International Journal of Cognitive Sciences

This mixed-methods study investigates Italian primary school teachers’ perception-based attributions of giftedness, with specific attention to how gendered classroom recognition patterns may shape the visibility of girls in everyday educational practice. International research suggests that teachers’ professional judgement can be shaped by cognitive biases and gendered classroom norms, while many girls perceived as gifted may appear less visible within classroom recognition processes because their behaviours are often interpreted as more closely aligned with school expectations. Against this backdrop, the study examines whether similar dynamics emerge in the Italian context, where early recognition often relies on teachers’ classroom observation and educational decision-making. Quantitative data were collected through an online questionnaire administered to Italian primary school teachers in 2024. The survey explored teachers’ reported experience with pupils perceived as gifted (not formally assessed), their estimates of how many such pupils are present in their class, and the gender distribution they attributed to these pupils. Qualitative data were collected in 2025 through three focus groups, designed to deepen understanding of the observational criteria teachers use and the instructional decisions associated with recognising giftedness. Focus group transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis. Across the Italian sample, teachers widely reported having taught pupils they considered gifted; however, within teachers’ perception-based attributions, recognition was more frequently associated with boys than with girls. Focus group discussions corroborated this pattern and helped clarify its educational mechanisms: teachers frequently linked giftedness to behavioural salience and participation styles (e.g., visibility, assertiveness, and, at times, disruptiveness), whereas, within teachers’ accounts, girls perceived as gifted were often represented as more compliant and discreet, which may make them less visible through informal recognition criteria centred on behavioural salience. Overall, the findings point to a visibility gap in early classroom recognition and underscore the need for teacher education and practical, gender-responsive observational tools that broaden conceptions of giftedness beyond overt performance and support more equitable differentiated instruction, reducing the risk of missed recognition of gifted girls in primary school. Full article

Cognitive decline is a global public health challenge, yet the built environments where humans spend 90% of their time are only now being recognized as a means of preventive intervention. This paper presents a mechanistic framework describing how environmental and design features may influence hippocampal neuroplasticity, offering architects an evidence-based foundation for supporting brain health. We describe how eight environmental pathways, five activating features (design that promotes movement, enrichment, orientation features, daylight, views of nature) and three inhibiting features (air quality, noise, visual pattern stress) are hypothesized to converge on cAMP Response Element-Binding protein (CREB), a representative transcriptional integrator regulating Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) expression levels in the hippocampus. BDNF is a protein implicated in brain health outcomes including synaptic plasticity, neuronal survival, neurogenesis and cognitive function. Synthesizing evidence from neuroscience, exercise physiology, environmental psychology, toxicology, and visual neuroscience, we grade evidence strength for each pathway and identify the specific design variables involved. Evidence strength varies markedly across pathways: movement and enrichment rest on direct experimental and meta-analytic data, including human studies; air quality and noise rest on direct mechanistic evidence largely from animal and exposure studies; orientation features, daylight, and views of nature rest on indirect mechanistic inference; and visual pattern stress remains hypothesis-generating at the architectural scale. Enrichment and active design pathways show the strongest evidence for CREB activation, while noise, air quality, and non-natural visual patterns are associated with CREB inhibition. From this framework, we derive a consolidated set of design features organized by pathway, evidence strength, and temporal impact on brain health outcomes. These range from immediate synaptic plasticity to long-term neuroprotection. This mechanistic model offers a roadmap for a longer-term research program and outlines the formal structure required for future computational implementations. The framework can serve as a bridge connecting neuroscience to the emerging global movement on brain health that positions the built environment as an underutilized lever for supporting cognitive health across the lifespan. Full article

Research on relative clause (RC) attachment ambiguity has shown that parsing preferences vary cross-linguistically, and that bilingual exposure can influence both the L2 and the L1. However, few studies have examined parsing preferences in both languages of the same bilingual populations, and the English–Italian pairing remains underexplored. This study addressed these gaps by investigating RC attachment resolution in 112 participants across four groups: British university students learning Italian in UK classrooms (n = 27; age of L2 acquisition: M = 17.6, SD = 1.3), British long-term residents in Italy (n = 27; age of L2 acquisition: M = 24.0, SD = 7.7; length of residence: M = 20.4, SD = 14.1), and English (n = 31) and Italian (n = 27) monolingual controls. Using self-paced reading tasks, we measured attachment preferences and reading times in both languages. In Italian ambiguous trials, controls showed a significant high-attachment preference while neither bilingual group showed a significant preference in the same direction. The model revealed a significant overall group difference driven by a contrast between Italian controls and students, though not specific to ambiguous trials. Both bilingual groups were also overall slower to parse RCs than Italian controls after controlling for proficiency or age differences. In English, all groups performed at chance level with no significant differences in preferences or reading times. These exploratory findings suggest that L1 influence on L2 RC attachment may persist even in proficient immersed bilinguals. No clear evidence of L1 attrition emerged, contrasting with previous Spanish–English findings and with anaphora resolution results in the same sample. Methodological limitations constrain interpretation and should be addressed in future research. Full article

Background/Objectives: Test anxiety can impair working memory, attention, and executive function, raising questions about what might increase cognitive readiness prior to testing. Methods: This study examined how brief meditation, social media use, and calming or upbeat music influence neural activity and performance on a second-language exam using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Results: Forty-five advanced German students completed two matched exams—one preceded by a randomly assigned three-minute activity and one taken without a pre-test activity. fNIRS measured cortical activity in the prefrontal cortex, Broca’s area, and Wernicke’s area during both the pre-test activity and the exam. Behaviorally, meditation significantly improved exam scores compared to control (p < 0.02), social media use significantly reduced scores (p < 0.002), calming music showed no effect (p = 0.06), and upbeat music had no effect (p = 0.27). Neural analyses revealed that social media increased activation in socially oriented prefrontal regions, including the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), while reducing activation in right Broca’s area, corresponding with lower performance. Due to technical issues, fNIRS data during the meditation condition were excluded from neural analyses. Conclusions: These findings indicate that short pre-exam interventions can influence neural engagement and academic performance, highlighting the potential benefits of meditation and the possible negative impact of social media immediately before testing. Full article

Preliminary evidence has indicated that attachment style may be an important variable that can influence emotion regulation among individuals with experiences of psychosis. Yet there is a dearth of therapeutic approaches examined that address both constructs. More integrative approaches, such as Metacognitive Reflection and Insight Therapy (MERIT), may be well suited to address these concerns given its integrative approach to increasing insight. To explore this, this article presents a case report of an individual diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder who completed 24 sessions of MERIT. This individual presented with constricted affect and limited ability to access emotional content. Emotion regulation was measured before, during, and after treatment, while attachment security to the therapist was measured during and after treatment. Reliable change index (RCI) analyses of the individual’s scores revealed significant changes in domains of subjective emotion regulation abilities and attachment security to the therapist. A qualitative analysis of session transcripts is presented as well. Treatment was found to be feasible and acceptable to the client, and improvements were noted in the areas of emotion regulation and attachment security to the therapist. Clinical implications and limitations are also discussed. Full article

Developmental dyslexia is a heterogeneous disorder that has been associated with deficits in various cognitive domains, such as memory and attention. The aim of the present study was to investigate possible deficits in memory and attention in students with developmental dyslexia. The sample consisted of 50 students (mean age 10.5 years), including 25 students diagnosed with dyslexia and 25 typically developing controls matched for age and gender. Participants were assessed using tests of short-term phonological memory, long-term memory, working memory, immediate verbal memory, auditory and visual memory, as well as auditory and visuospatial attention. The results revealed that students with dyslexia exhibited statistically significant deficits in all memory tests. In the attention domain, statistically significant deficits were observed in the visuospatial attention test but not in the auditory attention test. These findings support multiple-deficit models of dyslexia and suggest that memory and attention impairments may collectively contribute to the understanding of the cognitive profile of students with developmental dyslexia. Full article

Academic writing is often perceived as unfamiliar and overly formal, partly due to a lack of explicit cognition and instruction regarding coherence. This article contends that such perceptions obscure a fundamental connection between everyday reasoning and the epistemic reasoning characteristic of academic writing. The inductive and deductive logics of reasoning that underpin the coherence of academic genres are closely aligned with commonsense reasoning structures that students routinely use, such as asking and answering questions, inferring explanations, forming categories, and recognizing patterns. These practices are all critical for students to understand the central role of coherence in academic writing. Drawing on writing studies, cognitive psychology, and research methodology, this critique positions coherence as a central yet underarticulated concern in the instruction of academic writing. It presents a pedagogical framework in which coherence is understood and taught as the alignment between commonsense and epistemic logics of reasoning. Two classroom-based examples—a quantitative questionnaire excerpt and a qualitative narrative reanalysis—illustrate how coherence can be taught through reasoning structures, conceptual alignment, the integration of inquiry logics, and interpretation in academic writing. This pedagogical model scaffolds the steps needed to integrate commonsense and epistemic reasoning so that students can develop core skills of coherence for epistemic competence, including explicit command of logical and reasoning processes, genre-based analysis, conceptual mapping of inquiry-driven writing tasks. Full article

This study investigated whether resting-state EEG coherence in the alpha, beta, and theta frequency bands predicts working memory performance in healthy middle-aged adults (N = 27, aged 49–64). Unlike prior research focusing on young adults or clinical populations, we examined the relationship between EEG coherence during eyes-open rest and performance on a range of working memory tasks, including updating (n-back task), switching, Stroop, and complex operation span (OSPAN task). Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that demographic variables (age, education) were generally not significant predictors, except for education in the updating task. Inclusion of EEG coherence significantly increased explained variance: alpha, beta, and theta coherence predicted performance in the updating task, while alpha and beta coherence predicted outcomes in the OSPAN task. Specifically, higher alpha coherence was associated with better performance, whereas lower theta and beta coherence predicted superior outcomes, suggesting enhanced neural flexibility and efficient cognitive resource allocation. EEG coherence did not significantly predict performance in the switching or Stroop tasks, likely because these tasks rely more on rapid reactive responses and local neural activity not captured by resting-state synchronization. These findings indicate that resting-state EEG coherence may serve as a frequency-specific neurophysiological marker of working memory in middle age. Future research should explore longitudinal changes and potential interventions, such as neurofeedback, to modulate coherence and enhance cognitive function. Full article

Neurocognitive and metacognitive impairments are well-documented in schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSDs). However, the relationship between these two domains remains underexplored, despite increasing interest in their combined impact on recovery and functional outcomes. Neurocognition refers to processes such as attention, memory, and executive functioning, and the neural systems that support these processes, both of which are frequently abnormal in SSDs and contribute to significant functional difficulties. Metacognition, in contrast, refers to the capacity to reflect on and integrate thoughts, emotions, and experiences into a coherent understanding of oneself and others. Although both domains are often studied in isolation, emerging evidence suggests a potential interdependence between neurocognition and metacognition, particularly regarding their influence on outcome. This scoping review explores empirical studies examining associations between neurocognition and metacognition in individuals with SSDs, specifically in the context of functional outcomes. We aim to clarify how these domains interact and explore their combined implications for recovery-oriented interventions and clinical practice. Findings may inform more integrated models of cognition and guide the development of dual-targeted treatment approaches to improve functional recovery in SSDs. Full article

The goal of the current review is to present a general review of the literature regarding the relationship between attention control and working memory, particularly focusing on how the two concepts are defined and experimentally measured. We also hope to convince the reader that working memory, as a broad concept, should be viewed as a hierarchical model comprising working memory capacity and attention control. In the extant literature, researchers have struggled with disentangling the two highly correlated constructs. In particular, attention control has been difficult to define because many papers use the same term to refer to different interpretations of the construct, or simply include it as part of working memory more broadly. Furthermore, multiple definitions of working memory have been presented and, as often as not, no definition is provided when researchers include working memory in their investigations. We hope to at least provide a useful overview of these multifaceted constructs and perhaps a usable framework for studying working memory and attention. Full article

In the current work, we examine whether height perception is determined by head orientation. Our previous work has found that upward head orientation is overestimated by the same factor as downward head orientation, and this is consistent with the distance by which targets you must look up at are overestimated. In Experiment 1, participants looked at two targets from two different distances. Height estimates were significantly correlated to head orientation. Head orientation also significantly changed height estimates, with the closer distance (i.e., higher head orientation) yielding greater distance estimates, even when controlling for target height. In Experiment 2, we controlled for distance by having participants estimate the height of two targets while sitting down or standing. Height estimates were again significantly correlated with head orientation. Sitting or standing (i.e., manipulating head orientation) changed height estimates, with sitting yielding greater distance estimates, again, even when controlling for target height. Our work shows that head orientation is strongly positively correlated to the perception of height and that changing head orientation leads to concomitant changes in perception of height. The common scale expansion for upward and downward head orientation leads to corresponding distance estimates that reliably predict how we spatially map the environment. Full article

Background: Studies on the association between cognitive dysfunction and criminality have shown that individuals in prison, particularly repeat offenders and those convicted of violent crimes, tend to exhibit difficulties in cognitive, social, and emotional functioning. The objective of this study was to evaluate and characterize cognitive and executive functioning of incarcerated individuals, while also seeking to understand the impact of incarceration on executive functions. Methods: The sample consisted of 30 participants at various stages of their sentences. Neuropsychological assessments were conducted using cognitive screening tests and tests directed to assess executive functions and decision making. Results: Neurocognitive performance was within normative ranges. Selective associations between sentence duration and specific executive functions were observed, suggesting a relationship with criminal severity indicators. Decision-making also appeared impaired, as no evidence of learning was found and deck selection focused on more disadvantageous decks. Conclusions: These findings a relationship between indicators of criminal severity and specific aspects of executive functioning and decision making, rather than a generalized cognitive impairment. However, these conclusions require further research under this topic in larger and more diverse samples. Full article

Numerous attempts to define art have been made from antiquity to the present, yet historical overviews often adopt a Eurocentric (and American-centric) perspective focused mainly on culturally dependent aesthetic approaches. As a universal social and cultural phenomenon, art resists center-periphery models. The cognitive turn reshaped art theory by reconsidering art as a cognitive dimension of humanity. Art has no limits on who can create or enjoy it. The ability to use and understand metaphor, for instance, demonstrates everyday human artistic cognition. The analysis relies on both field research (case studies) and academic literature; it argues for a revised theoretical frame for defining art and organizes it into a dynamic model of three main vectors: (1) art as communication (including art as agency); (2) art as creation; and (3) art as experience (involving both audience and artist). The model can incorporate the study of emotions into the third criterion while remaining open to both materialist and non-materialist approaches. Rather than offering a new definition, the study integrates the perspective of cognitive anthropology, cognitive semantics, and the anthropology of art in order to broaden understanding. Instead of searching for special aesthetic or economic values, these three dimensions of art appear more universal. A pragmatic analysis of how art “works” in individuals and groups provides a useful model for cognitive sciences. Instead of binary codes, it is a vectorial model, a 3D space for expressing family resemblance, since there is no common denominator (prototype) for all kinds of art. Full article

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is consistently linked to multidimensional working memory (WM) impairments, encompassing deficits in sustained attention, verbal and visuospatial processing, and executive control, with inhibitory dysfunction emerging as a key feature. This scoping review synthesizes evidence from 39 studies examining neurobiological mechanisms, trauma-related factors, genetic and hormonal influences, gender differences, and task-specific variability. Findings indicated that PTSD is associated with altered activation and connectivity in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and related neural networks, often resulting in compensatory but inefficient recruitment patterns. Emotional distraction and comorbidities such as depression, alcohol use, and traumatic brain injury can exacerbate cognitive deficits. Performance impairments are evident across both emotional and neutral WM tasks, with visuospatial and updating processes being particularly vulnerable. Risk factors include chronic trauma exposure, older age, APOE ε4 allele, and the BDNF Val66Met (rs6265) polymorphism, while modulators such as oxytocin, cortisol, and physical activity show potential cognitive benefits under specific conditions. Methodological heterogeneity and limited longitudinal data restrict generalizability. These findings underscore the importance of early screening, targeted cognitive interventions, and inclusion of underrepresented populations to refine prevention and treatment strategies for PTSD-related WM deficits. Full article

This study discusses the asymmetric dominance effect in the context of political elections with third-party candidates. Animal and human research both show that the addition or removal of a third option influences choices between the remaining two options. The direction of sway created by the addition/removal of the 3rd option is context-dependent and unconsciously regulated. The results confirmed our hypotheses that both the timing and perceived viability of third-party candidates significantly influence voter preferences, with the strongest effects observed when third-party candidates remain present through election day. These findings suggest that the impact of third-party candidates extends beyond simple vote-splitting and is at least partly unconscious, though direct implicit measures were not employed. This study is situated in the context of U.S. presidential elections and focuses on moderate voters. Full article

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive form of brain stimulation that involves passing a weak electrical current between electrodes on the scalp to modulate underlying neural tissue. TDCS has been shown to modulate cognition in a variety of domains, including memory, attention, and visual processing. Prior work from our laboratory has shown positive effects of tDCS on learning to detect target objects hidden in complex naturalistic visual scenes and learn rules for categorizing images, though the mechanism for these benefits remains unknown. One possibility is that tDCS optimizes visual search by modulating visual attention or via the reduction in search errors. One method of quantifying visual attention is to use eye tracking to record search patterns to determine if and how visual search is adjusted under verum stimulation conditions. Eye tracking data allows classification of errors into error types, including sampling errors (failing to look in the relevant region), recognition errors (looking at the critical portion of a scene, but failing to recognize it as such as evidenced by visual fixation), and decision-making errors (fixating on the relevant portion of a scene, but making the wrong determination). Our results indicate that the benefit tDCS confers on visual search for targets stems from the reduction in decision-making errors when targets are present (Cohen’s d = 0.86). Also reported is a replication of previous findings showing a tDCS-dependent improvement in learning this task, learning score (Cohen’s d = 0.88); d’ (Cohen’s d = 1.00). This provides support for moving tDCS into the application space by pairing it with analysts who are concerned with the type of search error that is corrected via stimulation. Full article