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Behavioral Sciences
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Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across...
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Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across Various Research Areas

A special issue of Behavioral Sciences (ISSN 2076-328X). This special issue belongs to the section "Cognition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2025) | Viewed by 5447

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Ester Navarro

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, St. John’s University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
Interests: social cognition; perspective-taking; empathy; intentions; emotions

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Theory of mind (TOM) is a critical human skill. Without it, humans would not be able to communicate, form relationships or understand and predict others’ intentions. Much research in the area has focused on examining TOM development in young children and TOM impairments in clinical populations. However, renewed interest in the field has sparked a wave of research that examines TOM and related constructs (e.g., social cognition, mentalizing, social competence, common ground, perspective-taking) in a number of areas, including (a) changes in TOM in later adulthood, (b) individual differences in adult TOM, (c) the role of culture and language in TOM performance, (d) issues relating to TOM measurement validity and reliability and (e) the real-world effects of individual differences in TOM.

However, this increasing amount of research is rarely shared intra- and trans-disciplinarily, leading to disjointed findings in the field and hindering progress on TOM. Accordingly, this Special Issue aims to provide an outlet for researchers studying TOM across different psychological and related areas to share their work, and calls for papers focused on describing innovative findings across populations and/or methodological approaches, identifying issues in the state of the field and presenting research that cuts across niche areas to inform theory more broadly.

Dr. Ester Navarro
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Behavioral Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • theory of mind
  • social cognition
  • empathy
  • social competence
  • perspective-taking
  • social interaction
  • cooperation
  • communication
  • embodied cognition
  • common ground
  • mentalizing

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 1092 KiB  
Article
Seeing Through Other Eyes: How Language Experience and Cognitive Abilities Shape Theory of Mind
by Manali Pathare, Ester Navarro and Andrew R. A. Conway
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15060755 - 30 May 2025
Viewed by 495
Abstract
Understanding others’ perspectives, or Theory of Mind (ToM), is a critical cognitive skill essential for social competence and effective interpersonal interactions. Although ToM is present in varying degrees across individuals, recent research indicates that linguistic factors, particularly bilingualism, can significantly influence its expression. [...] Read more.
Understanding others’ perspectives, or Theory of Mind (ToM), is a critical cognitive skill essential for social competence and effective interpersonal interactions. Although ToM is present in varying degrees across individuals, recent research indicates that linguistic factors, particularly bilingualism, can significantly influence its expression. Building on these findings, the current study examined performance on the perspective-taking trials of the Director Task among bilinguals and monolinguals. The results showed a nonsignificant trend in accurate responses as a function of bilingualism; however, a significant effect was found when examining only perspective-taking trials, with bilinguals outperforming monolinguals, suggesting that larger sample sizes are needed to identify this effect. Interestingly, a significant interaction between fluid intelligence and bilingualism was found, suggesting that bilinguals with higher fluid intelligence performed better on perspective-taking trials compared to bilinguals with lower fluid intelligence. The results emphasize the importance of domain-general abilities for the effect of bilingualism on perspective-taking and suggest that bilingualism’s effect on ToM may be more salient in individuals with higher cognitive abilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across Various Research Areas)
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23 pages, 552 KiB  
Article
Compassion in Mexico and the United States: Unpacking Cultural Differences
by Naomi Hernandez, Liam Llerena, Evita Morales, Jack Tillman, David Ruiz Mendez and Birgit Koopmann-Holm
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 732; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15060732 - 25 May 2025
Viewed by 525
Abstract
Previous research indicates that cultural variations exist in conceptualizations of compassion, potentially attributable to the extent to which individuals in diverse cultural settings want to avoid (versus accept) feeling negative emotions and the significance they place on emotion sharing as a component of [...] Read more.
Previous research indicates that cultural variations exist in conceptualizations of compassion, potentially attributable to the extent to which individuals in diverse cultural settings want to avoid (versus accept) feeling negative emotions and the significance they place on emotion sharing as a component of compassion. The present study investigates the conceptualization of compassion among individuals in Mexico and the United States, aiming to understand why these cultural differences occur. We hypothesized that Mexicans (1) would want to avoid feeling negative less, (2) would consequently regard emotion sharing as a more critical element of a compassionate response, and (3) would therefore conceptualize a compassionate face as one that mirrors sadness more and expresses happiness less compared to U.S. Americans. Participants from Mexico and the United States engaged in a reverse correlation task, selecting stimuli that most closely resembled a compassionate face. The selected images were aggregated and coded for the extent of sadness and happiness depicted. Additionally, participants indicated how much they wanted to avoid feeling negative and, by using an open-ended format, described what a compassionate response would entail in their view. These responses were coded for whether or not they focused on emotion sharing. Consistent with our hypotheses, Mexicans, who want to avoid feeling negative less compared to U.S. Americans, place greater importance on emotion sharing in a compassionate response. This variation is associated with Mexicans conceptualizing a compassionate face as one that portrays more sadness and less happiness compared to U.S. Americans. People in different cultural contexts have different views about what compassion might entail. Understanding and embracing these cultural differences in compassion can help us navigate our increasingly multicultural world, fostering more meaningful connections and guiding our actions with more humility and sensitivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across Various Research Areas)
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19 pages, 4019 KiB  
Article
Effects of Joint Action Observation on Children’s Imitation
by Nejra Rizvanović, Ildikó Király and Natalie Sebanz
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020208 - 13 Feb 2025
Viewed by 959
Abstract
Grasping others’ intentions from their actions is essential for learning, as it enhances the ability to identify collaborative acts and anticipate others’ actions, facilitating effective coordination toward shared goals. From a young age, children seem to recognize when others are working together based [...] Read more.
Grasping others’ intentions from their actions is essential for learning, as it enhances the ability to identify collaborative acts and anticipate others’ actions, facilitating effective coordination toward shared goals. From a young age, children seem to recognize when others are working together based on their interactions and use this understanding to inform their own learning. Although much of early learning occurs in joint contexts, little attention has been devoted to understanding how children learn by participating in joint actions and by observing others acting together. Using a puzzle box paradigm, we tested 3–6-year-old children’s imitation of an inefficient performance following individual and joint demonstrations in which the inefficient performance did or did not involve bimanual or joint coordination. This allowed us to test whether the tendency to overimitate extends to joint actions and how action coordination modulates imitative behavior. We found that overimitation extends to joint actions, as indicated by similar rates of inefficient copying following individual and joint action demonstrations. Furthermore, our results suggest that action coordination did not play a significant role in modulating children’s tendency to overimitate. Taken together, the results of the study advance our understanding of how learning occurs in social interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across Various Research Areas)
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Review

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38 pages, 1275 KiB  
Review
Ins and Outs of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) Intervention in Promoting Social Communicative Abilities and Theory of Mind in Children and Adolescents with ASD: A Systematic Review
by Marco Esposito, Roberta Fadda, Orlando Ricciardi, Paolo Mirizzi, Monica Mazza and Marco Valenti
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15060814 - 13 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1147
Abstract
Social-communicative abilities and theory of mind (ToM) are crucial for successful social interactions. The developmental trajectories of social and communicative skills characterizing individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are rather complex and multidimensional, including components related to theory of mind. Due to its [...] Read more.
Social-communicative abilities and theory of mind (ToM) are crucial for successful social interactions. The developmental trajectories of social and communicative skills characterizing individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are rather complex and multidimensional, including components related to theory of mind. Due to its mentalistic nature, theory of mind has been rarely addressed as an outcome for Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) intervention in children and adolescents with ASD. However, there is evidence that ABA intervention might be effective in promoting social abilities in individuals with ASD. Thus, this topic is worth investigating. We present a systematic review to explore the Ins and Outs of an ABA approach to promote social and communicative abilities and ToM in children and adolescents with ASD. We applied a PRISMA checklist to consider studies published up to December 2024. The keywords that we used were ToM, perspective-taking, false belief, social cognition, and mental states, in combination with ABA intervention and ASD (up to age 18). We searched for studies using Scopus, Google Scholar, and Medline. We included twenty studies on perspective-taking, identifying emotions, helping, detecting eye gazing, and social engagement, reviewing fifteen dedicated to teaching the interpretation of mental states (involving 49 children and 10 adolescents). The ToM was addressed with a multiple baseline design on target behaviors associated with ToM components such as identifying emotion, helping behaviors, and mental states. The intervention included a behavioral package consisting of Behavioral Skill Training, Derived Relations, video modeling, and role playing. The results indicated a significant number of participants who followed ABA intervention to promote social abilities and mastered the target behavior in ToM tasks; however, they showed maintenance and generalization issues across trials and settings. The role of predictors was highlighted. However, the studies are still rare and exhibit specific methodological limitations, as well as some clinical and ethical considerations. More research is needed to define best practices in ABA intervention to promote social abilities in individuals with ASD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across Various Research Areas)
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15 pages, 846 KiB  
Review
Perspective-Taking and Reactions Toward Poor Performers in Groups: A Scoping Review and Discussion
by Emma Halfmann and J. Lukas Thürmer
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 612; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050612 - 1 May 2025
Viewed by 645
Abstract
Perspective-taking, the ability to adopt another person’s viewpoint, has been found to enhance group performance by fostering cooperation and coordination. However, if members threaten the attainment of group goals (i.e., poor performers), the intensity of perspective-taking is not sufficient to explain group [...] Read more.
Perspective-taking, the ability to adopt another person’s viewpoint, has been found to enhance group performance by fostering cooperation and coordination. However, if members threaten the attainment of group goals (i.e., poor performers), the intensity of perspective-taking is not sufficient to explain group members’ reactions to the poor performer (e.g., willingness to punish), since the findings are not unequivocally positive. It is key to consider the inferences resulting from perspective-taking efforts (attributions). These inferences, as attributions of the cause of the poor performance and the pro-group intent, are key determinants of group responses to poor performers. The goal of this scoping review is to examine the role of perspective-taking and attributions of the cause of poor performance in reactions toward poor performers in groups. Following the PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews, we performed a literature search in three databases (APA PsycInfo, PubPsych, and Web of Science) that yielded ten articles that matched our eligibility criteria. A narrative synthesis was employed to summarize the main findings across the included literature. This review highlights the need for integrating views on perspective-taking and attribution processes in group contexts to better understand how groups can effectively navigate challenges posed by diverging performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across Various Research Areas)
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Other

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12 pages, 615 KiB  
Systematic Review
A Systematic Review on the Association Between Bilingualism and Theory of Mind in Adulthood
by Rowena J. Xia and Brian W. Haas
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15060815 - 13 Jun 2025
Viewed by 523
Abstract
Previous research on the relationship of bilingualism and theory of mind has largely focused on children. However, several recent studies of the theory of mind have found differences in theory of mind processing among older populations, namely adults. Given that language has been [...] Read more.
Previous research on the relationship of bilingualism and theory of mind has largely focused on children. However, several recent studies of the theory of mind have found differences in theory of mind processing among older populations, namely adults. Given that language has been found to play an important role in the successful theory of the mind task performance of adults, it is valuable to understand the relationship of the language ability of bilingualism and theory of mind in adults. The specific focus is on studies comparing monolinguals and bilinguals in a theory of mind assessment for an adult sample. In this systematic review, we reviewed and analyzed these studies and conducted a meta-analysis. Among the studies included for meta-analysis (k = 7), we found a significant small-to-medium effect size (d = 0.429, p < 0.0001), indicating a bilingual advantage among adults. A variety of different measures for theory of mind were included in these studies. More studies are required to better understand the relationship between multiple language processing and social cognition among adults to better understand this gap in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Other Intentions: Merging Evidence on Theory of Mind across Various Research Areas)
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