Journal Description
Climate
Climate
is a scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal of climate science published online monthly by MDPI. The American Society of Adaptation Professionals (ASAP) is affiliated with Climate and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), GeoRef, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences) / CiteScore - Q2 (Atmospheric Science)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 19.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
3.0 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.3 (2023)
Latest Articles
Resolving the Faint Young Sun Paradox and Climate Extremes: A Unified Thermodynamic Closure Theory
Climate 2025, 13(6), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060116 (registering DOI) - 2 Jun 2025
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Clouds play a central role in regulating incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial emission; hence, they must be internally constrained to prognose Earth’s temperature. At the same time, planetary fluids are inherently turbulent, so the climate state would tend toward maximum entropy production—a
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Clouds play a central role in regulating incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial emission; hence, they must be internally constrained to prognose Earth’s temperature. At the same time, planetary fluids are inherently turbulent, so the climate state would tend toward maximum entropy production—a generalized second law of thermodynamics. Incorporating these requirements, I have previously formulated an aquaplanet model to demonstrate that intrinsic water properties may strongly lower the climate sensitivity to solar irradiance, thereby resolving the faint young Sun paradox (FYSP). In this paper, I extend the model to include other external forcings and show that sensitivity to the reduced outgoing longwave radiation by the elevated pCO2 can be several times greater, but the global temperature remains capped at ~40 °C by the exponential increase in saturated vapor pressure. I further show that planetary albedo augmented by a tropical supercontinent may cool the climate sufficiently to cause tropical glaciation. And since the glacial edge is marked by above-freezing temperature, it abuts an open, co-zonal ocean, thereby obviating the “Snowball Earth” hypothesis. Our theory thus provides a unified framework for interpreting Earth’s diverse climates, including the FYSP, the warm extremes of the Cambrian and Cretaceous, and the tropical glaciations of the Precambrian.
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Open AccessArticle
Uncertain Box–Cox Regression for Modeling the Spatial Coupling of Extreme Weather Events and Economic Impacts in the Chengdu-Chongqing Region
by
Kun Bai, Jun He, Xiaoqing Fan and Liang Fang
Climate 2025, 13(6), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060115 (registering DOI) - 1 Jun 2025
Abstract
In the context of ongoing climate change, extreme weather events are becoming increasingly frequent and unpredictable, posing significant challenges for traditional probability-based methods. This study presents an innovative uncertainty-based Box–Cox regression framework to assess the impacts of climate change factors, specifically temperature and
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In the context of ongoing climate change, extreme weather events are becoming increasingly frequent and unpredictable, posing significant challenges for traditional probability-based methods. This study presents an innovative uncertainty-based Box–Cox regression framework to assess the impacts of climate change factors, specifically temperature and precipitation, on the volatility of extreme weather events in the Chengdu-Chongqing region. To address data imprecision, we establish a new estimation theorem for the Extended Least Squares Estimator (ELSE), proving its existence, uniqueness, unbiasedness, and variance consistency under uncertainty theory. The Mann–Kendall trend test is applied to detect event frequency trends, and a coupling coordination degree model is employed to evaluate the dynamic relationship between climate resources and economic development. The results show that (1) temperature has a more significant impact on the volatility of extreme weather events than precipitation; (2) the thermal resource–economy coupling degree has remained above 0.45 since 2015, indicating a strengthening relationship but suboptimal coordination; and (3) since 2014, the water resource–economy coupling degree has consistently exceeded 0.5, reaching optimal levels and highlighting the growing importance of water resources in regional development. Based on these findings, we recommend enhancing extreme weather monitoring systems, improving infrastructure resilience, optimizing climate-related resource management, and fostering regional cooperation. This study provides a rigorous theoretical and empirical basis for integrating uncertainty modeling into climate–economy analysis. Future work should further explore alternative modeling strategies and validate conclusions using extended datasets.
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Open AccessArticle
Towards the Conceptual Framing of Inclusive Urban Flood Resilience
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Dwayne Shorlon Renville, Netra Chhetri, Chingwen Cheng, Linda Francois and Ruijie Zeng
Climate 2025, 13(6), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060114 (registering DOI) - 1 Jun 2025
Abstract
The governance of cities in low-elevation zones faces many challenges. Notable among these are losses associated with regular pluvial floods and, more so, the threat of impending extreme floods due to climate change and their impacts on residents, especially amongst socially vulnerable groups.
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The governance of cities in low-elevation zones faces many challenges. Notable among these are losses associated with regular pluvial floods and, more so, the threat of impending extreme floods due to climate change and their impacts on residents, especially amongst socially vulnerable groups. This is exacerbated by the reliance on traditionally exclusive approaches to governance. This paper discusses the flood resilience aspect of urban planning by examining the extent of emphasis on inclusiveness in urban flood resilience literature. We relied on the synthesis of inclusive development and flood resilience literature. The findings suggest that, while inclusive development is a burgeoning aspect of development research, and studies on evaluating urban flood resilience are commonplace, the concept of inclusive urban flood resilience is still in its infancy. Furthermore, we found that while inclusive development is neither static nor finite to allow for measuring it in absolute terms, it can be applied or assessed through any or all of its guiding principles. Consequently, together with the well-established methods of implementing and assessing urban flood resilience, we present a preliminary framework for inclusive urban flood resilience as a guide for future scholarly contributions to this composite field. Scholars and practitioners of urban planning in low-elevation zones are encouraged to move away from top–down siloed approaches that result in exclusions and rely more on integrated, inclusive, and socio-ecological pathways to preserve the integrity of cities.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coping with Flooding and Drought)
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Open AccessArticle
Locating Urban Area Heat Waves by Combining Thermal Comfort Index and Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations: The Optimal Placement of Climate Change Infrastructure in a Korean City
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Sinhyung Cho, Sinwon Cho, Seungkwon Jung and Jaekyoung Kim
Climate 2025, 13(6), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060113 - 29 May 2025
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The intensification of extreme temperature events driven by climate change has heightened the vulnerability of urban areas to heatwaves, making it a critical environmental challenge. In this study, we investigate the spatial characteristics of urban heatwave vulnerability in Jungang-dong, Gangneung—a representative mid-sized coastal
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The intensification of extreme temperature events driven by climate change has heightened the vulnerability of urban areas to heatwaves, making it a critical environmental challenge. In this study, we investigate the spatial characteristics of urban heatwave vulnerability in Jungang-dong, Gangneung—a representative mid-sized coastal city in South Korea that experiences a strong urban heat island (UHI) effect due to the prevalent land–sea breeze dynamics, high building density, and low green-space ratio. A representative heatwave day (22 August 2024) was selected using AWS data from the Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA), and hourly meteorological conditions were applied to Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to model the urban microclimates. The thermal stress levels were quantitatively assessed using the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI). The results indicated that, at 13:00, the surface temperatures reached 40 °C and the UTCI values peaked at 43 °C, corresponding to a “Very Strong Heat Stress” level. Approximately 17.4% of the study area was identified as being under extreme thermal stress, particularly in densely built-up zones, roadside corridors with high traffic, and pedestrian commercial areas. Based on these findings, we present spatial analysis results that reflect urban morphological characteristics to guide the optimal allocation of urban cooling strategies, including green (e.g., street trees, urban parks, and vegetated roofs), smart, and engineered infrastructure. These insights are expected to provide a practical foundation for climate adaptation planning and thermal environment improvement in mid-sized urban contexts.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Adaptation and Mitigation in the Urban Environment)
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Open AccessArticle
Citizens and Scientific Perceptions of Ecosystem Services—Assessing Local Controversies over Climate Mitigation Efforts in Drained Wetlands
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Thomas Skou Grindsted, Pernille Almlund, Jesper Holm, Gry Lyngsie, Gary Banta, Kristian Syberg, Henrik Hauggaard-Nielsen, Søren Lund and Simon David Herzog
Climate 2025, 13(6), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060112 - 29 May 2025
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Draining wetland landscapes accelerates climate change, and multilateral support is therefore needed to speed up the transition to new land uses. This paper examines perceptions of ecosystem services (ES) in wetland areas in scientific and civic assessments. The case study area is Denmark’s
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Draining wetland landscapes accelerates climate change, and multilateral support is therefore needed to speed up the transition to new land uses. This paper examines perceptions of ecosystem services (ES) in wetland areas in scientific and civic assessments. The case study area is Denmark’s largest drained wetland system, which is notable for its carbon sequestration potential. The area’s transformation efforts involving public participation offer a unique chance to examine differences between scientific and civic perceptions of ES. This exceptional case is ideal for revealing contextual differences, trade-offs, and controversies between scientific and civic perceptions of ES. Millennium ES Assessment and CICES are used as a conceptual framework for understanding and mapping human–nature interactions in a nature park. However, these systems are, in practice, not sufficiently developed to identify how citizens understand and value ES in real life. Therefore, we analyse perceptions using interviews, collaborative mapping, and media analysis. We compare these to scientific ES mappings based on local data, literature reviews, and fieldwork. The paper concludes that (1) scientific ES asymmetries are important; (2) environmental blind spots in scientific ES are due to its approach to knowledge collection; (3) citizens’ blind spots are due to their everyday life focus and tabooing the issue of local climate mitigation; and (4) science-based ES assessments and accounts are disconnected from local ES controversies. We argue that identifying ES controversies through various scientific methods may improve climate mitigation and restoration efforts if community planning becomes involved.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)
Open AccessArticle
Semi-Annual Climate Modes in the Western Hemisphere
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Mark R. Jury
Climate 2025, 13(6), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060111 - 27 May 2025
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Semi-annual climate oscillations in the Western Hemisphere (20 S–35 N, 150 W–20 E) were studied via empirical orthogonal function (EOF) eigenvector loading patterns and principal component time scores from 1980 to 2023. The spatial loading maximum for 850 hPa zonal wind extended from
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Semi-annual climate oscillations in the Western Hemisphere (20 S–35 N, 150 W–20 E) were studied via empirical orthogonal function (EOF) eigenvector loading patterns and principal component time scores from 1980 to 2023. The spatial loading maximum for 850 hPa zonal wind extended from the north Atlantic to the east Pacific; channeling was evident over the southwestern Caribbean. The eigenvector loading maximum for precipitation reflected an equatorial trough, while the semi-annual SST formed a dipole with loading maxima in upwelling zones off Angola (10 E) and Peru (80 W). Weakened Caribbean trade winds and strengthened tropical convection correlated with a warm Atlantic/cool Pacific pattern (R = 0.46). Wavelet spectral analysis of principal component time scores found a persistent 6-month rhythm disrupted only by major El Nino Southern Oscillation events and anomalous mid-latitude conditions associated with negative-phase Arctic Oscillation. Historical climatologies revealed that 6-month cycles of wind, precipitation, and sea temperature were tightly coupled in the Western Hemisphere by heat surplus in the equatorial ocean diffused by meridional overturning Hadley cells. External forcing emerged in early 2010 when warm anomalies over Canada diverted the subtropical jet, suppressing subtropical trade winds and evaporative cooling and intensifying the equatorial trough across the Western Hemisphere. Climatic trends of increased jet-stream instability suggest that the semi-annual amplitude may grow over time.
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Open AccessReview
From Climate to Cloud: Advancing Fog Detection Through Satellite Imagery
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Andrés Gabriel Arguedas Chaverri, Rogério Hartung Toppa and Kelly Cristina Tonello
Climate 2025, 13(6), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060110 - 27 May 2025
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The broad spatiotemporal coverage provided by satellite remote sensing is fundamental for monitoring fog events, a phenomenon that impacts transportation, agriculture, and ecosystem functioning. Despite advances in remote sensing technology, significant knowledge gaps remain regarding the application of these techniques to fog detection,
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The broad spatiotemporal coverage provided by satellite remote sensing is fundamental for monitoring fog events, a phenomenon that impacts transportation, agriculture, and ecosystem functioning. Despite advances in remote sensing technology, significant knowledge gaps remain regarding the application of these techniques to fog detection, especially over terrestrial ecosystems. This scoping review synthesizes the trends in methods used for fog detection by analyzing 38 papers retrieved from Scopus and Web of Science. Only studies that utilized satellite imagery to analyze the spatiotemporal dynamics of fog were included. Articles that employed non-satellite methodologies or focused on processes other than the detection, formation, or identification of fog events were excluded. In addition to a term co-occurrence analysis of abstracts using VOSviewer, this study examines key parameters of the detection methods—including sensor type, spectral bands, temporal resolution, and algorithmic approaches (e.g., threshold methods and deep learning techniques)—to evaluate their evolution and current limitations. Our results reveal that while approximately 53% of studies rely on geostationary satellite data (95% CI: 36.7–68.5%), favored for their high temporal resolution, the remaining 47% employ polar-orbiting sensors (95% CI: 31.5–63.2%) that offer superior spatial resolution. Notably, most research has concentrated on maritime fog detection, with few studies extending these techniques to complex terrestrial environments. The review highlights critical gaps in current approaches and proposes an integrated framework that combines traditional brightness temperature difference methods with emerging machine learning techniques, which could advance fog detection in diverse settings.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Hydrological Remote Sensing)
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Open AccessArticle
Wildfire Risk Assessment Using the Fire Weather Index (FWI) in Greece
by
Effie Kostopoulou and George Stavridis
Climate 2025, 13(6), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060109 - 26 May 2025
Abstract
This study assesses future wildfire risk in Greece using the Fire Weather Index (FWI), based on data from the Copernicus Climate Change Service. Historical conditions (1971–2000) and future projections (2069–2098) under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios were analyzed, with a primary focus on the
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This study assesses future wildfire risk in Greece using the Fire Weather Index (FWI), based on data from the Copernicus Climate Change Service. Historical conditions (1971–2000) and future projections (2069–2098) under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios were analyzed, with a primary focus on the core fire season (May–October) and consideration of April and November to evaluate potential seasonal extension. The results show a significant shift toward higher fire risk classes, with the “very high” category increasing from 24% historically to 31% under RCP4.5 and 37% under RCP8.5, and the “extreme” class rising from 4% to 11% and 16%, respectively. Southern Greece, especially Crete, and the Dodecanese, is projected to experience the most severe increases. These changes, driven by rising temperatures and intensified drought conditions, indicate an increased likelihood of extreme fire events, posing increased risks to ecosystems, infrastructure, and regional economies. The findings highlight the need for targeted adaptation and fire management strategies.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change Impacts at Various Geographical Scales (2nd Edition))
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Open AccessArticle
Heat Waves in Portugal During the 2001–2024 Period: An Overview
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A. Virgílio M. Oliveira, António M. Raimundo, Adélio R. Gaspar and Divo A. Quintela
Climate 2025, 13(6), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060108 - 26 May 2025
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The present contribution addresses the Heat Waves (HWs) which occurred in Portugal’s mainland during the first 24 years of the XXI century: the number of HWs, their frequency, duration and geographic localization, among other impacts, are described. In a complementary perspective, due to
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The present contribution addresses the Heat Waves (HWs) which occurred in Portugal’s mainland during the first 24 years of the XXI century: the number of HWs, their frequency, duration and geographic localization, among other impacts, are described. In a complementary perspective, due to the significant impacts of the 2003 HW, specifically in terms of mortality, a more detailed analysis of this event is performed. For the present analysis, HWs were identified using a modified version of the Heat Wave Duration Index (HWDI) proposed by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). During the XXI century, between 2001 and 2024, 95 HWs occurred in the Portuguese mainland. In 2024, eight HWs occurred, followed by 2009, 2015 and 2017, with seven HWs each; in terms of monthly distribution, August (17) and May (16) displayed the highest values. HWs are now included in the World Health Organization agenda of natural hazards, enhancing the importance of these events. It is time to start considering HWs and their significant impacts as an important issue, especially in countries with older populations, like Portugal.
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Open AccessArticle
Regime Change in Top of the Atmosphere Radiation Fluxes: Implications for Understanding Earth’s Energy Imbalance
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Roger N. Jones and James H. Ricketts
Climate 2025, 13(6), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060107 - 24 May 2025
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Earth’s energy imbalance (EEI) is a major indicator of climate change. Its metrics are top of the atmosphere radiation imbalance (EEI TOA) and net internal heat uptake. Both EEI and temperature are expected to respond gradually to forcing on annual timescales. This expectation
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Earth’s energy imbalance (EEI) is a major indicator of climate change. Its metrics are top of the atmosphere radiation imbalance (EEI TOA) and net internal heat uptake. Both EEI and temperature are expected to respond gradually to forcing on annual timescales. This expectation was tested by analyzing regime changes in the inputs to EEI TOA along with increasing ocean heat content (OHC). Outward longwave radiation (OLR) displayed rapid shifts in three observational and two reanalysis records. The reanalysis records also contained shifts in surface fluxes and temperature. OLR, outward shortwave radiation (OSR) and TOA net radiation (Net) from the CERES Energy Balanced and Filled Ed-4.2.1 (2001–2023) record and from 27 CMIP5 historical and RCP4.5 forced simulations 1861–2100, were also analyzed. All variables from CERES contained shifts but the record was too short to confirm regime changes. Contributions of OLR and OSR to net showed high complementarity over space and time. EEI TOA was −0.47 ± 0.11 W m−2 in 2001–2011 and −1.09 ± 0.11 W m−2 in 2012–2023. Reduced OSR due to cloud feedback was a major contributor, coinciding with rapid increases in sea surface temperatures in 2014. Despite widely varying OLR and OSR, 26/27 climate models produced stable regimes for net radiation. EEI TOA was neutral from 1861, shifting downward in the 26 reliable records between 1963 and 1995, with 25 records showing it stabilizing by 2039. To investigate heat uptake, temperature and OHC 1955/57–2023 was analyzed for regime change in the 100 m, 700 m and 2000 m layers. The 100 m layer, about one third of total heat content, was dominated by regimes. Increases became more gradual with depth. Annual changes between the 700 m layer and 1300 m beneath were negatively correlated (−0.67), with delayed oscillations during lag years 2–9. Heat uptake at depth is dynamic. These changes reveal a complex thermodynamic response to gradual forcing. We outline a complex arrangement of naturally evolved heat engines, dominated by a dissipative heat engine nested within a radiative engine. EEI is a property of the dissipative heat engine. This far-from-equilibrium natural engine has evolved to take the path of least resistance while being constrained by its maximum power limit (~2 W m−2). It is open to the radiative engine, receiving solar radiation and emitting scattered shortwave and longwave radiation. Steady states maximize entropy within the dissipative engine by regulating spatial patterns in surface variables that influence outgoing OLR and OSR. Regime shifts to warmer climates balance the cost of greater irreversibility with increased energy rate density. The result is the regulation of EEI TOA through a form of thermodynamic metabolism.
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Open AccessArticle
Decadal Modulation of Summertime Northwestern Pacific Subtropical High Linked to Indian Ocean Basin Warming
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Takashi Mochizuki and Yuta Ando
Climate 2025, 13(6), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13060106 - 24 May 2025
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The Northwestern Pacific Subtropical High (NPSH), usually enhanced by the basin-scale warming of the Indian Ocean (IOBW), plays a major role in controlling the summertime East Asian climate. To assess factors contributing to the decadal modulation of the NPSH and IOBW relationship in
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The Northwestern Pacific Subtropical High (NPSH), usually enhanced by the basin-scale warming of the Indian Ocean (IOBW), plays a major role in controlling the summertime East Asian climate. To assess factors contributing to the decadal modulation of the NPSH and IOBW relationship in recent years, we conducted sensitivity experiments using an atmospheric general circulation model. We particularly focused on decadal-scale differences between the periods of 1982–2001 and 2002–2021, with the contribution of the climatological sea surface temperature (SST) as the background, in combination with the tropical Pacific SST anomaly in relation to the rapid or slow decay of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The results indicate that the IOBW-related SST anomalies in the Indian and tropical Pacific Oceans—which, overall, represent the well-known characteristics of the so-called Indo-western Pacific Ocean Capacitor effects—cooperatively enhanced the NPSH in the earlier period (1982–2001). On the other hand, the suppressed and westward-shifted SST anomalies in the tropical Pacific Ocean and the resultant changes in the diabatic heating of cumulus convection suppressed the NPSH enhancement in recent years (2002–2021). These results indicate that the modulation in the NPSH responses linked to the IOBW is primarily due to the so-called ENSO diversity rather than climatology.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate Dynamics and Modelling)
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Open AccessArticle
Historical and Future Windstorms in the Northeastern United States
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Sara C. Pryor, Jacob J. Coburn, Fred W. Letson, Xin Zhou, Melissa S. Bukovsky and Rebecca J. Barthelmie
Climate 2025, 13(5), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050105 - 20 May 2025
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Large-scale windstorms represent an important atmospheric hazard in the Northeastern US (NE) and are associated with substantial socioeconomic losses. Regional simulations performed with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model using lateral boundary conditions from three Earth System Models (ESMs: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
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Large-scale windstorms represent an important atmospheric hazard in the Northeastern US (NE) and are associated with substantial socioeconomic losses. Regional simulations performed with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model using lateral boundary conditions from three Earth System Models (ESMs: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), Hadley Centre Global Environment Model (HadGEM) and Max Planck Institute (MPI)) are used to quantify possible future changes in windstorm characteristics and/or changes in the parent cyclone types responsible for windstorms. WRF nested within MPI ESM best represents important aspects of historical windstorms and the cyclone types responsible for generating windstorms compared with a reference simulation performed with the ERA-Interim reanalysis for the historical climate. The spatial scale and frequency of the largest windstorms in each simulation defined using the greatest extent of exceedance of local 99.9th percentile wind speeds (U > U999) plus 50-year return period wind speeds (U50,RP) do not exhibit secular trends. Projections of extreme wind speeds and windstorm intensity/frequency/geolocation and dominant parent cyclone type associated with windstorms vary markedly across the simulations. Only the MPI nested simulations indicate statistically significant differences in windstorm spatial scale, frequency and intensity over the NE in the future and historical periods. This model chain, which also exhibits the highest fidelity in the historical climate, yields evidence of future increases in 99.9th percentile 10 m height wind speeds, the frequency of simultaneous U > U999 over a substantial fraction (5–25%) of the NE and the frequency of maximum wind speeds above 22.5 ms−1. These geophysical changes, coupled with a projected doubling of population, leads to a projected tripling of a socioeconomic loss index, and hence risk to human systems, from future windstorms.
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Open AccessArticle
The Relationship of Climate Change and Malaria Incidence in the Gambella Region, Ethiopia
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Geteneh Moges Assefa, Muluken Desalegn Muluneh and Zewdie Aderaw Alemu
Climate 2025, 13(5), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050104 - 17 May 2025
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Background: This study investigates the relationship between climate variables and malaria incidence in Ethiopia’s Gambella region, a hotspot for malaria transmission. Methods: Utilizing 30 years of satellite-derived climate data and 10 years of malaria incidence records from the Ethiopian Public Health Institute, this
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Background: This study investigates the relationship between climate variables and malaria incidence in Ethiopia’s Gambella region, a hotspot for malaria transmission. Methods: Utilizing 30 years of satellite-derived climate data and 10 years of malaria incidence records from the Ethiopian Public Health Institute, this research analyzed trends and correlations. Climate variables, including rainfall, temperature, and relative humidity, were extracted using GPS data and global climate models from NASA. Autoregressive modeling was employed to assess the impact of these variables on malaria incidence at different time lags (lag 0, 1, and 2). Results: The analysis revealed significant upward trends in rainfall, relative humidity, and temperature over the 30-year period, coinciding with a rise in malaria cases over the past decade. Rainfall exhibited delayed effects on malaria incidence, while relative humidity demonstrated both immediate and persistent impacts. Relative humidity at lag 0 had the strongest influence (IRR = 1.002, 95% CI: 1.001–1.003), whereas temperature showed minimal effects (IRR = 1.000, 95% CI: 1.000–1.001). Conclusions: These findings underscore the critical role of climate variables in driving malaria transmission and highlight the urgent need for climate adaptation strategies, early warning systems, and strengthened health infrastructure. Leveraging climate data for predictive modeling and expanding targeted interventions, such as insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), is essential to mitigate climate-driven malaria risks and protect vulnerable communities in Gambella and similar regions
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Open AccessArticle
Recent Increasing Trend in Fire Activity over Southern India Inferred from Two Decades of MODIS Satellite Measurements
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S. Vijaya Kumar, S. Ravindra Babu, M. Roja Raman, K. Sunilkumar, N. Narasimha Rao and M. Ravisankar
Climate 2025, 13(5), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050103 - 16 May 2025
Abstract
With rising global temperatures attributed to climate change, an increase in fire occurrences worldwide is anticipated. Therefore, a detailed examination of changing fire patterns is essential to improve our understanding of effective control strategies. This study analyzes the long-term trends of fire activity
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With rising global temperatures attributed to climate change, an increase in fire occurrences worldwide is anticipated. Therefore, a detailed examination of changing fire patterns is essential to improve our understanding of effective control strategies. This study analyzes the long-term trends of fire activity in Southern India (8–20° N, 73–85° E), utilizing MODIS active fire count data from January 2003 to December 2023. The climatological monthly mean results show that Southern India experiences heightened fire activity from December to May, reaching a peak in March. Yearly variations indicate that the highest fire counts occurred in 2021, followed by 2023, 2012, and 2018. The three most significant fire years in recent history reflect an upward trend in fire activity over the past decade, confirming insights from annual trend analysis. The correlation between inter-annual fire anomalies and different meteorological factors reveals a notable negative relationship with precipitation and soil moisture and a positive relationship with surface air temperature (SAT). Soil moisture demonstrates a stronger correlation (−0.45) than precipitation and SAT. In summary, long-term trends show a noteworthy annual increase of 3%. Additionally, monthly trends reveal interesting rising patterns in October, November, December, and January with higher significance levels. Our research supports regional climate action initiatives and policies addressing fire incidents in Southern India in light of the ongoing warming crisis.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)
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Open AccessSystematic Review
Green Banking Practices, Opportunities, and Challenges for Banks: A Systematic Review
by
Martin Kamau Muchiri, Szilvia Kesmarki Erdei-Gally and Maria Fekete-Farkas
Climate 2025, 13(5), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050102 - 14 May 2025
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Green banking has become a concept of interest, particularly with the focus on the role played by banks in pursuing Sustainable Development Goal 13 on climate action. This study is distinguished from previous ones in that it aimed at investigating the multi-regional view
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Green banking has become a concept of interest, particularly with the focus on the role played by banks in pursuing Sustainable Development Goal 13 on climate action. This study is distinguished from previous ones in that it aimed at investigating the multi-regional view on green banking practices/activities around the world with a special emphasis on the opportunities and challenges that various banks encounter in different geographical areas. A systematic review approach was adopted based on the Web of Science and Scopus databases, in which 159 articles were retrieved and 62 articles synthesized through a thematic analysis. The research process was demonstrated through a Prisma 2020 flowchart. Key multiregional green banking activities identified include digital banking, green loan or sukuk products for Islam-dominated economies, green services and investments, and financing of green infrastructure. In essence, the implementation of green banking is either directly through active green lending and greening their operations or indirectly through enhancing conditions. The key challenges identified include regulatory handles, social economic and culture hinderances, transition risk and the high cost of compliance, greenwashing concerns, and weak investor confidence. The most prevalent opportunities included green banking as a strategic competitive advantage, emerging market niche, and as a strategy for long-term climate risk management.
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Open AccessArticle
Influences of Climate Factors and Tree Characteristics on Carbon Storage in Longan Orchards, Thailand
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Yaowatat Boongla, Wanlapa Outong, Thaneeya Chetiyanukornkul and Supachai Changphuek
Climate 2025, 13(5), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050101 - 13 May 2025
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This research aimed to investigate the above-ground biomass and carbon storage in the above-ground biomass of longan trees located in Lumphun and Surin Provinces. The species, tree height, and diameter at ground level were measured at the study site. The diameter-based above-ground biomass
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This research aimed to investigate the above-ground biomass and carbon storage in the above-ground biomass of longan trees located in Lumphun and Surin Provinces. The species, tree height, and diameter at ground level were measured at the study site. The diameter-based above-ground biomass (AGB) was calculated using the allometric equation for the longan tree plantation, along with carbon storage. It was then multiplied by 0.5 to estimate the carbon storage (CS) in the AGB. In Lamphun Province, longan trees of the Edo species totaled 319 per 2.5 ha, with an average biomass of 180.06 kg, resulting in an estimated carbon storage of 1.04 Mg C/ha. In Surin Province, longan trees of the Paungtong species totaled 227 per 1.6 ha, with an average biomass of 149.63 kg and an estimated carbon storage of 0.86 Mg C/ha. Our findings show that tree characteristics such as longan tree diameter, height, and age are associated with biomass and carbon storage, and that climate variation may affect the health of longan trees and plantation productivity. Thus, this study serves as a useful guide for understanding the carbon storage of longan trees and improving longan management.
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Projected Impacts of Climate and Land Use Change on Endemic Plant Distributions in a Mediterranean Island Hotspot: The Case of Evvia (Aegean, Greece)
by
Konstantinos Kougioumoutzis, Ioannis P. Kokkoris, Panayiotis Trigas, Arne Strid and Panayotis Dimopoulos
Climate 2025, 13(5), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050100 - 13 May 2025
Abstract
Anthropogenic climate and land use change pose major threats to island floras worldwide, yet few studies have integrated these drivers in a single vulnerability assessment. Here, we examine the endemic flora of Evvia, the second-largest Aegean island in Greece and an important biodiversity
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Anthropogenic climate and land use change pose major threats to island floras worldwide, yet few studies have integrated these drivers in a single vulnerability assessment. Here, we examine the endemic flora of Evvia, the second-largest Aegean island in Greece and an important biodiversity hotspot, as a model system to address how these disturbances may reshape species distributions, community composition, and phylogenetic diversity patterns. We used species distribution models under the Ensemble of Small Models and the ENphylo framework, specifically designed to overcome parameter uncertainty in rare species with inherently limited occurrence records. By integrating climate projections and dynamic land use data, we forecasted potential range shifts, habitat fragmentation, and biodiversity patterns for 114 endemic taxa through the year 2100. We addressed transferability uncertainty, a key challenge in projecting distributions under novel conditions, using the Shape framework extrapolation analysis, thus ensuring robust model projections. Our findings reveal pronounced projected range contractions and increased habitat fragmentation for all studied taxa, with more severe impacts on single-island endemics. Our models demonstrated high concordance with established IUCN Red List assessments, validating their ecological relevance despite the sample size limitations of single-island endemics. Current biodiversity hotspots, primarily located in mountainous regions, are expected to shift towards lowland areas, probably becoming extinction hotspots due to projected species losses, especially for Evvia’s single-island endemics. Emerging hotspot analysis identified new biodiversity centres in lowland zones, while high-altitude areas showed sporadic hotspot patterns. Temporal beta diversity analysis indicated higher species turnover of distantly related taxa at higher elevations, with closely related species clustering at lower altitudes. This pattern suggests a homogenisation of plant communities in lowland areas. The assessment of protected area effectiveness revealed that while 94.6% of current biodiversity hotspots are within protected zones, this coverage is projected to decline by 2100. Our analysis identified conservation gaps, highlighting areas requiring urgent protection to preserve future biodiversity. Our study reveals valuable information regarding the vulnerability of island endemic floras to global change, offering a framework applicable to other insular systems. Our findings demonstrate that adaptive conservation strategies should account for projected biodiversity shifts and serve as a warning for other insular biodiversity hotspots, urging immediate actions to maintain the unique evolutionary heritage of islands.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)
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Open AccessArticle
Sustainability Assessment and Resource Utilization of Agro-Processing Waste in Biogas Energy Production
by
Viktor Koval, Dzintra Atstāja, Liliya Filipishyna, Viktoriia Udovychenko, Halyna Kryshtal and Yaroslav Gontaruk
Climate 2025, 13(5), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050099 - 11 May 2025
Abstract
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Biogas production from agricultural waste reduces methane emissions and addresses climate change challenges by converting livestock and organic waste into energy. This study analyzed biogas production in agricultural enterprises under the European Green Deal, the advantages of biogas as an energy source, and
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Biogas production from agricultural waste reduces methane emissions and addresses climate change challenges by converting livestock and organic waste into energy. This study analyzed biogas production in agricultural enterprises under the European Green Deal, the advantages of biogas as an energy source, and the use of digestate in agriculture. The raw material for biogas production from agro-industrial wastes in Ukraine has been investigated, showing that the country’s biogas production potential amounts to 34.59 billion m3, including 0.65 billion m3 from processing plant wastes. The main types of biomass that can be used for biogas production in Ukraine are crop residues (71.4%), manure (26.6%), and food industry waste (2.0%). The implementation of biogas production projects will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 3.98 billion tons of CO2 and increase profits through electricity sales. This study examines the barriers and prospects for the development of electricity generation from biogas in Ukraine in the context of the integration of Ukraine’s energy system into the EU energy space. Directions for developing the biogas industry, focusing on electricity production within the framework of European decarbonization initiatives, will enhance the energy security of Ukraine and the EU. Estimating the energy production from agricultural waste allows for determining biogas output from organic waste. A regional biogas cluster model was developed based on the agro-industrial complex, which combines the production of biogas, electricity, water, and biofertilizers with increased efficiency and regional sustainable development.
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Open AccessArticle
How Do Climate Concerns and Value Orientation Among Bankers Influence Agricultural Financing and Development?
by
Khatun Mst Asma, Md Rony Masud and Koji Kotani
Climate 2025, 13(5), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050098 - 9 May 2025
Abstract
Agricultural financing is crucial for economic development and sustainability. However, little is known about how bankers’ concerns about climate change influence their decision-making for agricultural financing and development and how these concerns are related to possible future performance. This study investigates a research
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Agricultural financing is crucial for economic development and sustainability. However, little is known about how bankers’ concerns about climate change influence their decision-making for agricultural financing and development and how these concerns are related to possible future performance. This study investigates a research question “how do bankers’ climate concerns and value orientation influence agricultural financing and development?” and the hypotheses “bankers’ climate concerns are negatively related to agricultural financing and development, whereas their value orientation for future generations is positively associated with these endeavors”. We conduct questionnaire surveys and collect data on climate concerns, prosocial attitude for future generations and sociodemographic & bank related information from 596 bankers at three areas in Bangladesh. The results reveal three main findings. First, bankers who have high levels of climate concerns tend to be less optimistic about agricultural financing and development. Second, bankers who live in high climate-change areas tend to have more severe climate concerns and darker prospectives in agricultural financing and development than those in low climate-change areas. Third, bankers who have a high value orientation for future generations are likely to be positive about future agricultural financing and development. Overall, our findings suggest that future agricultural financing and development shall be discouraged as climate change becomes severe, hitting low-land areas, such as Bangladesh, through the lens of bankers’ perceptions, unless the bankers possess high concerns for future generations. To counter such negative possibilities, a new agricultural financing scheme, such as “agricultural green banking”, shall be necessary to implement.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Economics)
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Open AccessArticle
El Niño Magnitude and Western Pacific Warm Pool Displacement. Part II: Future Changes Under Global Warming
by
Zhuoxin Gu and De-Zheng Sun
Climate 2025, 13(5), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13050097 - 9 May 2025
Abstract
Observations reveal a strong correlation between the magnitude of El Niño and the displacement of the eastern edge of the western Pacific warm pool (WPWP). In Part I, this relationship was examined in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) models using
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Observations reveal a strong correlation between the magnitude of El Niño and the displacement of the eastern edge of the western Pacific warm pool (WPWP). In Part I, this relationship was examined in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) models using their historical simulations, and it was found to be comparable to that in the observations. The present study extends the analysis to future projections under two Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) scenarios—SSP245 and SSP585—to assess whether this strong relationship persists under global warming. It is found that El Niño magnitude and WPWP boundary displacement in most models under global warming are as strongly correlated as in the observations and their historical simulations. Moreover, most models project that stronger El Niño events will be accompanied by a greater eastward displacement of the WPWP boundary. For models with a positive response, the ensemble projects an increase in El Niño magnitude of 0.21 ± 0.03 °C (0.20 ± 0.03 °C) under the SSP245 (SSP585) scenario, accompanied by an eastward displacement of the WPWP by 11.7 ± 1.3° (11.1 ± 1.0°) in longitude. These results further support the notion that El Niño is a consequence of the eastward extension of the WPWP.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Dynamics and Impacts of Ocean-Atmosphere Coupling on Regional and Global Climate)
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