Geomatics

The use of Google Earth Engine (GEE), a cloud-based computing platform, in spatio-temporal evaluation studies has increased rapidly in natural sciences such as forestry. In this study, Sentinel-2 satellite imagery and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) elevation data and image classification algorithms based on two machine learning techniques were examined. Random Forest (RF) and Classification and Regression Trees (CART) were used to classify land use and land cover (LULC) in western Oregon (USA). To classify the LULC from the spectral bands of satellite images, a composition consisting of vegetation difference indices NDVI, NDWI, EVI, and BSI, and a digital elevation model (DEM) were used. The study area was selected due to a diversity of land cover types including research forest, botanical gardens, recreation area, and agricultural lands covered with diverse plant species. Five land classes (forest, agriculture, soil, water, and settlement) were delineated for LULC classification testing. Different spatial points (totaling 75, 150, 300, and 2500) were used as training and test data. The most successful model performance was RF, with an accuracy of 98% and a kappa value of 0.97, while the accuracy and kappa values for CART were 95% and 0.94, respectively. The accuracy of the generated LULC maps was evaluated using 500 independent reference points, in addition to the training and testing datasets. Based on this assessment, the RF classifier that included elevation data achieved an overall accuracy of 92% and a kappa coefficient of 0.90. The combination of vegetation difference indices with elevation data was successful in determining the areas where clear-cutting occurred in the forest. Our results present a promising technique for the detection of forests and forest openings, which was helpful in identifying clear-cut sites. In addition, the GEE and RF classifier can help identify and map storm damage, wind damage, insect defoliation, fire, and management activities in forest areas. Full article

This research examines the performance of the affordable Xiaomi 11T smartphone in static positioning mode. Static Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements are acquired over a two-hour period with a known reference point, spanning three consecutive days. The acquired data are processed, employing both real-time and post-processing Precise Point Positioning (PPP) solutions using GPS-only, Galileo-only, and the combined GPS/Galileo datasets. To correct the satellite and clock errors, the instantaneous Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), the final Le Groupe de Recherche de Géodésie Spatiale (GRG), GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ), and Wuhan University (WUM) products were applied. The results demonstrate that sub-30 cm positioning accuracy is achieved in the horizontal direction using real-time and final products. Additionally, sub-50 cm positioning accuracy is attained in the vertical direction for the real-time and post-processed solutions. Furthermore, the real-time products achieved three-dimensional (3D) position accuracies of 40 cm, 29 cm, and 20 cm using GPS-only, Galileo-only, and the combined GPS/Galileo observations, respectively. The final products achieved 3D position accuracies of 24 cm, 26 cm, and 28 cm using GPS-only, Galileo-only, and the combined GPS/Galileo measurements, respectively. The attained positioning accuracy can be used in some land use and urban planning applications. Full article

With the continuous advancement of remote sensing technology and its growing importance, the need for ready-to-use data has increased exponentially. Satellite platforms such as Sentinel-2, which carries the Multispectral Instrument (MSI) sensor, known for their cost-effectiveness, capture valuable information about Earth in the form of images. However, they encounter a significant challenge in the form of clouds and their shadows, which hinders the data acquisition and processing for regions of interest. This article undertakes a comprehensive literature review to systematically analyze the critical cloud-related challenges. It explores the need for accurate cloud detection, reviews existing datasets, and evaluates contemporary cloud detection methodologies, including their strengths and limitations. Additionally, it highlights the inaccuracies introduced by varying atmospheric and environmental conditions, emphasizing the importance of integrating advanced techniques that can utilize local and global semantics. The review also introduces a structured intercomparison framework to enable standardized evaluation across binary and multiclass cloud detection methods using both qualitative and quantitative metrics. To facilitate fair comparison, a conversion mechanism is highlighted to harmonize outputs across methods with different class granularities. By identifying gaps in current practices and datasets, the study highlights the importance of innovative, efficient, and scalable solutions for automated cloud detection, paving the way for unbiased evaluation and improved utilization of satellite imagery across diverse applications. Full article

Horizontal dilution of precision (HDOP) is a widely used quality indicator of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning, considering only satellite geometry. In this study, HDOP was simulated using GNSS almanacs and high-resolution digital surface models (DSMs) along three European road sections: Oslo— Svinesund Bridge (Norway); Hamburg city center (Germany); and Rotterdam—Dutch–German border (Netherlands). This study was accomplished as part of the MODI project, which is a cross-border initiative to accelerate Cooperative, Connected, and Automated Mobility (CCAM). Our analysis revealed excellent or good overall GNSS performance in the study areas, particularly on highway sections with 99–100% of study points having a median HDOP that is categorized as excellent (HDOP < 2) or good (HDOP < 5). However, the road section in Hamburg’s city center presents challenges. When GPS is used alone, 8% of the study points experience weak or poor HDOP, and there are study points where the system is available (HDOP < 5) less than 50% of the time. Combining GNSS constellations significantly improved system availability, reaching 95% for 99% of the study points in Hamburg. To validate our simulations, we compared results with GNSS observations from a survey vehicle in Hamburg. Initial low correlation was attributed to the reception of signals from non-line-of-sight satellites. By excluding satellites with low signal-to-noise ratios, the correlation increased significantly, and reasonable agreement was obtained. We also examined the impact of using a 10 m DSM instead of a 1 m DSM in Hamburg. While the coarser spatial resolution offers computational benefits, it may miss critical details for accurate assessment of satellite visibility. Full article

The automation in image acquisition and processing using UAV drones has the potential to acquire terrain data that can be utilized for the accurate production of 2D and 3D digital data. In this study, the DJI Phantom 4 drone was employed for large-scale topographical mapping, and based on the photogrammetric Structure-from-Motion (SfM) algorithm, drone-derived point clouds were used to generate the terrain DSM, DEM, contours, and the orthomosaic from which the topographical map features were digitized. An evaluation of the horizontal (X, Y) and vertical (Z) coordinates of the UAV drone points and the RTK-GNSS survey data showed that the Z-coordinates had the highest MAE(_X,Y,Z), RMSE_(X,Y,Z) and Accuracy_(X,Y,Z) errors. An integrated georeferencing of the UAV drone imagery using the mobile RTK-GNSS base station improved the 2D and 3D positional accuracies with an average 2D (X, Y) accuracy of <2 mm and height accuracy of −2.324 mm, with an overall 3D accuracy of −4.022 mm. Geometrically, the average difference in the perimeter and areas of the features from the RTK-GNSS and UAV drone topographical maps were −0.26% and −0.23%, respectively. The results achieved the recommended positional accuracy standards for the production of digital geospatial data, demonstrating the cost-effectiveness of low-cost UAV drones for large-scale topographical mapping. Full article

The determination of the shape of the Earth has been one of the fundamental problems geodesy was supposed to solve; it has been and possibly still is the main geodetic problem. It is thus appropriate for geodesists to look at this problem periodically, and this is what the authors of this paper aim to do. About 50 years ago, geodesists started using satellites as a new and very powerful tool. Many problems that were either impossible to solve or that presented almost unsurmountable hurdles to solutions have now been solved relatively simply, so much so that in the eyes of some people, satellites can solve all geodetic problems, and attempts are being made to show that this is indeed the case. We feel that the time has come to show that even satellites have their limitations, the main one being that for them to remain in their orbit, they must fly quite high, typically at several hundred kilometres. The gravitational field of the Earth (and that of any celestial body) smoother as one gets higher and higher. In other words, the gravitational field at the satellite orbit altitude loses detailed information that one can see at the surface of the Earth. In this contribution, we shall try to explain what satellites have contributed to the study of the shape of the Earth and what issues remain to be sorted out. Full article

The pursuit of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) is often an acclaimed strategy for firm growth, resource sharing, and extended reach into new market segments. However, in the healthcare marketplace, there are two very different perspectives related to M&A. On the one hand, the American Hospital Association commends M&A activity as a tool to reduce healthcare costs, drive quality, and serve rural markets. On the other hand, a recent United States’ Presidential executive order suggests that M&A in the healthcare space is harmful to healthcare due to its restrictions on competition and adverse impacts on patients. These conflicting perspectives reflect differing M&A views in mainstream management research, as well. The purpose of the current study is twofold. First, we aim to explore these two seemingly paradoxical perspectives by examining the degree of hospital network geographic dispersion that results from M&A activity. Second, we contribute to the broader M&A literature by drawing attention to the importance of considering geographic influences on M&A performance. Using a spatial analysis of 147 nationwide hospital networks comprising 1713 hospitals, we propose and find support for the notion that the degree of network dispersion, as measured by actual driving distances in healthcare networks, are correlated with patient experiences. Using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression to examine relationships between patient experiences and overall hospital network geographic dispersion, we found support for the hypothesis that more spatially dispersed healthcare networks are associated with lower overall performance outcomes, as measured by customer (patient) satisfaction. The implications of these findings suggest that growth strategies that involve M&A activity should carefully consider the spatial influences on M&A entity selection. Our exploratory findings also provide a foundation for future research to bridge the gap between industry and governmental perspectives on healthcare M&A practices. Full article

This article presents a comprehensive evaluation of image segmentation methods for monitoring morphological changes in refugee camps, comparing five distinct approaches: ESRI Landviewer clustering, K-means clustering, U-Net segmentation, Meta’s Segment Anything Model (SAM) and ArcGIS segmentation. Using high-resolution satellite imagery from Al-Azraq refugee camp in Jordan (2014–2023) as a case study, this research systematically assesses each method’s performance in detecting and quantifying settlement pattern changes. The evaluation framework incorporates multiple validation metrics, including overall accuracy, the Kappa coefficient, F1-score and computational efficiency. The results demonstrate that ArcGIS’s ISO clustering and classification approach achieves superior performance, with 99% overall accuracy and a Kappa coefficient of 0.95, significantly outperforming the other tested methods. While Meta SAM shows promise in object detection, its performance degrades with aerial imagery, achieving only 75% accuracy in settlement pattern recognition. The study establishes specific parameter optimization guidelines for humanitarian contexts, with spectral detail values of 3.0–7.0 and spatial detail values of 14.0–18.0, yielding optimal results for refugee settlement analysis. These findings provide crucial methodological guidance for monitoring refugee settlement evolution and transition, contributing to more effective humanitarian response planning and settlement management through integrating remote sensing and machine learning technologies. Full article

This article addresses the issue of designing compound curves, i.e., a geometric system consisting of two (or more) circular arcs of different radii, pointing in the same direction and directly connected to each other. Nowadays, compound curves are mainly used on tram lines; they also occur on railways (e.g., on mountain lines), but new ones are generally no longer being built there. Therefore, in relation to railway lines, the aim is to be able to recreate (i.e., model) the existing geometric layout with compound curves, so that it is then possible to correct this layout. An analytical method for designing track geometric systems was used, adapted to the mobile satellite measurement technique, in which calculations are carried out in the appropriate local Cartesian coordinate system. The basis of this system is the symmetrically arranged adjacent main directions of the route, and the beginning is located at the point of intersection of these directions. A number of detailed issues have been clarified and basic characteristic quantities have been determined, and the computational algorithm described in the paper leads to the solution of the problem in a sequential manner. The obtained possibilities of modeling the compound curves are illustrated by the provided calculation example. Full article

Higher education institutions have played a central role in building sustainability awareness. However, current models only show an effect on students’ knowledge about sustainable development, with a large gap in transformative solutions that shift from understanding problems towards solutions. This case study explores a new model that integrates sustainability reflections in a Geographic Information Science (GIS) Capstone Project course. Through collaborations with external partners and reflections on sustainability modules, students analyzed complex problems and developed sustainability competencies. The assessment tool adopted in this study combines reflective writing, scenario testing, performance observation, and self-assessment. Based on the set of key competencies in sustainability, half of the students developed systems-thinking and strategies-thinking, while a quarter of the students developed futures-thinking and values-thinking. Their development of sustainability competencies went beyond simply acquiring knowledge, also critically evaluating different perspectives and implementing or integrating the concepts when addressing the problems. Geospatial information tackles three key aspects of sustainability, which are relational, distributional, and directional, making it ideal in analyzing sustainability issues and providing insights for informed decisions. This study fills another important gap of integrating sustainability competency development in GIS education. Full article

Spectral indices such as NDRE (Normalized Difference Red Edge Index), CCCI (Canopy Chlorophyll Content Index), and IRECI (Inverted Red Edge Chlorophyll Index), derived from the Red Edge band of MSI/Sentinel-2A (B05, B06, B07), are critical for coffee monitoring. To align the Red Edge band (20 m resolution) with the NIR band (10 m resolution), the nearest neighbor, bilinear, cubic and Lanczos resampling methods were used, available in the Terra package in the R software(4.4.0). This study evaluates these methods using two original B05 images from 24 November 2023, and 21 September 2023, covering the “Ouro Verde” (15 ha) and “Canto do Rio” (45 ha) farms in Bahia, Brazil. A total of 500 random points were analyzed using PSF, linear models, and cross-validation with R², MAE, and RMSE. PSF analysis confirmed data integrity, and the cubic method demonstrated the best performance (R² = 0.996, MAE = 0.008 and RMSE = 0.012 in the “Ouro Verde” Farm and R² = 0.995, MAE = 0.007 and RMSE = 0.011 in the “Canto do Rio” Farm). The results highlight the importance of selecting appropriate resampling methods for precise remote sensing in coffee cultivation, ensuring accurate digital processing aligned with study objectives. Full article

The cultivation of Moringa oleifera Lam. (M. oleifera) has steadily increased over the past few decades, and interest in the crop continues to rise due to its unique multi-purpose properties. However, knowledge pertaining to its water use to guide decision-making in relation to the growth and management of this crop remains fairly limited. Since acquiring such information can be challenging using traditional in situ or remote sensing-based methods, particularly in resource-poor regions, this study aims to explore the potential of using the cloud-based Earth Engine Evapotranspiration Flux (EEFlux) model to quantify the water use of M. oleifera in a semi-arid region of South Africa. For this purpose, EEFlux estimates were acquired and compared with eddy covariance measurements between November 2022 and May 2023. The results of these comparisons demonstrated that EEFlux unsatisfactorily estimated ET, producing root mean square error, mean absolute error, and R² values of 2.03 mm d⁻¹, 1.63 mm d⁻¹, and 0.24, respectively. The poor performance of this model can be attributed to several factors such as the quantity and quality of the in situ data as well as inherent model limitations. While these results are less than satisfactory, EEFlux affords users a quick and convenient approach to extracting crucial ET and ancillary data. Subsequently, with further refinement and testing, EEFlux can potentially serve to provide a wide variety of users with an invaluable tool to guide and inform decision-making with regards to agricultural water use management, particularly those in resource-constrained environments. Full article

The Cape Floristic Region (CFR) boasts rich biodiversity but faces threats from invasive species and land-use changes. Fynbos wetland vegetation within the CFR is under-mapped despite its crucial role in supporting biodiversity and maintaining hydrological cycles. This study assessed the potential of UAV VIS-NIR data, gathered during Spring and Summer, to identify the spectral characteristics of eleven Fynbos wetland species in a seep wetland. Spectral distances derived from reflectance data revealed distinct spectral clustering of plant species, highlighting which species could be distinguished from each other. UAV data also captured differences in reflectance across spectral bands for both dates. Spectral statistics indicated that certain species could be more accurately classified in Spring than in Summer, and vice versa. These findings underscore the efficacy of UAV multispectral data in analyzing the reflectance patterns of fynbos wetland species. Additionally, the sensitivity of UAV multispectral data to foliar pigment composition across different seasonal stages was confirmed. Lastly, species classification results demonstrated that a random forest classifier is well suited, with relative producer and user accuracies aligning with the derived spectral distances. The results highlight the potential of UAV imagery for monitoring these endemic species and creating opportunities for scalable mapping of Fynbos seep wetlands. Full article

Positional accuracy in cadastral data is fundamental for secure land tenure and efficient land administration. However, many land administration systems (LASs) experience difficulties to meet accuracy standards, particularly when data come from various sources or historical maps, leading to disruptions in land transactions. This study investigates the use of unsupervised clustering algorithms to identify and characterize systematic spatial error patterns in cadastral maps. We compare Fuzzy c-means (FCM), Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN), and Gaussian Mixture Models (GMMs) in clustering error vectors using two different case studies from Greece, each with different error origins. The analysis revealed distinctly different error structures: a systematic rotational pattern surrounding a central random-error zone in the first, versus localized gross errors alongside regions of different discrepancies in the second. Algorithm performance was context-dependent: GMMs excelled, providing the most interpretable partitioning of multiple error levels, including gross errors; DBSCAN succeeded at isolating the dominant systematic error from noise. However, FCM struggled to capture the complex spatial nature of errors in both cases. Through the automated identification of problematic regions with different error characteristics, the proposed approach provides actionable insights for targeted, cost-effective cadastral renewal. This aligns with fit-for-purpose land administration principles, supporting progressive improvements towards more reliable cadastral data and offering a novel methodology applicable to other LASs facing similar challenges. Full article

Tropical forests are essential ecosystems recognized for their carbon sequestration and biodiversity benefits. As the world undergoes a simultaneous data revolution and climate crisis, accurate data on the world’s forests are increasingly important. Completely novel in approach, this study proposes a methodology encompassing two bespoke deep learning models: (1) a single encoder, double decoder (SEDD) model to generate a species segmentation map, regularized by a distance map in training, and (2) an XGBoost model that estimates the diameter at breast height (DBH) based on tree species and crown measurements. These models operate sequentially: RGB images from the ReforesTree dataset undergo preprocessing before species identification, followed by tree crown detection using a fine-tuned DeepForest model. Post-processing applies the XGBoost model and custom allometric equations alongside standard carbon accounting formulas to generate final sequestration estimates. Unlike previous approaches that treat individual tree identification as an isolated task, this study directly integrates species-level identification into carbon accounting. Moreover, unlike traditional carbon estimation methods that rely on regional estimations via satellite imagery, this study leverages high-resolution, drone-captured RGB imagery, offering improved accuracy without sacrificing accessibility for resource-constrained regions. The model correctly identifies 67% of trees in the dataset, with accuracy rising to 84% for the two most common species. In terms of carbon accounting, this study achieves a relative error of just 2% compared to ground-truth carbon sequestration potential across the test set. Full article

The desert locust is documented as one of the most destructive polyphagous plant pests that require preventive or proactive management practices due to its phase polyphenism, rapid breeding, transnational migration, and heavy feeding behaviour. Desert locust situation analysis, forecasting and early warning are complex due to the systemic interaction of biological, meteorological, and geographical factors that play different roles in facilitating the survival, breeding and migration of the pest. This article seeks to elucidate the factors that affect desert locust distribution and review the application of earth observation (EO) data in explaining the pest’s infestations and impact. The review presents details concerning the application of EO data to understand factors that affect desert locust breeding and migration, elaborates on impact assessment through vegetation change detection and discusses modelling techniques that can support the effective management of the pest. The review reveals that the application of EO technology is inclined in favour of desert locust habitat suitability assessment with a limited financial quantification of losses. The review also finds a progressive advancement in the use of multi-modelling approaches to address identified gaps and reduce computational errors. Moreover, the review recognises great potential in applications of EO tools, products and services for anticipatory action against desert locusts to ensure resource use efficiency and environmental conservation. Full article

The Cerrado is Brazil’s second largest biome, covering continuous areas in several states. Covering approximately 23% of Brazil’s territory, the Cerrado biome connects with all the main biomes in South America, thus forming a major biological corridor. This biome is one of those that has suffered the most from the incidence of wildfires, leading to a progressive depletion of the region’s natural resources. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) embedded with an RGB sensor to obtain high-resolution digital products that can be used to identify areas of the Brazilian Cerrado affected by wildfires. The study was carried out in a savannah biome area selecting a vegetation corridor with native vegetation free from anthropogenic influence. The following UAV surveys were carried out before and after a burning event. Once the orthomosaics of the area were available, the GLI, VARI, ExG and NGRDI vegetation indices were used to analyze the vegetation. The data indicate that the B band and the GLI and ExG indices are more suitable for environmental impact analysis in Cerrado areas affected by fires, providing a solid basis for environmental monitoring and management in scenarios of fire disturbance. Full article

Individual tree parameters are essential for forestry decision-making, supporting economic valuation, harvesting, and silvicultural operations. While extensive research exists on uniform and simply structured forests, studies addressing complex, dense, and mixed forests with highly overlapping, clustered, and multiple tree crowns remain limited. This study bridges this gap by combining structural, textural, and spectral metrics derived from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) Red–Green–Blue (RGB) and multispectral (MS) imagery to estimate individual tree parameters using a random forest regression model in a complex mixed conifer–broadleaf forest. Data from 255 individual trees (115 conifers, 67 Japanese oak, and 73 other broadleaf species (OBL)) were analyzed. High-resolution UAV orthomosaic enabled effective tree crown delineation and canopy height models. Combining structural, textural, and spectral metrics improved the accuracy of tree height, diameter at breast height, stem volume, basal area, and carbon stock estimates. Conifers showed high accuracy (R² = 0.70–0.89) for all individual parameters, with a high estimate of tree height (R² = 0.89, RMSE = 0.85 m). The accuracy of oak (R² = 0.11–0.49) and OBL (R² = 0.38–0.57) was improved, with OBL species achieving relatively high accuracy for basal area (R² = 0.57, RMSE = 0.08 m² tree⁻¹) and volume (R² = 0.51, RMSE = 0.27 m³ tree⁻¹). These findings highlight the potential of UAV metrics in accurately estimating individual tree parameters in a complex mixed conifer–broadleaf forest. Full article

The leaf area index (LAI) in temperate forests is highly dynamic throughout the season, and lacking such dynamic information has limited our understanding of carbon and water flux patterns in these ecosystems. This study aims to explore the potential of using vegetation indices based on Sentinel-2 data, which includes three additional spectral bands in the red-edge region of its multispectral imager (MSI) sensor compared to previous satellite-borne imagery, to effectively track seasonal variations in LAI within typical cold–temperate deciduous forests originating in rugged terrain in Japan. We evaluated reported vegetation indices and developed an index specific to Sentinel-2 data to effectively monitor the spatiotemporal changes of LAI in mountainous deciduous forests, providing more accurate data for ecological monitoring. Results showed that the developed index (SR_B12,B7) was able to track LAI at both seasonal and spatial scales (R² = 0.576). Further analyses revealed that the index nevertheless performed relatively poorly during the leaf-maturing season when LAI peaks, suggesting that it still suffers from a “saturation” problem. For high-resolution tracking of LAI in temperate deciduous forests at both temporal and spatial scales, future research is needed to incorporate additional information. Full article