International Journal of Cognitive Sciences

Why do transient changes in processing sometimes influence perceived truth, whereas similar processing experiences have little or even opposite effects? We propose a theoretical framework specifying when prediction-error-related changes in processing may become epistemically relevant to the evaluation of information, with particular implications for misinformation. The framework distinguishes between the occurrence of a prediction error and its use as a cue for judgment. We propose that temporal alignment with target evaluation acts as a gating condition: a processing signal is more likely to contribute to perceived truth when it occurs while the target information is being evaluated and can therefore be attributed to that target. Temporal alignment does not, however, determine the direction of its epistemic effect. Once subjectively accessible, the processing experience is interpreted through attributional and affective appraisal processes. Unexpected facilitation or coherence may be positively appraised and increase subjective plausibility, whereas processing difficulty, incoherence, conflict with prior knowledge, or source-related suspicion may be negatively appraised and decrease it. The framework therefore predicts both plausibility-enhancing and plausibility-reducing consequences of prediction error. By integrating predictive processing, processing fluency, metacognitive inference, and affective appraisal, we propose that temporal alignment constrains whether a transient processing signal enters an epistemic judgment, whereas attribution and appraisal contribute to determining how that signal is interpreted. This account generates testable predictions concerning when processing experiences should increase, decrease, or fail to influence the perceived truth of misinformation and invites direct empirical tests capable of corroborating, refining, or falsifying the temporal-alignment hypothesis.

The examination of individual differences in spelling ability in adults is potentially theoretically informative but has attracted little research attention. Most of this work has involved speakers of English, and some indicated that orthographic processing may be an important factor that distinguishes better from poorer spellers. The current investigations were carried out in Mandarin, which has a logographic writing system. Because Chinese characters place particularly heavy demands on visual–orthographic processing, adult Mandarin spelling provides a strong test case for orthographic accounts of individual differences in spelling ability. Participants were 54 adult speakers of Mandarin. We used adaptations of the tasks that have previously been used in studies of spelling with English speakers, including assessments of phonological processing, visual memory, character report and reading fluency. We used hierarchical multiple regression to examine the unique contribution of these literacy-related variables to spelling accuracy after controlling for chronological age and single-character identification. We also conducted quantitative error analysis of the participants’ spelling errors, using error categories that distinguish phonologically appropriate errors and orthographic errors. Finally, we conducted item-level logistic regression analyses to examine the influence of number of logographemes per character on spelling accuracy at the individual-participant level. The results of the hierarchical regression analyses examining the influence of the literacy-related variables showed that character report was the strongest predictor of spelling accuracy. Quantitative error analysis of the participants’ spelling errors revealed that the rate of orthographic errors increased with a decrease in spelling accuracy, while the rate of phonological errors (homophone and semi-homophone substitutions) reduced. Item-based analyses based on individual-level logistic regression analyses showed that participants with lower spelling accuracy were more sensitive to the number of logographemes per character. The results are in line with those found in previous studies in English, indicating the importance of orthographic processes in determining spelling ability in adults. We discuss the findings in the light of theories that include orthographic working memory as a late stage in the process of single-word spelling.

Background: Neurologic pathologic conditions, including traumatic brain injury (TBI), and natural aging often present with concurrent physical and cognitive challenges. While functional physical capabilities may be accurately and reliably assessed, traditional cognitive measures rely on static testing methods that fail to incorporate functional movements. Objective: These two studies aimed to validate a novel portable version of the previously validated laboratory-based Walking Response and Inhibition Test (WRIT), utilizing a head-mounted device (HMD) and a body-worn position sensor for dynamic measure of Executive Function (EF) during functional mobility. Methods: Two observational studies were conducted across cohorts of healthy older and younger adults. To validate the portable device (HMD-WRIT), participant performance was benchmarked against two 3D Motion Analysis Systems. Additionally, a healthy elderly cohort study compared three standardized cognitive tests, while both studies utilized a functional mobility test. Results: Data from both observational studies demonstrated that the portable HMD-WRIT accurately captured postural responses to visual commands during walking. Performance metrics successfully correlated with motion-capture data and established static cognitive benchmarks. Conclusions: The HMD-WRIT is a viable, portable option for measuring EF during functional movement. This system bridges the gap between static cognitive testing and real-world mobility assessments in both young and aging populations.