Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence

Topic Information

Dear Colleagues,

Social interactions uniquely influence an individual’s mental health from infancy to old age. Interactions with parents, peers, teachers, marital partners, and colleagues at work carry substantial implications, acting as pivotal sources in the normative development of social skills and emotional adjustment throughout one’s lifetime. Consequently, it is imperative to discern both the risk and protective factors embedded in social interactions to foster positive interpersonal relationships and alleviate adjustment challenges. Yet, several pertinent questions necessitate further exploration. For example, what intricate relationships exist among diverse risk and protective factors that underlie social interactions? Can we delve into the disparities in these factors across different developmental periods? How do these factors manifest in social interactions within diverse cultural contexts? What are the implications of emerging forms of social interactions (e.g., cyberbullying)? Is it feasible to uncover more neural foundations for these social interactions through advanced techniques (e.g., hyperscanning)? Given these considerations, this Topic aims to advance the existing literature on the risk and protective factors in social interactions. In light of this goal, we invite papers presenting empirical research supplemented by behavioral and neural evidence. Meta-analysis and systematic reviews are also welcomed.

Dr. Xuechen Ding
Dr. Wan Ding
Dr. Liyang Sai
Topic Editors

Keywords

Participating Journals

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Behavioral Sciences behavsci	2.5	2.6	2011	28.7 Days	CHF 2200	Submit
Brain Sciences brainsci	2.7	4.8	2011	15.6 Days	CHF 2200	Submit
Children children	2.0	2.7	2014	14 Days	CHF 2400	Submit
Education Sciences education	2.5	4.8	2011	29.8 Days	CHF 1800	Submit

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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13 pages, 1063 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Social Affiliation and Attention to Angry Faces in Children: Evidence for the Contributing Role of Parental Sensory Processing Sensitivity

by Antonios I. Christou, Kostas Fanti, Ioannis Mavrommatis, Georgia Soursou, Pantelis Pergantis and Athanasios Drigas

Children 2025, 12(4), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/children12040524 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 114

Abstract

Low social affiliation has been described as a phenotypic marker of antisocial behaviors by disrupting children’s initiation and enjoyment of positive physical and emotional connections with others. Laboratory studies have shown that, in early childhood, low social affiliation rates are preceded by lower [...] Read more.

Low social affiliation has been described as a phenotypic marker of antisocial behaviors by disrupting children’s initiation and enjoyment of positive physical and emotional connections with others. Laboratory studies have shown that, in early childhood, low social affiliation rates are preceded by lower attention to faces. In addition, while low social affiliation has also been associated with behavioral outcomes when accounting for parenting influences, the effect that parental environmental sensitivity may have on contributing to the link between emotional processing early in life and later behavioral manifestations associated with antisocial behavior is currently unknown. Objectives: The present eye-tracking study aims to delineate the potential contribution of parental Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) to the link between children’s rates of social affiliation and their attentional patterns in response to emotional faces. Methods: For the needs of this study, children performed a lab-based, computerized facial processing task (N = 153; Mage = 9.97; SDage = 1.28; 48.8% females). In addition, one of the children’s parents completed questionnaires for their children’s and their own behavior (N = 153; Mage = 40.9; SDage = 4.85; 87.7% females). Results: The results underline the contributing role of parental SPS on the associations between social affiliation and visual scanning when viewing angry emotional faces. In particular, children with low rates of social affiliation spent significantly more time fixating on the mouth regions of angry faces only when their parents had higher SPS. Conclusions: This study unveils the possibility for the contextual influence of parental environmental sensitivity on the early emotional processing mechanisms in children with low rates of social affiliation. These findings suggest that interventions aimed at improving emotional processing in children at risk for antisocial behavior should consider parental SPS as a contributing factor. Tailoring parent-based interventions to address how highly sensitive parents interpret and respond to emotional challenges may reduce children’s attentional biases to threats and support healthier socioemotional development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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24 pages, 355 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

The Effectiveness of the Turkish Version of the Responsive Teaching Program Applied as an Online Group Intervention on Autistic Children and Their Fathers: A Randomized Control Study

by Ali Kaymak, Ibrahim H. Diken and Gerald Mahoney

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15030309 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 554

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore the effectiveness of the Turkish Version of the Responsive Teaching program applied as an online group intervention on autistic children and their fathers. In this study, conducted with pre-test–post-test control group experimental design, 20 father–child [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to explore the effectiveness of the Turkish Version of the Responsive Teaching program applied as an online group intervention on autistic children and their fathers. In this study, conducted with pre-test–post-test control group experimental design, 20 father–child pairs were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. This study’s independent variable was the implementation of the Turkish Version of the Responsive Teaching (TV-RT) program (TV-RT) applied as an online group intervention. The dependent variables of this study were (a) fathers’ interactional behaviors, (b) fathers’ ability to use TV-RT strategies, (c) children’s interactional behaviors, (d) children’s ability to use TV-RT pivotal behaviors, (e) children’s social interaction behaviors (typical social interaction and autistic interaction), and (f) the opinions of the fathers and mothers of the children in the experimental group about the program and results. Data were collected with the Turkish Version of the Maternal/Parent Behavior Rating Scale (M/PBRS-TV) to measure fathers’ interactional behaviors; the Responsive Teaching–Parent Strategy Profile (RT-PSP) to measure fathers’ level of use of the TV-RT strategies; the Turkish Version of the Child Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS-TV) to measure children’s interactional behaviors; the Responsive Teaching–Pivotal Behavior Profile (RT-PBP) to measure children’s level of displaying TV-RT pivotal behaviors; and the Turkish Version of the Social Interaction Assessment Instrument (SIAI-TV) to measure children’s social interaction behaviors (typical social interaction and autistic interaction). In addition, social validity data were collected from the fathers and mothers in the experimental group through satisfaction questionnaires. Results revealed that the fathers of autistic children who received the intervention differed significantly on the use of TV-RT strategies and the quality of interactional behaviors from the fathers who did not receive the intervention. On the other side, autistic children in the experimental group showed significant progress on interactional behaviors, TV-RT pivotal behaviors, and social interaction behaviors and improved changes on autistic interaction behaviors. Fathers who participated in the online group TV-RT program, and their wives (mothers) as outside observers, reported high satisfaction with the program. Results were discussed extensively, and future suggestions are provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

20 pages, 1199 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Identifying Facilitators and Barriers to Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Visitation in Mothers of Low Socioeconomic Status: A Qualitative Investigation

by Dana B. McCarty, Renée M. Ferrari, Shelley Golden, Bharathi J. Zvara, Wylin D. Wilson and Meghan E. Shanahan

Children 2024, 11(11), 1390; https://doi.org/10.3390/children11111390 - 16 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1421

Abstract

Background/Objectives: The experience of parenting in a highly medicalized, unnatural environment can result in impaired mother–infant bonding, but increased maternal presence at the infant’s bedside has been associated with improved infant and maternal outcomes. The primary objective of this study was to explore [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: The experience of parenting in a highly medicalized, unnatural environment can result in impaired mother–infant bonding, but increased maternal presence at the infant’s bedside has been associated with improved infant and maternal outcomes. The primary objective of this study was to explore barriers and facilitators during the NICU Experience in regard to maternal presence in an NICU. Methods: We interviewed 12 mothers (7 Black, 5 white) of low socioeconomic status (SES) whose preterm infants (average birth gestational age of 27 weeks) were currently hospitalized in an NICU. We engaged the NICU Family Advisory Board in all steps of the research process. Results: Barriers and facilitators to maternal presence spanned all levels of the Socioecological Model; however, barriers were mostly at the societal, community, and institutional levels, while facilitators varied based on interpersonal and individual-level factors. Assets that mothers accessed to facilitate visits, such as free housing and shuttle services, were not available to all mothers based on individual circumstances (e.g., caregiving responsibilities). While a few mothers identified negative interactions with health care practitioners, these encounters were not attributed to racism or described as barriers to visitation. Conclusions: Hospitals can support families with infants in an NICU by providing free or inexpensive short-term sibling support, alleviating the burden of parking costs, and communicating early and frequently about available institutional resources during the hospital stay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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12 pages, 1492 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Neuronal Mechanisms of Reading Informational Texts in People with Different Levels of Mental Resilience

by Małgorzata Chojak, Anna Gawron, Marta Czechowska-Bieluga, Andrzej Różański, Ewa Sarzyńska-Mazurek and Anna Stachyra-Sokulska

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(9), 944; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14090944 - 21 Sep 2024

Viewed by 876

Abstract

The aim of this study was to verify whether the level of mental resilience would differentiate reading comprehension performance when using different information carriers. More than 150 people filled out a test regarding the level of resilience. They then participated in a survey [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to verify whether the level of mental resilience would differentiate reading comprehension performance when using different information carriers. More than 150 people filled out a test regarding the level of resilience. They then participated in a survey using fNIRS. Their task was to read a one-page informational text and answer several questions. The results showed no differences in correct answers between groups of people with different levels of resilience. In the groups of people with high and low levels of resilience, the number of correct answers was not differentiated by the type of carrier. Among those with moderate levels of resilience, better results were obtained by those who read text printed on paper. Analyses of neuronal mechanisms showed that the type of carrier differentiated brain activity in each group. Obtaining the same number of correct answers in the test was the result of different neuronal mechanisms activated in those who used a computer and those who read a printed text. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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14 pages, 825 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Associations between Unsociability and Peer Problems in Chinese Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis

by Na Hu, Wen Zhang, Aersheng Haidabieke, Jiyueyi Wang, Nan Zhou, Xuechen Ding and Hong Zheng

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(7), 590; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14070590 - 11 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1353

Abstract

Research has shown that unsociability, reflected as a personal choice, is not necessarily associated with socio-emotional problems in Western countries. However, the associations between unsociability and peer problems are consistently evident in Chinese culture, yet the strength and direction in these associations are [...] Read more.

Research has shown that unsociability, reflected as a personal choice, is not necessarily associated with socio-emotional problems in Western countries. However, the associations between unsociability and peer problems are consistently evident in Chinese culture, yet the strength and direction in these associations are mixed. The present study aimed to examine whether unsociability is associated with peer problems and explored the potential moderators among the associations. A meta-analysis was conducted using publications that measured unsociability and peer problems. A total of 21 articles involving 43 effect sizes from 12,696 Chinese children and adolescents were included. The results revealed that (1) unsociability was positively associated with peer problems (r = 0.32, p < 0.001) among children and adolescents. (2) Informants (i.e., self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, and parent ratings) and living areas (i.e., urban, suburban, and rural areas) significantly moderated the associations between unsociability and peer problems. Specifically, the associations were stronger for peer-nominated unsociability, self-reported peer problems, and samples in suburban areas. These findings shed light on unsociability linked to higher levels of peer problems among Chinese children and adolescents. Still, the influences are unique to peer problems and moderated by both data sources and environmental factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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19 pages, 1799 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Parental Autonomy Support on Family Adaptation in the Context of “Double Reduction”: The Mediating Role of Parent–Child Communication and Cohesion

by Ruibo Xie, Xuan Wang, Yangguang Ding, Yanling Chen and Wan Ding

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(7), 534; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14070534 - 26 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1970

Abstract

The implementation of the “Double Reduction” policy indicates a significant change in the way households operate, such as through parental education conception and parenting form, in which family adaptation needs particular attention. Parental autonomy support has been evidenced to be related to family [...] Read more.

The implementation of the “Double Reduction” policy indicates a significant change in the way households operate, such as through parental education conception and parenting form, in which family adaptation needs particular attention. Parental autonomy support has been evidenced to be related to family adaptation in prior studies. However, the mechanism underlying the relationship between parental autonomy support and family adaptation in the context of “Double Reduction” are not clear enough but remain fascinating. This study aims to explore the process through which parental autonomy support affects the whole family’s adaptation in the context of “Double Reduction” from the perspectives of parent–child behavior and emotions (i.e., parent–child communication and parent–child cohesion). A cross-sectional design based on the questionnaire method was used to collect the characteristics of 4239 adolescent parents (1493 fathers and 3427 mothers; M_age = 43.20, SD_age = 22.39) one year after the implementation of the “Double Reduction” policy. In addition, this study also used the retrospective method to obtain the characteristics of parental autonomy support before the “Double Reduction” policy. In the context of “Double Reduction”, the research results found that parental autonomy support can predict family adaptation; parental autonomy support can also influence the whole family’s adaptation through the quality of parent–child interaction. This study reveals the impact mechanism of parental autonomy support on family adaptation under the background of “Double Reduction” in China and provides insights on how to improve the adaptation of the entire family from the perspective of parent–child interaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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20 pages, 459 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Cognitive and Emotional Factors on Social Media Users’ Information-Sharing Behaviours during Crises: The Moderating Role of the Construal Level and the Mediating Role of the Emotional Response

by Yanxia Lu

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060495 - 12 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6288

Abstract

Understanding the intricate dynamics of social media users’ information-sharing behaviours during crises is essential for effective public opinion management. While various scholarly efforts have attempted to uncover the factors influencing information sharing through different lenses, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Building upon the [...] Read more.

Understanding the intricate dynamics of social media users’ information-sharing behaviours during crises is essential for effective public opinion management. While various scholarly efforts have attempted to uncover the factors influencing information sharing through different lenses, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Building upon the heuristic–systematic model (HSM) and construal level theory (CLT), this study explores the complex mechanisms that govern social media users’ information-sharing behaviours. The results indicate that both cognition and emotion play crucial roles in shaping users’ information-sharing behaviours, with systematic cues having the most significant impact on information-sharing behaviours. In terms of heuristic cues, positive emotions are more influential on information-sharing behaviours than primary cognition and negative emotions. Furthermore, spatial distance emerges as a key moderator, influencing individuals’ levels of engagement in information sharing. Emotion also acts as a mediator, connecting cognition to information sharing. This study provides insights into the sophisticated mechanisms of information sharing during crises, offering valuable implications for emergency management agencies to utilise social media for targeted public opinion guidance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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24 pages, 1233 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

How Socially Avoidant Emerging Adults Process Social Feedback during Human-to-Human Interaction after Social Rejection: An Event-Related Potential Study

by Yangdi Chen and Xinmei Deng

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060457 - 29 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1293

Abstract

Social avoidance refers to active non-participation in social activities, which is detrimental to healthy interpersonal interaction for emerging adults. Social rejection is a kind of negative social evaluation from others making people feel social pain. However, how socially avoidant emerging adults process social [...] Read more.

Social avoidance refers to active non-participation in social activities, which is detrimental to healthy interpersonal interaction for emerging adults. Social rejection is a kind of negative social evaluation from others making people feel social pain. However, how socially avoidant emerging adults process social feedback information after experiencing social rejection has received less attention. The current study aimed to explore the differences in social interaction feedback processing after social rejection between a socially avoidant group (n = 16) and a comparison group (n = 16) in a human-to-human interaction context. Computer game tasks with two types of interaction (cooperation and competition) were used to record the event-related potentials when receiving social interaction feedback in two conditions (social rejection and control condition). The results showed that (1) the socially avoidant group had lower reward positivity amplitudes than the comparison group when receiving social feedback; (2) the socially avoidant group presented larger P300 amplitudes in the social rejection condition than in the control condition, but the comparison group did not; and (3) social rejection evoked more negative N1 amplitudes in the socially avoidant and comparison groups. The findings suggest that socially avoidant emerging adults may have flaws in reward sensitivity during interpersonal interaction, and they might also exert more attentional and emotional resources to social feedback after social rejection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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14 pages, 1295 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

Electroencephalography (EEG) Evidence for the Psychological Processes of Humor Generation: A Comparison Perspective on Humor and Creativity

by Cuicui Sun and Zhijin Zhou

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(4), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14040290 - 31 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1970

Abstract

(1) Background: Humor stands out as the most dynamic and innovative aspect of human intelligence. Drawing on the cognitive parallels between humor and creativity, this study explored the EEG alpha frequency band activity patterns during humor generation by comparing the process of generating [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Humor stands out as the most dynamic and innovative aspect of human intelligence. Drawing on the cognitive parallels between humor and creativity, this study explored the EEG alpha frequency band activity patterns during humor generation by comparing the process of generating humorous and creative ideas. (2) Methods: Thirty-six participants were randomly assigned to either the humor generation group or the creative generation group, and the dependent variable was the neural oscillation in both low-frequency and high-frequency alpha during the early, middle, and late stages of both humor and creative generation. (3) Results: In the early stages, both humor and creative generation exhibited significantly higher power in low-frequency alpha and high-frequency alpha in the temporal region compared to the middle and late stages. In the middle and late stages, the low-frequency alpha oscillation in the frontal region for humor generation was significantly higher than that for creative generation. (4) Conclusions: Humor and creative generation share similar neural activation patterns in the early stages, involving the activation and retrieval of long-term memory information based on contextual cues. The differences between the two primarily manifest in the middle and late stages, where the selection of humorous ideas requires inhibiting not only irrelevant or ordinary ideas, akin to creative generation but also novel yet non-humorous ideas. This study sheds light on the neurocognitive mechanisms of humor generation and provides insights into the cognitive parallels and distinctions between humor generation and creative generation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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13 pages, 3518 KiB  

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Praise on Cooperative Behavior in Three-Player Public Goods Games and Its Gender Differences

by Jieyu Lv and Yingjun Zhang

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(4), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14040264 - 22 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1692

Abstract

Previous research has primarily focused on static factors influencing cooperative behavior in social dilemmas, with less attention given to dynamic factors within group social interactions, such as positive feedback received during interactions, i.e., praise. This study, through a between-subjects online experiment with a [...] Read more.

Previous research has primarily focused on static factors influencing cooperative behavior in social dilemmas, with less attention given to dynamic factors within group social interactions, such as positive feedback received during interactions, i.e., praise. This study, through a between-subjects online experiment with a single-factor, two-level design (praise: public praise/no praise), investigates the impact of praise on cooperative behavior changes across two rounds of a three-player public goods problem. Results revealed the following: (1) A positive correlation between individuals’ contributions across two rounds and a negative correlation with the number of correct answers in rule comprehension questions were evident; for men, a correlation between rule comprehension and first-round contributions was observed. (2) Multilevel model results showed that praise, role, and rule comprehension significantly positively affected contribution changes across two rounds; gender did not significantly affect contribution changes. Specifically, under public-praise conditions, contribution changes were greater. Publicly praised individuals showed positive or negative behavior changes, while those not praised in the same group showed positive changes. Men contributed significantly more in the first round than women, with no gender difference found in contribution changes. Rule comprehension positively predicted contribution changes, indicating that more correct answers led to greater positive changes in contributions. These results not only support the inferential social learning perspective, suggesting that through praise, individuals can infer external world perceptions and self-evaluations, affecting both the praised (positively or negatively) and positively influencing non-praised individuals in the same group, but also provide a theoretical basis and intervention strategies for team and organizational management in groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Risk and Protective Factors in Social Interactions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence)

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