machine dominance. Aiming at contributing to positive progress, a decalogue of research challenges is proposed over ten dimensions—theory, sociocultural perspectives, processes, agents, teams, products, domains, education, ethics, and the dark side—each mapping current knowledge and formulating pressing questions. The work calls for a collective scientific effort to safeguard creativity while harnessing AI’s power for human flourishing. View this paper
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22 pages, 2823 KB  
Article
Toward a Consensus Model of Cognitive–Reading Achievement Relations Using Meta-Structural Equation Modeling
by Daniel B. Hajovsky, Christopher R. Niileksela, Dawn P. Flanagan, Vincent C. Alfonso, William Joel Schneider and Jacob Robbins
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080104 - 16 Aug 2025
Viewed by 672
Abstract
Cognitive tests measure psychological constructs that predict the development of academic skills. Research on cognitive–reading achievement relations has primarily been completed with single-test batteries and samples, resulting in inconsistencies across studies. The current study developed a consensus model of cognitive–reading achievement relations using [...] Read more.
Cognitive tests measure psychological constructs that predict the development of academic skills. Research on cognitive–reading achievement relations has primarily been completed with single-test batteries and samples, resulting in inconsistencies across studies. The current study developed a consensus model of cognitive–reading achievement relations using meta-structural equation modeling (meta-SEM) through a cross-sectional analysis of subtest correlations from English-language norm-referenced tests. The full dataset used for this study included 49,959 correlations across 599 distinct correlation matrices. These included correlations among 1112 subtests extracted from 137 different cognitive and achievement test batteries. The meta-SEM approach allowed for increased sampling of cognitive and academic reading skills measured by various test batteries to better inform the validity of construct relations. The findings were generally consistent with previous research, suggesting that cognitive abilities are important predictors of reading skills and generalize across different test batteries and samples. The findings are also consistent with integrated cognitive–reading models and have implications for assessment and intervention frameworks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence Testing and Assessment)
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40 pages, 1632 KB  
Article
Cyber-Creativity: A Decalogue of Research Challenges
by Giovanni Emanuele Corazza, Sergio Agnoli, Ana Jorge Artigau, Ronald A. Beghetto, Nathalie Bonnardel, Irene Coletto, Angela Faiella, Katusha Gerardini, Kenneth Gilhooly, Vlad P. Glăveanu, Michael Hanchett Hanson, Hansika Kapoor, James C. Kaufman, Yoed N. Kenett, Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin, Simone Luchini, Margaret Mangion, Mario Mirabile, Felix-Kingsley Obialo, Connie Phelps, Roni Reiter-Palmon, Jeb S. Puryear, Eleonora Diletta Sarcinella, Min Tang, Giulia Maria Vavassori, Florent Vinchon, Indre Viskontas, Selina Weiss, Dimitrios Zbainos and Todd Lubartadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080103 - 13 Aug 2025
Viewed by 2112
Abstract
Creativity is the primary driver of our cultural evolution. The astonishing potential of artificial intelligence (AI) and its possible application in the creative process poses an urgent and dramatic challenge for humanity; how can we maximize the benefits of AI while minimizing the [...] Read more.
Creativity is the primary driver of our cultural evolution. The astonishing potential of artificial intelligence (AI) and its possible application in the creative process poses an urgent and dramatic challenge for humanity; how can we maximize the benefits of AI while minimizing the associated risks? In this article, we identify all forms of human–AI collaboration in this realm as cyber-creativity. We introduce the following two forward-looking scenarios: a utopian vision for cyber-creativity, in which AI serves to enhance and not replace human creativity, and a dystopian view associated with the pre-emption of all human creative agency caused by the rise of AI. In our view, the scientific community is called to bring its contribution, however small, to help humanity make steps towards the utopian scenario, while avoiding the dystopian one. Here, we present a decalogue of research challenges identified for this purpose, touching upon the following dimensions: (1) the theoretical framework for cyber-creativity; (2) sociocultural perspectives; (3) the cyber-creative process; (4) the creative agent; (5) the co-creative team; (6) cyber-creative products; (7) cyber-creative domains; (8) cyber-creative education; (9) ethical aspects; and (10) the dark side of cyber-creativity. For each dimension, a brief review of the state-of-the-art is provided, followed by the identification of a main research challenge, then specified into a list of research questions. Whereas there is no claim that this decalogue of research challenges represents an exhaustive classification, which would be an impossible objective, it still should serve as a valid starting point for future (but urgent) research endeavors, with the ambition to provide a significant contribution to the understanding, development, and alignment of AI to human values the realm of creativity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)
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42 pages, 1259 KB  
Review
Automatic- and Transformer-Based Automatic Item Generation: A Critical Review
by Markus Sommer and Martin Arendasy
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080102 - 12 Aug 2025
Viewed by 561
Abstract
This article provides a critical review of conceptually different approaches to automatic and transformer-based automatic item generation. Based on a discussion of the current challenges that have arisen due to changes in the use of psychometric tests in recent decades, we outline the [...] Read more.
This article provides a critical review of conceptually different approaches to automatic and transformer-based automatic item generation. Based on a discussion of the current challenges that have arisen due to changes in the use of psychometric tests in recent decades, we outline the requirements that these approaches should ideally fulfill. Subsequently, each approach is examined individually to determine the extent to which it can contribute to meeting the challenges. In doing so, we will focus on the cost savings during the actual item construction phase, the extent to which they may contribute to enhancing test validity, and potential cost savings in the item calibration phase due to either a reduction in the sample size required for item calibration or a reduction in the item loss due to insufficient psychometric characteristics. In addition, the article also aims to outline common recurring themes across these conceptually different approaches and outline areas within each approach that warrant further scientific research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence Testing and Assessment)
17 pages, 1209 KB  
Article
The Role of Emotional Intelligence and Frustration Intolerance in the Academic Performance of University Students: A Structural Equation Model
by Ana María Ruiz-Ortega and María Pilar Berrios-Martos
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080101 - 10 Aug 2025
Viewed by 777
Abstract
This study examines how emotional intelligence and frustration intolerance influence academic performance in university students, drawing on the Job Demands–Resources model—which frames academic success as a balance between psychological demands (such as frustration intolerance) and personal resources (like emotional intelligence)—and Self-Determination Theory, which [...] Read more.
This study examines how emotional intelligence and frustration intolerance influence academic performance in university students, drawing on the Job Demands–Resources model—which frames academic success as a balance between psychological demands (such as frustration intolerance) and personal resources (like emotional intelligence)—and Self-Determination Theory, which explains how motivation and self-regulation contribute to adaptation and persistence in challenging contexts. A sample of 630 undergraduates across various disciplines completed validated measures of emotional intelligence, frustration intolerance, academic burnout, academic engagement, and grade point average. Structural equation modeling analyzed relationships among these variables. The results showed that emotional intelligence positively predicted academic performance both directly and indirectly by increasing engagement and reducing burnout. Conversely, frustration intolerance negatively affected academic performance through increased burnout and decreased engagement. The model explained 24 percent of the variance in academic performance. These findings indicate that academic achievement depends on managing the balance between psychological demands and personal resources. Frustration intolerance acts as a psychological demand increasing vulnerability to exhaustion and disengagement, while emotional intelligence serves as a personal resource supporting self-regulation, motivation, and persistence. This highlights the importance of fostering emotional skills and frustration tolerance in higher education to help students cope better with academic challenges and improve performance. Full article
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18 pages, 2734 KB  
Article
WAIS-IV Cognitive Profiles in Italian University Students with Dyslexia
by Marika Iaia, Francesca Vizzi, Maria Diletta Carlino, Chiara Valeria Marinelli, Paola Angelelli and Marco Turi
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080100 - 7 Aug 2025
Viewed by 530
Abstract
This study investigated the cognitive profiles of Italian university students with dyslexia using the WAIS-IV, comparing them to peers without specific learning disorders. Seventy-one participants took part: 36 with a diagnosis of dyslexia and 35 matched controls. While dyslexic adults showed lower Full [...] Read more.
This study investigated the cognitive profiles of Italian university students with dyslexia using the WAIS-IV, comparing them to peers without specific learning disorders. Seventy-one participants took part: 36 with a diagnosis of dyslexia and 35 matched controls. While dyslexic adults showed lower Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) scores compared to controls, their scores remained within the average range. They showed deficits in Working Memory Index (WMI) and Processing Speed Index (PSI) but performed similarly to controls in Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) and Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI). Significant group differences also emerged in Arithmetic Reasoning, Symbol Search, and Coding subtests. Logistic regression identified WMI and PSI as the most reliable predictors of dyslexia, showing a good predictive value in discriminating between adults with and without dyslexia. Additionally, dyslexic adults displayed lower Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) scores relative to their General Ability Index (GAI), and lower FSIQ scores compared to controls. Overall, dyslexic adults exhibit a distinctive cognitive profile with strengths and weaknesses. This pattern can aid in dyslexia diagnosis, particularly in individuals who have compensated through extensive reading experience in a highly regular orthography. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)
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28 pages, 1319 KB  
Article
Beyond the Prompt: Investigating Retrieval-Based Monitoring in Self-Regulated Learning
by Mengjiao Wu and Christopher A. Was
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080099 - 6 Aug 2025
Viewed by 300
Abstract
Metacognitive monitoring plays a crucial role in self-regulated learning, as accurate monitoring enables effective control, which in turn impacts learning outcomes. Most studies on metacognitive monitoring have focused on learners’ monitoring abilities when they are explicitly prompted to monitor. However, in real-world educational [...] Read more.
Metacognitive monitoring plays a crucial role in self-regulated learning, as accurate monitoring enables effective control, which in turn impacts learning outcomes. Most studies on metacognitive monitoring have focused on learners’ monitoring abilities when they are explicitly prompted to monitor. However, in real-world educational settings, learners are more often prompted to control their learning, such as deciding whether to allocate additional time to a learning target. The primary goal of this study was to investigate whether retrieval is engaged when learners are explicitly prompted to control their learning processes by making study decisions. To address this, three experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1, participants (N = 39) studied 70 Swahili–English word pairs in a learning task. Each trial displayed a word pair for 8 s, followed by a distractor task (a two-digit mental addition) and a study decision intervention (choose “Study Again” or “Next”). After learning, participants provided a global judgment of learning (JOL), estimating their overall recall accuracy. Finally, they completed a cued recall test (Swahili cue). Responses were scored for accuracy and analyzed alongside study decisions, study decision reaction time (RT), and metacognitive judgments. Reaction times (RTs) for study decisions correlated positively with test accuracy, global judgments of learning (JOLs), and judgments of confidence (JOCs), suggesting retrieval likely underlies these decisions. Experiment 2 (N = 74, between-subjects) compared memory performance and intervention response time between single-study, restudy, retrieval (explicit recall prompt), and study decision (study decision prompt) groups to have better control over study time and cognitive processes. Although no significant group differences in test accuracy emerged, the retrieval group took longer to respond than the study decision group. Within-subject analyses revealed similar recall accuracy patterns: participants recalled successfully retrieved or “no restudy” items better than failed-retrieval or “restudy” items, implying shared cognitive processes underlying retrieval and study decision interventions. Experiment 3 (N = 74, within-subject, three learning conditions: single-study, retrieval, and study decision) replicated these findings, with no condition effects on test accuracy but longer RT for retrieval than study decisions. The similar recall accuracy patterns between retrieval and study decision interventions further supported shared cognitive processes underlying both tasks. Self-reports across experiments confirmed retrieval engagement in both retrieval and study decision interventions. Collectively, the results suggest that retrieval likely supports study decisions but may occur less frequently or less deeply than under explicit monitoring prompts. Additionally, this study explored objective, online measures to detect retrieval-based metacognitive monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)
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18 pages, 3776 KB  
Systematic Review
Information Technology-Based Intervention on the Socio-Emotional Competence of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Yunshan Liu, Sirao Li, Yaping Huang and Dan Li
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080098 - 4 Aug 2025
Viewed by 679
Abstract
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have deficits in social–emotional competence. Most people with ASD have difficulties in emotion recognition, emotion understanding, emotion expression, and emotion regulation, which seriously affects their normal social communication and interaction. The information technology (IT) era has given [...] Read more.
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have deficits in social–emotional competence. Most people with ASD have difficulties in emotion recognition, emotion understanding, emotion expression, and emotion regulation, which seriously affects their normal social communication and interaction. The information technology (IT) era has given more possibilities for intervention training for people with ASD, and research has proven that technological interventions have a significant effect on the socio-emotional competence of people with ASD. This study employed a meta-analytic approach using 32 independent effect sizes from 25 studies to investigate the effects of IT interventions on socio-emotional competence in individuals with ASD, using emotion recognition, understanding, expression, and regulation as dependent variables and examining key moderating factors. The results found that information technology has an excellent effect on social–emotional competence in ASD (Hedges’ g = 0.897, CI = 0.676, 1.117, z = 7.967, p < 0.001) and is significantly moderated by the intervention technique (Q = 7.392, p = 0.025) and the intervener (Q = 4.933, p = 0.026). The findings provide insights into further deepening information technology intervention research as well as practical applications. Full article
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2 pages, 640 KB  
Editorial
Introduction to Special Issue “Neurocognitive Processes: Measurement, Connections to Academic Achievement and Clinical Applications”
by George K. Georgiou
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080097 - 4 Aug 2025
Viewed by 262
Abstract
Several studies have shown that intelligence is a significant correlate of academic achievement [...] Full article
15 pages, 1308 KB  
Article
The Role of Emotional Understanding in Academic Achievement: Exploring Developmental Paths in Secondary School
by Luísa Faria, Ana Costa and Vladimir Taksic
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080096 - 30 Jul 2025
Viewed by 604
Abstract
The role of emotional intelligence (EI) in the academic context has been steadily established, together with its impact on students’ academic achievement, well-being, and professional success. Therefore, this study examined the development of a key EI ability—emotional understanding—throughout secondary school and explored its [...] Read more.
The role of emotional intelligence (EI) in the academic context has been steadily established, together with its impact on students’ academic achievement, well-being, and professional success. Therefore, this study examined the development of a key EI ability—emotional understanding—throughout secondary school and explored its impact on students’ academic achievement (maternal language and mathematics) at the end of this cycle, using the Vocabulary of Emotions Test. A total of 222 students were followed over the entire 3-year secondary cycle, using a three-wave longitudinal design spanning from 10th to 12th grade. At the first wave, participants were aged between 14 and 18 years (M = 15.4; SD = 0.63), with 58.6% being female. Overall, the results of Latent Growth Curve modeling indicated that students’ emotional understanding increased over the secondary school cycle. While student’s gender predicted the emotional understanding change patterns throughout secondary school, student’s GPA in 10th grade did not. Moreover, the initial levels of ability-based emotional understanding predicted students’ achievement in maternal language at the end of the cycle. Our findings offer valuable insights into how EI skills can contribute to academic endeavors in late adolescence and will explore their impact on educational settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)
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13 pages, 800 KB  
Article
A Multilevel Analysis of Associations Between Children’s Coloured Progressive Matrices Performances and Self-Rated Personality: Class-Average and Class-Homogeneity Differences in Nonverbal Intelligence Matter
by Lisa Di Blas and Giacomo De Osti
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080095 - 30 Jul 2025
Viewed by 363
Abstract
The relationship between self-rated personality and nonverbal intelligence has been studied in young students, but these studies have generally not considered nested data, despite their allowing us to analyse between-classroom variability. The present cross-sectional study involved third- to sixth-grade students (n = 447) [...] Read more.
The relationship between self-rated personality and nonverbal intelligence has been studied in young students, but these studies have generally not considered nested data, despite their allowing us to analyse between-classroom variability. The present cross-sectional study involved third- to sixth-grade students (n = 447) who were nested into their classrooms (n = 32). The participants completed the Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) as a measure of nonverbal intelligence and a personality questionnaire based on the Five Factor Model. At the class level, the study data included class size, class-average CPM scores, and class-homogeneity in CPM performances. Multilevel modelling with class-mean centring of personality predictors was applied to examine class-average differences in CPM scores and interaction effects between personality and class-homogeneity on CPM scores. The results showed significant differences in average CPM performances across classrooms, significant fixed and random slope effects linking nonverbal intelligence and Imagination, and a cross-level effect revealing that Imagination is a stronger predictor of CPM scores when class-homogeneity in intelligence is lower. Beyond confirming the intelligence–Imagination association generally observed in the literature, the present findings emphasise the importance of using nested structures when collecting personality and intelligence data in classrooms. More attention needs to be paid to how the classroom environment affects children’s self-reported personality and intelligence test performances. Full article
14 pages, 796 KB  
Article
The Role of Need for Cognition and Its Interaction with Fluid Intelligence in the Prediction of School Grades in Primary School Children
by Anke Hufer-Thamm, Sebastian Bergold and Ricarda Steinmayr
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080094 - 28 Jul 2025
Viewed by 425
Abstract
Fluid intelligence and need for cognition are relevant predictors of school grades and might also interact in the prediction of grades. We examined the independent predictive values of fluid intelligence and need for cognition as well as their interaction for math and German [...] Read more.
Fluid intelligence and need for cognition are relevant predictors of school grades and might also interact in the prediction of grades. We examined the independent predictive values of fluid intelligence and need for cognition as well as their interaction for math and German grades and changes therein in a sample of 565 German primary school children (298 girls, 261 boys, 6 with no gender specified; Mage = 8.40, SD = 0.59). Parental education was considered a control variable. Cross-sectional analyses showed that both intelligence and need for cognition were uniquely related to grades. However, in the latent change score analyses, fluid intelligence, but not need for cognition, was related to change in math grades, but not in German grades, and only when parental education was not considered as a control variable. We found no interaction effects between fluid intelligence and need for cognition. The findings imply that the need for cognition might not play a comparably relevant role for school grades in primary school as it has been shown in previous studies focusing on secondary or tertiary education. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)
28 pages, 2334 KB  
Perspective
Critical Thinking and Epistemic Sophistication in Science Education
by Oscar Eugenio Tamayo Alzate
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080093 - 25 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1619
Abstract
One of the central purposes of education at different educational levels is to contribute to the formation of critical thinking in students. There are many theoretical perspectives from which critical thinking is conceptualized, such as those centers on the development of students’ capacities [...] Read more.
One of the central purposes of education at different educational levels is to contribute to the formation of critical thinking in students. There are many theoretical perspectives from which critical thinking is conceptualized, such as those centers on the development of students’ capacities and those based on competences, skills, dispositions and criteria, among others. We consider that in the school context the critical thinking perspective that should come first is the domain-specific one; consequently, we present a conceptual model for the formation of critical thinking in the context of science teaching and learning in the classroom constituted by the integration of four dimensions: languages and argumentation, metacognition, emotions, and problem solving and decision making. Our focus of reflection is epistemic cognition with the processes of epistemic sophistication, metacognitive sophistication, and metaemotional sophistication, determinants of critical thinking in relation to each of the dimensions and the relationships between them. We conclude with the proposal of a conceptual model for the development of critical thinking based on students’ epistemic cognition. Full article
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18 pages, 1676 KB  
Article
The Impact of Cognitive Ability and Self-Control on Middle School Students’ Comprehensive Academic Performance—The Moderating Role of Learning Plan
by Yueqi Shi and Junyao Yang
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080092 - 24 Jul 2025
Viewed by 789
Abstract
In the educational context, understanding factors affecting secondary school students’ academic performance is crucial. This study aimed to explore impacts of cognitive ability, self-control, and study plans and their interactions. Using data from 1477 students aged 15–18, the moderated mediation model was applied. [...] Read more.
In the educational context, understanding factors affecting secondary school students’ academic performance is crucial. This study aimed to explore impacts of cognitive ability, self-control, and study plans and their interactions. Using data from 1477 students aged 15–18, the moderated mediation model was applied. Results verified a positive link between cognitive ability and performance, found self-control as a mediator, and revealed study plans’ moderating effect. In conclusion, these elements play key roles, providing a theoretical basis for educators to optimize strategies and promote students’ overall development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)
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2 pages, 636 KB  
Correction
Correction: Winter et al. (2023). Does the Degree of Prematurity Relate to the Bayley-4 Scores Earned by Matched Samples of Infants and Toddlers across the Cognitive, Language, and Motor Domains? Journal of Intelligence 11: 213
by Emily L. Winter, Jacqueline M. Caemmerer, Sierra M. Trudel, Johanna deLeyer-Tiarks, Melissa A. Bray, Brittany A. Dale and Alan S. Kaufman
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080091 - 23 Jul 2025
Viewed by 173
Abstract
There was an error in the original publication (Winter et al [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)
23 pages, 1569 KB  
Article
Pathways of Worry During the Transition to Adolescence: An Exploration of Students’ Emotion Regulation, Metacognitive Beliefs and Coping
by Yiran Ge and Andrew Kenneth Tolmie
J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080090 - 22 Jul 2025
Viewed by 690
Abstract
This study examined how two metacognitive constructs, cognitive self-consciousness and beliefs about emotion regulation, mediate the link among early adolescents between emotion regulation and engagement in coping with worry, and whether these relationships change with age during this period. A total of 338 [...] Read more.
This study examined how two metacognitive constructs, cognitive self-consciousness and beliefs about emotion regulation, mediate the link among early adolescents between emotion regulation and engagement in coping with worry, and whether these relationships change with age during this period. A total of 338 Chinese pupils completed a series of measures assessing the metacognitive constructs plus emotional awareness and regulation; scenario-based questions examined coping strategies. Participants were divided into two age groups, 11 to 12 (Mage = 11.9 years) and 13 to 15 (Mage = 13.2 years). Path models showed that younger participants adopted emotion-focused coping whereas older participants adopted more problem-focused coping, and these response patterns were mediated as hypothesized by cognitive self-consciousness and controllability beliefs towards worry. These findings highlight the need for more adaptive coping to be specifically targeted during early adolescence by raising awareness of controllability beliefs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)
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