Biosensors

12 pages, 1937 KB

Open AccessArticle

Origins of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Determined Using a Hybridization Assay of Mitochondrial DNA on a Microfluidic Biochip

by Lin Wang, Christopher Oberc, Krzysztof P. Lubieniecki, William S. Davidson and Paul C. H. Li

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040231 - 21 Apr 2026

Viewed by 720

Abstract

A hybridization assay based on the microfluidic biochip was developed to identify the origin of the Atlantic salmon species. Among the 215 single nucleotide polymorphic (SNP) sites found in the mtDNA of Salmo salar, we located five sites in devising our assay [...] Read more.

A hybridization assay based on the microfluidic biochip was developed to identify the origin of the Atlantic salmon species. Among the 215 single nucleotide polymorphic (SNP) sites found in the mtDNA of Salmo salar, we located five sites in devising our assay method. We found two sites that worked, while the others generated either insufficient signals or specificity. We have successfully identified the North American origin of the three samples, as confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Microfluidic Devices and Lab-on-Chip (Bio)sensors—2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 3631 KB

Open AccessArticle

Size Enlargement Enabled Functional Profiling of Extracellular Vesicle at Single-Particle Level

by Jia Yao, Xianyue Ji, Xingyu Tao, Ziyan Li, Shao Su and Xianguang Ding

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040230 - 21 Apr 2026

Viewed by 856

Abstract

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising biomarkers for liquid biopsy, but their clinical application is limited by intrinsic heterogeneity and the lack of methods capable of resolving functionally distinct EV subpopulations at the single-vesicle level. Conventional bulk analyses obscure rare but clinically relevant EV [...] Read more.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising biomarkers for liquid biopsy, but their clinical application is limited by intrinsic heterogeneity and the lack of methods capable of resolving functionally distinct EV subpopulations at the single-vesicle level. Conventional bulk analyses obscure rare but clinically relevant EV subsets, while most single-EV approaches focus on physical properties or surface markers, with limited access to intravesicular functional information. Here, we report a fusion-enabled EV detection strategy at the single-particle level for functional profiling of macrophage-derived EVs. Liposomal probes encapsulating L-arginine, NADPH, and a nitric oxide (NO)-responsive fluorescent dye are engineered to fuse with EV membranes, delivering substrates into the vesicle lumen. In macrophage-derived EVs, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) catalyzes NO production, activating the fluorescent probe and generating a localized signal within individual vesicles. Signal generation is confined to vesicle-restricted reactions, ensuring specificity and minimizing background. The formation of hybrid vesicles further facilitates optical detection using conventional fluorescence microscopy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensors for Sensitive and Rapid Detection)

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20 pages, 4898 KB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Robust and Multimodal PVA/Aramid Nanofiber/MXene Organogel Sensors for Advanced Human–Machine Interfaces

by Guofan Zeng, Leiting Liao, Zehong Wu, Jinye Chen, Peidi Zhou, Yihan Qiu and Mingcen Weng

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040229 - 20 Apr 2026

Viewed by 753

Abstract

Flexible and wearable electronics require soft sensing materials that balance mechanical compliance, stable signal transduction, and durability for human–machine interfaces (HMIs). To address the limitations of single-filler systems, we propose a poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/aramid nanofiber (ANF)/MXene organogel (PAM) as a multifunctional soft platform. [...] Read more.

Flexible and wearable electronics require soft sensing materials that balance mechanical compliance, stable signal transduction, and durability for human–machine interfaces (HMIs). To address the limitations of single-filler systems, we propose a poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/aramid nanofiber (ANF)/MXene organogel (PAM) as a multifunctional soft platform. This design integrates a PVA physically crosslinked network with ANF for mechanical reinforcement and MXene for electrical functionality. The optimized PAM composite exhibits outstanding mechanical properties, including a fracture stress of 2931 kPa, a fracture strain of 676%, and a fracture toughness of 9.04 MJ m⁻³. Importantly, PAM serves as a single material platform configurable into three sensing modalities. The resistive strain sensor achieves a gauge factor of 3.1 over 10–100% strain and enables the reliable recognition of human joint movements and gestures. The capacitive pressure sensor delivers a sensitivity of 0.298 kPa⁻¹, rapid response/recovery times of 30/10 ms, and is integrated with a wireless module to control a smart car. Furthermore, the PAM-based triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) delivers excellent electrical outputs (V_oc = 123 V, I_sc = 0.52 μA, Q_sc = 58 nC) and functions as a self-powered smart handwriting pad, achieving a machine-learning-based recognition accuracy of 97.6%. This work demonstrates the immense potential of the PAM organogel for advanced, self-powered HMIs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flexible and Stretchable Biosensors)

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14 pages, 2371 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multimodal Phase-Space Dynamics Fusion for Robust Ischemia Screening: An Edge-AI Paradigm with SERF Magnetocardiography

by Keyi Li, Xiangyang Zhou, Yifan Jia, Ruizhe Wang, Yidi Cao, Jiaojiao Pang, Rui Shang, Yadan Zhang, Yangyang Cui, Dong Xu and Min Xiang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040228 - 20 Apr 2026

Viewed by 855

Abstract

Background: Myocardial ischemia (MI) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and requires timely and reliable detection. Although Spin-Exchange Relaxation-Free (SERF) magnetocardiography (MCG) provides femtotesla-level sensitivity for identifying non-linear cardiac repolarization anomalies, its clinical deployment is currently impeded by the computational [...] Read more.

Background: Myocardial ischemia (MI) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and requires timely and reliable detection. Although Spin-Exchange Relaxation-Free (SERF) magnetocardiography (MCG) provides femtotesla-level sensitivity for identifying non-linear cardiac repolarization anomalies, its clinical deployment is currently impeded by the computational bottlenecks inherent to portable edge platforms. Methods: We propose a “Sensor-to-Image” Edge-AI framework that links quantum sensing with computer vision. Single-channel SERF-MCG signals from a large cohort of 2118 subjects (1135 Healthy, 983 Ischemia) were transformed into phase-space images using three distinct encoding modalities: Recurrence Plots (RP), Gramian Angular Summation Fields (GASF), and Markov Transition Fields (MTF). These visual representations were subsequently analyzed by a streamlined MobileNetV3-Small architecture, optimized for low-latency inference. To maximize diagnostic precision, an adaptive weighted fusion mechanism was engineered to combine the chaotic specificity captured by RP with the morphological sensitivity of GASF through a validation-optimized fixed global weighting strategy. Results: In our experiments, the fusion model achieved an Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.865, which was higher than the 1D-CNN baseline (AUC 0.857) and the single-modality models. Notably, the fusion strategy significantly elevated sensitivity to 88.3% while maintaining a specificity of 66.5%. Although specificity is moderate, this trade-off prioritizes high sensitivity to minimize false negatives in pre-hospital screening scenarios. The average inference time was 4.7 ms per sample on a standard CPU, suggesting suitability for real-time Point-of-Care (PoC) scenarios under further on-device validation. Conclusions: The results suggest that multi-view phase-space fusion can capture subtle spatio-temporal changes associated with ischemia. The proposed lightweight framework may support the development of portable SERF-MCG systems with embedded AI screening. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensor and Bioelectronic Devices)

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18 pages, 6504 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Monitoring of the Mechanical Properties of Tobacco Cells Under Salt Stress by Double Resonator Piezoelectric Cytometry

by Taomin Zhou, Tiean Zhou, Zhicheng Kong, Chengfang Tan and Weisong Pan

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040227 - 20 Apr 2026

Viewed by 589

Abstract

Soil salinity is a major abiotic stressor that constrains plant growth and development, yet the coordinated regulatory mechanisms underlying salt stress impacts on plant cell mechanical properties and the cytoskeleton remain elusive. In this study, tobacco suspension cells were employed as a model [...] Read more.

Soil salinity is a major abiotic stressor that constrains plant growth and development, yet the coordinated regulatory mechanisms underlying salt stress impacts on plant cell mechanical properties and the cytoskeleton remain elusive. In this study, tobacco suspension cells were employed as a model system. Combining mechanical measurements, fluorescence microscopy imaging, and bright-field morphological observation, we systematically characterized the dynamic response patterns of cell-generated surface stress (ΔS), cell viscoelastic index (CVI), microfilament cytoskeleton structure, as well as cell morphology and plasmolysis under NaCl stress ranging from 50 to 150 mmol/L. The results revealed three distinct response thresholds: 50 mmol/L NaCl treatment induced only transient ΔS fluctuations and mild plasmolysis, with no significant changes in CVI or microfilament fluorescence intensity, suggesting a safe tolerance threshold. The 75–100 mmol/L NaCl treatments triggered reversible “rise–recovery” mechanical responses in ΔS and CVI. The microfilament cytoskeleton showed minor structural adjustments, and plasmolysis increased gradually but remained reversible, defining this range as a reversible acclimation phase. The 125–150 mmol/L NaCl treatment caused an irreversible decline in ΔS (with a sharp instantaneous drop at 150 mmol/L). CVI variations diminished and stabilized after 6 h. The microfilament cytoskeleton suffered progressive disruption, as fluorescence intensity dropped to 1% of the control group at 150 mmol/L, accompanied by severe plasmolysis and protoplast shrinkage, indicating irreversible cellular damage. These findings demonstrate a concentration-dependent gradient effect of NaCl stress, highlighting tight coordination between mechanical properties, cytoskeletal integrity, and morphological adaptation. This work provides critical cytological insights into the molecular regulation of plant salt stress responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensing Applications for Cell Monitoring—2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 36728 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electrocatalytic Activity of Electrospun Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes/Poly(3-aminobenzylamine) Composite for Detection of Dopamine in Human Urine

by Tharathip Khueanpech and Saengrawee Sriwichai

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040226 - 20 Apr 2026

Viewed by 789

Abstract

A nanostructured sensing platform based on electrospun functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes/poly(3-aminobenzylamine) (FMWCNTs/P3ABA) was developed for the electrochemical detection of dopamine (DA) on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass substrate. The electrochemical characteristics of the electrodes were investigated by chronocoulometry (CC) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) [...] Read more.

A nanostructured sensing platform based on electrospun functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes/poly(3-aminobenzylamine) (FMWCNTs/P3ABA) was developed for the electrochemical detection of dopamine (DA) on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass substrate. The electrochemical characteristics of the electrodes were investigated by chronocoulometry (CC) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) in phosphate-buffered saline solution containing K₃[Fe(CN)₆] as a redox mediator. The zeta potential analysis confirmed the presence of a stable surface charge that favors electrostatic interaction with DA molecules. The DA detection was performed in human urine by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) over a potential of −0.2 to 0.8 V and at scan rate of 5 mV s⁻¹, where the FMWCNTs/P3ABA nanofiber electrode exhibited a high sensitivity of 1.502 µA cm⁻² nM⁻¹, a linear detection range of 10–500 nM (R² = 0.992), and a limit of detection of 1.753 nM. The sensor exhibited stable and reproducible responses, and the fibrous composite effectively discriminated DA from common electroactive interferents, including ascorbic acid, uric acid, creatinine, and glucose. Furthermore, reliable dopamine quantification in human urine samples demonstrates the strong potential of the electrospun FMWCNTs/P3ABA composite nanofiber platform for practical bioanalytical and non-invasive sensing applications in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrochemical Biosensors and Their Applications)

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16 pages, 1335 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Portable Fluorometer for the Detection of Glyphosate

by Nathanael B. Smith, Adrian S. Rizk, Owen K. Rizk and Shahir S. Rizk

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040225 - 20 Apr 2026

Viewed by 697

Abstract

Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide worldwide, but many current detection methods rely on lab-based chromatography, requiring costly equipment and expert users. Here, we describe a low-cost, field-deployable fluorescence biosensing platform for glyphosate detection in water and soil. An engineered variant of [...] Read more.

Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide worldwide, but many current detection methods rely on lab-based chromatography, requiring costly equipment and expert users. Here, we describe a low-cost, field-deployable fluorescence biosensing platform for glyphosate detection in water and soil. An engineered variant of the Escherichia coli periplasmic binding protein PhnD was optimized through strategic fluorophore placement to produce a robust fluorescence signal increase upon glyphosate binding. The biosensor was integrated into a self-contained, 3D-printed device that functions as a miniature fluorometer, providing a simple yes-or-no output for non-expert users while retaining access to raw fluorescence data. The device exhibits nanomolar fluorescence sensitivity with results comparable to a benchtop fluorometer. Using this platform, glyphosate was reliably detected in buffered solutions, commercial herbicides, tap water, and soil extracts. To mitigate false positives arising from phosphate interference, we developed a dual-sensor strategy incorporating an independent phosphate biosensor and a second-generation device capable of multi-wavelength fluorescence detection. Together, these results demonstrate an affordable and versatile biosensing platform with strong potential for field-based environmental monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluorescent Sensors for Biological and Chemical Detection)

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15 pages, 3849 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Sensing of Dopamine with P-g-C₃N₄/ZIF-67/CPE Composite Electrodes

by Yan Deng, Yixin Liao, Teresa Murray and Shengnian Wang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040224 - 18 Apr 2026

Viewed by 641

Abstract

Dopamine is a key neurotransmitter and neuromodulator that regulates many critical brain functions. Accurate monitoring of its level is essential for neuroscience as well as the diagnosis and treatment of many brain diseases. In this work, we developed a new electrochemical sensor, comprising [...] Read more.

Dopamine is a key neurotransmitter and neuromodulator that regulates many critical brain functions. Accurate monitoring of its level is essential for neuroscience as well as the diagnosis and treatment of many brain diseases. In this work, we developed a new electrochemical sensor, comprising phosphorus-doped graphitic carbon nitride (P-g-C₃N₄) and zeolitic imidazolate framework 67 (ZIF-67), for dopamine detection. In this composite electrode material, ZIF-67 provides numerous adsorption and sensing sites, while P-g-C₃N₄ enhances overall electrical conductivity and stability. Cyclic voltammetry tests reveal the redox behavior of dopamine at the surface of the composite electrode across various pH values and scan rates. Using differential pulse voltammetry, the sensitivity and selectivity of this dopamine sensor were assessed, identifying a limit of detection of 0.39 nM. Further successful quantification of dopamine in urine samples suggests the potential practical use of this new composite electrochemical sensor for detecting dopamine and/or other neurotransmitters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Neurochemical and Electrophysiological Sensing: Materials, Devices, and Techniques)

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Graphical abstract

21 pages, 1864 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Electrochemical Profiling of Fecal Short-Chain Fatty Acids Using Esterification/Dissociation Fingerprints and Artificial Neural Networks

by Bing-Chen Gu, Guan-Ying Jiang, Ching-Hung Tseng, Yi-Ju Chen, Chun-Ying Wu, Zhi-Xuan Lin, Zhung-Wen Yeh and Chia-Che Wu

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040223 - 17 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 851

Abstract

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are key biomarkers of gut microbiota activity; however, routine quantification in fecal samples relies largely on chromatography, which is instrument-intensive and throughput-limited chromatography techniques. Herein, we present a rapid machine-learning-assisted electroanalysis platform for SCFAs profiling that integrates a disposable [...] Read more.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are key biomarkers of gut microbiota activity; however, routine quantification in fecal samples relies largely on chromatography, which is instrument-intensive and throughput-limited chromatography techniques. Herein, we present a rapid machine-learning-assisted electroanalysis platform for SCFAs profiling that integrates a disposable three-electrode planar gold chip with voltammetric fingerprinting and artificial neural network (ANN)-based signal decoupling. To generate orthogonal chemical information and improve the discrimination of structurally similar species, a dual pretreatment strategy combining acid-catalyzed esterification and alkaline dissociation was employed prior to electrochemical analyses. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) were employed to acquire high-dimensional fingerprints, from which current-, potential-, and area-based descriptors were extracted using a cross-information feature strategy. A hierarchical modeling framework improved total SCFAs prediction by incorporating ANN-predicted propionate and butyrate concentrations as auxiliary inputs. While linear calibration was achievable in standard mixtures, direct linear models performed poorly in real fecal matrices due to strong sample-dependent matrix interference. In contrast, the ANN captured nonlinear relationships among multifeature inputs and suppressed matrix effects. Validation against gas chromatography–mass spectrometry in an independent fecal test cohort (n = 30) demonstrated excellent agreement and low prediction errors, with mean absolute error/root mean square error values of 0.063/0.072 mM (propionic acid), 0.029/0.034 mM (butyric acid), and 0.135/0.202 mM (total SCFAs). The DPV/CV acquisition requires only minutes per sample, whereas pretreatment takes 1~3 h depending on the target route but can be performed in parallel for batch processing; thus, overall throughput is determined mainly by batch pretreatment rather than per-sample instrument time. This electrochemical–ANN workflow provides a portable, high-throughput alternative to chromatography for fecal SCFAs profiling in clinical screening and microbiome research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical (Bio-)Sensors in Biological Applications—3rd Edition)

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5 pages, 163 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Recent Advances in Glucose Biosensors

by Natalija German and Anton Popov

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040222 - 16 Apr 2026

Viewed by 711

Abstract

The global burden of diabetes continues to grow, and the disease ranks among the leading causes of death and disability worldwide; it is projected that by 2050, the number of people living with this disease will exceed 1 [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Glucose Biosensors)

13 pages, 4565 KB

Open AccessCommunication

All-LCP Terahertz Metasensor with Dual Quasi-BIC Resonances for Dual-Range Refractive Index Sensing

by Yan Zhang, Mengya Pan, Qiankai Hong, Shengyuan Shen, Conghui Guo, Yaping Li, Yanpeng Shi and Yifei Zhang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040221 - 15 Apr 2026

Viewed by 511

Abstract

Terahertz (THz) metasurface biosensors still encounter difficulties in simultaneously achieving high spectral resolution and stable readout across different refractive-index regimes. In this work, an all-liquid-crystal-polymer (LCP) THz metasensor supporting dual quasi-bound states in the continuum (quasi-BIC) resonances is proposed for regime-dependent refractive-index sensing. [...] Read more.

Terahertz (THz) metasurface biosensors still encounter difficulties in simultaneously achieving high spectral resolution and stable readout across different refractive-index regimes. In this work, an all-liquid-crystal-polymer (LCP) THz metasensor supporting dual quasi-bound states in the continuum (quasi-BIC) resonances is proposed for regime-dependent refractive-index sensing. By introducing structural asymmetry into a periodic LCP cubic-cluster metasurface, two pronounced resonances are generated with quality factors (Q factors) of 6811 and 2526, respectively. Near-field distributions and multipole decomposition analysis indicate that the two resonances possess distinct electromagnetic features, which result in different responses to surrounding dielectric perturbations. In the low-refractive-index range of 1.0–1.5, the two resonance frequencies exhibit a linear variation with refractive index, yielding sensitivities of 122 GHz/RIU and 179 GHz/RIU, respectively. These dual-mode linear responses further offer a foundation for concentration- and temperature-related evaluation through analyte refractive-index mapping. In the higher-refractive-index range of 1.5–1.8, the intermodal frequency difference shows improved linearity with refractive index compared with the individual resonance frequencies, enabling a differential readout scheme with enhanced robustness against common perturbations. The results demonstrate that the proposed all-LCP dual-quasi-BIC metasensor not only enables high-resolution THz refractive-index sensing, but also establishes a regime-dependent spectral readout approach for different dielectric-response intervals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical and Photonic Biosensors)

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11 pages, 3028 KB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient On-Chip Separation and Labeling of Extracellular Vesicles from Whole Blood

by Jian Feng, Zhichen Li, Haoyang Shen, Rui Hao, Yifei Yang, Xi Chen, Xin Hong, Guoqiang Gu, Lin Zeng and Hui Yang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040220 - 14 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1317

Abstract

The development of high-throughput technologies for the separation and labeling of extracellular vesicles (EVs) from whole blood is critical for downstream EV detection and analysis. However, conventional EV separation and labeling workflows are typically labor-intensive and inefficient, requiring multiple sequential processing steps. Here, [...] Read more.

The development of high-throughput technologies for the separation and labeling of extracellular vesicles (EVs) from whole blood is critical for downstream EV detection and analysis. However, conventional EV separation and labeling workflows are typically labor-intensive and inefficient, requiring multiple sequential processing steps. Here, we present a microfluidic platform that integrates negative magnetophoresis-based separation with mixing-enhanced on-chip labeling. The chip adopts a vertical flow channel architecture in combination with a Halbach-array magnetic field configuration, thereby overcoming the throughput limitations inherent to traditional horizontal microchannels. Parallel channels can be freely arranged above on the magnetic array to achieve ultra-high throughput processing, achieving a cell removal efficiency of 99.97% at a blood-to-sheath flow ratio of 1:5. Furthermore, by incorporating a narrow-wide channel design synergized with a herringbone–Tesla micromixer structure, the platform achieves a labeling efficiency of 91.8% within 2 min, approaching the performance of conventional 20 min incubation. This system offers both high-throughput and integration capabilities, providing a powerful technical platform for EV-related life science research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Lab-on-Chip and Micro-Systems for Manipulation and Bio-Detection)

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37 pages, 22781 KB

Open AccessReview

NIR-II AIEgens for Phototheranostics: Design, Applications and Perspectives

by Baoqing Zhao, Xianchuan Zeng, Yuyao Su, Kui Ren, Zhijun Zhang, Fei Zhang and Dong Wang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040219 - 14 Apr 2026

Viewed by 889

Abstract

The design of novel aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-active molecules represents a cutting-edge strategy for integrated phototheranostics in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window. This review systematically outlines rational molecular engineering approaches based on D-A, D-A-D, and A-D-A systems to achieve red-shifted NIR-II absorption/emission, enhanced AIE [...] Read more.

The design of novel aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-active molecules represents a cutting-edge strategy for integrated phototheranostics in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window. This review systematically outlines rational molecular engineering approaches based on D-A, D-A-D, and A-D-A systems to achieve red-shifted NIR-II absorption/emission, enhanced AIE characteristics, and balanced radiative and non-radiative decay pathways. These AIEgens enable high-contrast NIR-II fluorescence imaging (FLI) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI) for precise tumor localization, while concurrently facilitating efficient photothermal therapy (PTT) and robust photodynamic therapy (PDT) through both type-I and type-II mechanisms. Nanoformulations of these molecules exhibit excellent stability, biocompatibility, and passive targeting via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. We further highlight representative “all-in-one” AIE platforms that demonstrate synergistic PTT/PDT under multimodal imaging guidance, offering a promising paradigm for precision cancer theranostics. Challenges and future directions in clinical translation and combination therapy are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Luminescent Materials in Biological Detection, Imaging, and Diagnostic Applications)

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18 pages, 3917 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Label-Free Fluorescence Detection of Inorganic and Organic Mercury Based on DNA-Templated Gold Nanoclusters

by Zhiqiang Chen and Kangyao Zhang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040218 - 14 Apr 2026

Viewed by 771

Abstract

Heavy metal mercury is one of the most significant and toxic environmental contaminants. Its inorganic form (Hg²⁺) and organic form (organic mercury, OrHg) can cause irreversible harm to human health and the ecological environment, and the latter is particularly prone to [...] Read more.

Heavy metal mercury is one of the most significant and toxic environmental contaminants. Its inorganic form (Hg²⁺) and organic form (organic mercury, OrHg) can cause irreversible harm to human health and the ecological environment, and the latter is particularly prone to bioaccumulation and bioamplification in the food chain. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a rapid, reliable and specific detection of Hg²⁺ and OrHg to evaluate the potential risk for human health. Here, a novel label-free fluorescent sensing platform based on ssDNA aptamer (A_A-T7)-templated AuNCs was established for sensitive recognition and specific detection of Hg²⁺ and OrHg. In the presence of OrHg, the fluorescence of pure A_A-T7-templated AuNCs was visibly enhanced through forming Ag/AuNCs based on Ag⁰-doped AIEE effect. However, they were obviously quenched because of generating non-fluorescent Au/Ag/Hg ANPs via metallophilic interactions among Au³⁺, Ag⁺, and Hg²⁺ (5d¹⁰-4d¹⁰-5d¹⁰) when only Hg²⁺ existed. This fluorescent sensing platform could detect as low as 20.0 nM (4.0 ng Hg/g) and has a good linear detection range, with target concentrations ranging from 0.25 μM to 2.00 μM, recoveries of 98.0–108.0%, and RSD ≤ 5.0%. Low-toxic A_A-T7-templated AuNCs could be used for cytotoxicity analysis and intracellular fluorescent imaging. The method has been successfully applied to the determination of Hg²⁺ and OrHg in tap water, seawater and dried golden pomfret fish muscle samples, demonstrating promising prospects for the assay of mercury species in environmental samples and aquatic products to ensure human health and food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental, Agricultural, and Food Biosensors)

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20 pages, 5241 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Laccase-like Property of GHK-Cu and Its Applications in Colorimetric Sensing of Phenolic Compounds

by Jiang-Shan Chen, Huan Zhu, Tong-Qing Chai and Feng-Qing Yang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040217 - 12 Apr 2026

Viewed by 950

Abstract

Laccase plays an important role in the detection and degradation of phenolic compounds, but it is limited by its cost and stability. In this study, the laccase-like property of copper peptide (GHK-Cu) has been revealed. In terms of enzymatic reaction kinetics, GHK-Cu has [...] Read more.

Laccase plays an important role in the detection and degradation of phenolic compounds, but it is limited by its cost and stability. In this study, the laccase-like property of copper peptide (GHK-Cu) has been revealed. In terms of enzymatic reaction kinetics, GHK-Cu has a V_max of 1.735 × 10⁻⁴ mM·s⁻¹ and a K_m of 0.061 mM, demonstrating good substrate affinity and excellent catalytic efficiency. Then, a colorimetry was developed for rapid detection of epinephrine (EP) and 2-aminophenol (2-AP). The linear response range of EP is 20–240 μM, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 9.5 μM. The linear response ranges of 2-AP are 14–100 μM (in ultrapure water) and 2–120 μM (in seawater), with LODs of 2.56 μM and 1.65 μM. In addition, combined with a smartphone platform, a cotton-based sensor has been developed for the detection of 2-AP in seawater. The linear response ranges are 0–0.2 mM and 0.2–1 mM, with LOD of 0.033 mM. The structure of GHK-Cu provides a reference for the development of novel laccase mimetic enzymes. The constructed colorimetry offers an option for the rapid detection of phenolic compounds, and the developed cotton-based sensor enabled rapid and portable detection of 2-AP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical and Photonic Biosensors)

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21 pages, 4012 KB

Open AccessArticle

Full Hematocrit–Viscosity Curve Identification Using Three-Dataset Krieger–Dougherty Regression

by Yang Jun Kang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040216 - 10 Apr 2026

Viewed by 526

Abstract

Blood viscosity is strongly dependent on hematocrit, and the hematocrit–viscosity relationship is an important determinant of blood rheology under physiological and pathological conditions. However, obtaining a full hematocrit–viscosity curve requires multiple measurements over a wide hematocrit range. In this study, a simple method [...] Read more.

Blood viscosity is strongly dependent on hematocrit, and the hematocrit–viscosity relationship is an important determinant of blood rheology under physiological and pathological conditions. However, obtaining a full hematocrit–viscosity curve requires multiple measurements over a wide hematocrit range. In this study, a simple method is proposed to reconstruct the full hematocrit–viscosity curve using only three-dataset Krieger–Dougherty (K–D) regression as

μ = {μ_{0} (1 - \frac{ϕ}{ϕ_{m}})}^{- α ϕ_{m}}

. Based on suspended blood, RBC-rich blood and RBC-depleted blood are prepared after centrifugation. The hematocrit of each type of blood is measured using a micro-hemocytometer. Simultaneously, the blood viscosity of each type of blood is measured using the coflowing streams method. The proposed method is evaluated sequentially using reference datasets and hematocrit–viscosity datasets of control blood. According to results, the full hematocrit–viscosity curve obtained from three selected datasets is in good agreement with the experimental data and yields a lower root-mean-square error than conventional methods using all datasets. The exponent of the K–D model is strongly influenced by the midpoint dataset, whereas μ₀ is mainly affected by the suspending medium (dextran solution). In contrast, GA-induced rigidified RBCs do not significantly affect μ₀ within a 0.15% concentration. In conclusion, the proposed method provides a simple, efficient, and reliable approach for estimating the full hematocrit–viscosity curve. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Microfluidic Biosensing Systems: Designs and Applications)

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14 pages, 1978 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aptamer-Based Label-Free Colorimetric Assay Using Gold Nanoparticles for Specific Detection of Streptococcus suis

by Sirikwan Sangboonruang, Natthawat Semakul, Apinyapat Matchawong, Anuchit Sattaphan, Kanokwan Saengsawang, Chatchawan Srisawat, Khajornsak Tragoolpua and Chayada Sitthidet Tharinjaroen

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040215 - 10 Apr 2026

Viewed by 794

Abstract

Streptococcus suis is a serious zoonotic pathogen responsible for rapid progression and deadly infections in both humans and pigs. With an increasing number of reported cases and considering the limitations of standard routine identification, a simple, rapid, and cost-effective approach is needed. In [...] Read more.

Streptococcus suis is a serious zoonotic pathogen responsible for rapid progression and deadly infections in both humans and pigs. With an increasing number of reported cases and considering the limitations of standard routine identification, a simple, rapid, and cost-effective approach is needed. In this study, a label-free colorimetric assay based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) was applied with a specific aptamer, R8-su12. This assay offered simplified detection through observable color change, enabling visual analysis by the naked eye or assessment via UV–Vis spectrophotometry. Under the optimal assay conditions, the detection procedure was carried out within 45 min. The reaction of the aptasensor and other bacterial species, including Staphylococcus aureus, S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecium, and E. faecalis, was not present, indicating the specificity of this assay. Moreover, the aptasensor exhibited high sensitivity with a limit of detection (LOD) at 1 CFU of S. suis and had broad reactivity with S. suis serotypes 1, 1/2, 9, and 14, as well as with S. suis isolated from clinical specimens. Thus, this aptasensor demonstrates proof-of-concept feasibility including clinical sample testing before practical implementation. It holds promise as a practical tool for the early screening and outbreak management of S. suis in a variety of settings, such as clinical laboratories, food safety, and the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Biosensor: From Design to Applications—3rd Edition)

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15 pages, 1293 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Flexible Wearable Glucose Sensor for Noninvasive Diabetes Screening: Functional Equivalence and Model Interpretability

by Wenhan Xie, Jinqi Wang, Hao Liu, Shuo Chen, Peng Wang, Yumei Han, Xianxiang Chen, Zhen Fang, Zhan Zhao, Guohong Zhang and Xiuhua Guo

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040214 - 10 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1169

Abstract

Real-world evidence for wearable noninvasive glucose monitoring (NIGM) remains limited. To evaluate the functional equivalence of a wearable NIGM device and explore its utility for T2DM and prediabetes screening. In this multicenter study, 12-h daytime glucose profiles obtained by a flexible reverse iontophoresis-based [...] Read more.

Real-world evidence for wearable noninvasive glucose monitoring (NIGM) remains limited. To evaluate the functional equivalence of a wearable NIGM device and explore its utility for T2DM and prediabetes screening. In this multicenter study, 12-h daytime glucose profiles obtained by a flexible reverse iontophoresis-based electrochemical sensor were compared with capillary glucose using functional equivalence. Subgroup analyses were conducted. Screening models of T2DM and prediabetes were developed using elastic net and Logistic regression. A total of 135 participants (mean age 35.3 years; 60.0% female) were included, and no serious device-related adverse events were reported. Compared to the capillary measurements, functional equivalence was confirmed (T = −6.537 < threshold = −2.081) in the general population but not in older adults or T2DM patients. The T2DM noninvasive screening model demonstrated discrimination and reclassification performance comparable to those of the capillary-based model (AUC: 0.906 vs. 0.850, NRI: 0.044, IDI: −0.078, p > 0.05). Functional principal component scores facilitated the identification of prediabetes (AUC = 0.760). The device demonstrated acceptable accuracy and functional equivalence with reference methods. Its capability to detect T2DM and early glycemic anomalies supports its feasibility as a wearable, interpretative adjunct tool for large-scale screening in free-living populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors and Healthcare)

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15 pages, 1977 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Guanine-Enhanced Graphene–DNA Paper-Based Sensing Platform Enabling Sensitive Hg²⁺ Detection

by Zihao Wu, Jingyan Li, Haixia Shi, Bing Xie and Li Gao

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040213 - 10 Apr 2026

Viewed by 604

Abstract

Mercury ions (Hg²⁺) are highly toxic and pose severe risks to human health and ecosystems, necessitating sensitive detection methods for environmental monitoring. Here, we report a paper-based graphene sensor functionalized with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) probes for Hg²⁺ detection based on [...] Read more.

Mercury ions (Hg²⁺) are highly toxic and pose severe risks to human health and ecosystems, necessitating sensitive detection methods for environmental monitoring. Here, we report a paper-based graphene sensor functionalized with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) probes for Hg²⁺ detection based on T-Hg²⁺-T coordination chemistry. To elucidate the effect of probe structure on sensing performance, we designed DNA constructs with varying numbers of guanine (G) bases (3–6, designated DNA2–DNA5) in the bridging fragment and systematically evaluated their influence on hairpin stability, Hg²⁺ binding affinity, and sensor response. The DNA3-based sensor (four G bases) exhibited optimal electronic stability and sensitivity, achieving a detection limit of 0.673 pM with effective real-time monitoring capability in aqueous media. These findings highlight the critical role of DNA sequence design in T-Hg²⁺-T-based biosensors and provide a promising strategy for sensitive and selective Hg²⁺ detection in environmental samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Devices Based on Nanomaterials for Biosensing and Biomedical Applications)

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20 pages, 2593 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Detection of Neuronal Injury in Cell Culture Samples: A Cost-Effective Biosensor for Neurofilament Light Sensing

by Anna Panteleeva, Sujey Palma-Florez, Ashlyne M. Smith, Sara Palma-Tortosa, Zaal Kokaia, Josep Samitier and Mònica Mir

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040212 - 9 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1030

Abstract

Neurofilament light chain (NfL) is a promising biomarker of axonal injury across acute and chronic neurodegeneration, which can improve drug discovery and disease monitoring models. Traditional in vivo animal models cannot fully mimic human pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), but in vitro models [...] Read more.

Neurofilament light chain (NfL) is a promising biomarker of axonal injury across acute and chronic neurodegeneration, which can improve drug discovery and disease monitoring models. Traditional in vivo animal models cannot fully mimic human pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), but in vitro models based on human cells solve this problem, reducing the time and cost of drug testing. We developed an electrochemical immunosensor for NfL detection in cell culture media to monitor acute neuronal injury in in vitro models. The biosensor was designed in two configurations: the label-free system, which directly detects NfL in the sample via the antibody–antigen interaction, and the sandwich configuration, which incorporates two additional antibodies. Detection was examined using electrochemical techniques, including cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and chronoamperometry (CA). The sensor demonstrated a detection limit of 3–9 pg mL⁻¹, and a dynamic working range spanning from 10 up to 10⁷ pg mL⁻¹. Importantly, NfL was successfully detected in physiological media collected from cultured neurons that were differentiated from the long-term human neuroepithelial-like stem cells. This discovery highlights the platform’s applicability for in vitro neurodegenerative models. The immunosensor offers a sensitive, scalable, and cost-effective alternative for neurodegeneration detection in drug testing applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical (Bio-)Sensors in Biological Applications—3rd Edition)

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7 pages, 176 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Polymers-Based Biosensors and Bioelectronics: Designs and Applications

by Vinh Van Tran

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040211 - 9 Apr 2026

Viewed by 717

Abstract

Biosensors and bioelectronics (B&B) are typical devices working at the interfaces of biology and electronics [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers-Based Biosensors and Bioelectronics: Designs and Applications)

16 pages, 2247 KB

Open AccessArticle

Label-Free Impedimetric Biosensor Based on Molecularly Imprinted PPy/MWCNTs Nanocomposites for Sensitive and Selective Detection of Escherichia coli

by Wenbin Zhang, Ningran Wang, Tong Qi, Hebin Sun, Lijuan Liang and Jianlong Zhao

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040210 - 9 Apr 2026

Viewed by 642

Abstract

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a microorganism commonly found in water and food matrices, and its rapid and accurate detection is crucial for maintaining public health and ensuring food safety. However, traditional molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) sensors often face challenges such [...] Read more.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a microorganism commonly found in water and food matrices, and its rapid and accurate detection is crucial for maintaining public health and ensuring food safety. However, traditional molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) sensors often face challenges such as tedious template removal and prolonged sensing times. This study develops a label-free bacterial molecularly imprinted sensor that utilizes the synergistic effect of polypyrrole (PPy) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) to achieve highly sensitive detection of E. coli. Based on the large specific surface area and superior conductivity of MWCNTs, as well as the favorable electrochemical polymerization properties of PPy, a PPy/MWCNTs composite film was fabricated via a one-step electropolymerization process. The prepared sensor exhibited excellent kinetic characteristics, with a template removal time of only 15 min, and could be regenerated and used for subsequent detection within 30 min. Under optimized conditions, the biosensor showed a satisfactory linear response over the concentration range of 10²–10⁸ CFU/mL, with a low detection limit of 65 CFU/mL (3σ/S). Furthermore, recovery experiments conducted in tap water and lemon juice samples yielded satisfactory recoveries ranging from 87.1% to 114.8%, demonstrating the reliability and practical applicability of the proposed sensor for bacterial detection in real samples. This sensor offers advantages such as simple preparation, low material cost, and high sensitivity, providing a reliable and practical analytical platform for the rapid and reliable detection of bacteria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology Biosensing in Bioanalysis and Beyond)

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14 pages, 2457 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasensitive Detection of Staphylococcus aureus Based on Photonic Crystal Microsphere Suspension Array-Assisted Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification

by Xiang Li, Qiaofeng Li, Qianjin Li, Jianlin Li and Zhouping Wang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040209 - 9 Apr 2026

Viewed by 490

Abstract

The development of high-throughput, sensitive and portable strategies for detecting foodborne pathogens is urgently needed in food safety, especially during an outbreak. Herein, an ultrasensitive suspension array was constructed by designing photonic crystal microsphere (PCM)-assisted loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for Staphylococcus aureus detection. [...] Read more.

The development of high-throughput, sensitive and portable strategies for detecting foodborne pathogens is urgently needed in food safety, especially during an outbreak. Herein, an ultrasensitive suspension array was constructed by designing photonic crystal microsphere (PCM)-assisted loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for Staphylococcus aureus detection. The PCM-LAMP suspension array integrated the optical signal enhancement capability of the biomimetic microporous three-dimensional PCM surface with the thousand-fold signal amplification of LAMP. The biomimetic PCMs displayed a periodic dielectric nanostructure and enhanced the fluorescence intensity of the LAMP reaction, leading to high sensitivity. The PCM-LAMP suspension array allowed sensitive detection of the target DNA of S. aureus without long-term culture. Under optimal conditions, the limit of detection for S. aureus genomic DNA reached as low as 0.18 fM, and the assay exhibited excellent specificity against other bacteria. Furthermore, trace target DNA in food samples was accurately quantified, demonstrating its potential for practical applications. Therefore, the developed PCM-LAMP suspension array holds great promise for ultrasensitive and rapid detection of foodborne pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical and Photonic Biosensors)

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17 pages, 1840 KB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Electrochemical Sensing Strategy for Organophosphorus Pesticide Residues

by Mingzhuo Xu, Chen He, Jiajing Zhang, Hao Yang and Xiuzhong Wang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040208 - 7 Apr 2026

Viewed by 681

Abstract

Organophosphorus pesticide residues (OPPs) pose significant threats to ecological systems and human health, and conventional detection techniques are cumbersome, time-consuming, and costly. Herein, a facile electrochemical biosensor has been constructed based on a methyl green/chitosan (MG/Chi) composite membrane-modified electrode for the selective detection [...] Read more.

Organophosphorus pesticide residues (OPPs) pose significant threats to ecological systems and human health, and conventional detection techniques are cumbersome, time-consuming, and costly. Herein, a facile electrochemical biosensor has been constructed based on a methyl green/chitosan (MG/Chi) composite membrane-modified electrode for the selective detection of OPPs, using isazofos (Isa) as the model analyte. Experimental results demonstrated that Isa significantly decreases the redox peak current of the modified electrode in buffer solution, and a good linear relationship was observed between the change in peak current and Isa concentration within a specific range. This biosensor exhibits excellent anti-interference capability and high sensitivity, with a limit of detection (LOD) as low as 0.60 μM. Furthermore, it was successfully applied for the quantitative determination of OPPs in real food and environmental samples, which confirms its reliable practical applicability and potential for on-site monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Electrochemical Biosensing: Materials, Mechanisms, and Applications)

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28 pages, 1841 KB

Open AccessReview

Analytical Performances of Polymer-Based Biosensors for Real Samples Application

by Marcello Mascini, Sara Palmieri, Fabiola Eugelio, Maikel Izquierdo Rivero and Michele Del Carlo

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040207 - 5 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1167

Abstract

Polymer-based biosensors have evolved from passive supports into active functional elements that dictate analytical performance in complex real-world samples. This critical review with meta-trend analysis examines 96 original research articles published between 2015 and 2025, evaluating how four polymer classes (conductive polymers, redox-mediator [...] Read more.

Polymer-based biosensors have evolved from passive supports into active functional elements that dictate analytical performance in complex real-world samples. This critical review with meta-trend analysis examines 96 original research articles published between 2015 and 2025, evaluating how four polymer classes (conductive polymers, redox-mediator polymers, hydrogels, and molecularly imprinted polymers) address matrix effects in food, beverage, environmental and clinical applications. Electrochemical detection dominates (79% of studies), with conductive polymers enabling low-potential operation that excludes electroactive interference. Hydrogels achieve superior precision (RSD below 3%) in protein-rich matrices through biocompatible microenvironments that preserve enzyme kinetics. Molecularly imprinted polymers provide unmatched stability in harsh environments for trace-level detection of heavy metals and toxins, though delayed response times from slow analyte diffusion persist. Critical evaluation exposes validation deficits: 91% of studies omit limits of quantification, while approximately one-third lack reproducibility (33%) and precision (30%). The multi-matrix challenge, maintaining calibration across different hostile environments, remains the primary barrier to commercial deployment. Advanced architectures, including nanocapsulation, hierarchical nanocomposites, and microneedle-integrated systems, offer pathways to overcome limitations in fouling resistance and operational stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Biosensors: Innovations, Applications and Device Integration)

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54 pages, 3065 KB

Open AccessReview

Low-Temperature Sintering Inks for Printed Bioelectronics: Materials, Mechanisms, and Emerging Ideas

by Abhijit Bera, Fei Liu, Matthew R. Marander, Ricardo Ortega, Ahmad Mustafa Ahmad Malkawi, Utsav Kumar Dey, Ritinder Sandhu, Tyler P. Collins and Shan Jiang

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040206 - 3 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1695

Abstract

Printed electronics have emerged as a versatile manufacturing platform for next-generation biosensors, enabling on-demand and low-cost fabrication of functional devices on flexible, stretchable, and unconventional substrates. One major challenge in this field lies in the sintering of printed features, as conventional high-temperature processing [...] Read more.

Printed electronics have emerged as a versatile manufacturing platform for next-generation biosensors, enabling on-demand and low-cost fabrication of functional devices on flexible, stretchable, and unconventional substrates. One major challenge in this field lies in the sintering of printed features, as conventional high-temperature processing is incompatible with polymeric substrates and thermally sensitive biological components. Low-temperature sintering inks, typically processed below 200 °C or even at room temperature, have become a critical enabling technology for bio-integrated electronics. This review provides an overview of the current state-of-the-art and key challenges associated with low-temperature sintering inks for printed bioelectronics. We discuss inks based on metal nanoparticles, metal–organic decomposition precursors, metal oxides, chalcogenides, and hybrid material systems. The emphasis is on how ink chemistry, ligand selection, and precursor structure govern rheology, stability, and sintering behavior. In addition, key low-temperature sintering and curing strategies, including thermal, photonic, laser, plasma, microwave, and chemical sintering, are compared in terms of energy delivery, densification mechanisms, and substrate compatibility. Finally, we outline emerging directions towards low temperature and room-temperature sintering inks, and sustainable biobased ink formulations, and discuss their applications for wearable, implantable, and soft biosensing platforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Implantable Bioelectronics for Advanced Biosensing and Human Health Monitoring)

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17 pages, 1535 KB

Open AccessReview

Emergency Clinical Decision for Sports Injury Management: A Wearable Sensor-Driven Framework from Training to Rehabilitation

by Maolin Xu, Shan Lang, Jichen Wang, Liang Huang, Meng Wang, Meng Su and Haiyan Zhu

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040205 - 3 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1441

Abstract

Sports-related injuries present challenges across training, acute care, and rehabilitation, and largely rely on episodic, subjective, and delayed assessment methods. Wearable sensor technologies have emerged as powerful tools for objective monitoring of biomechanical and physiological parameters, offering new opportunities to enhance the entire [...] Read more.

Sports-related injuries present challenges across training, acute care, and rehabilitation, and largely rely on episodic, subjective, and delayed assessment methods. Wearable sensor technologies have emerged as powerful tools for objective monitoring of biomechanical and physiological parameters, offering new opportunities to enhance the entire sports injury management continuum. While prior research has explored the function for sports monitoring and injury prevention, the potential role of wearable sensors in the entire clinical pathway covering acute injury assessment, emergency clinical decision-making and rehabilitation guidance remains insufficiently integrated. This review synthesizes current advances in wearable sensor technologies, including inertial measurement units, pressure sensors, surface electromyography, cardiovascular monitoring, biochemical sweat sensing, and emerging self-powered and textile-integrated systems. Another main part of this review is the proposal of a wearable sensor–driven emergency clinical decision framework that integrates multimodal sensor data with clinically interpretable indicators to support risk assessment, early triage, treatment suggestions, and rehabilitation management. We also analyze the key challenges related to data integration and interpretation barriers, clinical implementation, ethical, privacy, and regulatory considerations. In the end, we look forward to the future of wearable sensors in data-driven, timely, and personalized sports injury care at the intersection of sports and emergency medicine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors and Systems for Continuous Health Monitoring)

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29 pages, 2046 KB

Open AccessReview

Multifaceted Applications of Ruthenocene and Its Derivatives in Biomedicine, Energy Storage and Electrochemical Sensing

by Ammara Shahid, Sana Sabahat and Aisha Naeem

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040204 - 3 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1082

Abstract

Ruthenocene (Rc) and its derivatives form a structurally versatile class of metallocenes with unique and multifunctional applicability. This review presents a detailed analysis of Rc chemistry including the structural comparison with ferrocene, its redox behavior, and substituent effects. We also discuss its applications [...] Read more.

Ruthenocene (Rc) and its derivatives form a structurally versatile class of metallocenes with unique and multifunctional applicability. This review presents a detailed analysis of Rc chemistry including the structural comparison with ferrocene, its redox behavior, and substituent effects. We also discuss its applications in sensing, energy storage, photochemistry, and biomedicine. Rc exhibits unique conformational and adaptive electronic properties based on one and two-electron oxidation processes. Electrochemical investigations of Rc to date indicate that its redox behavior is strongly dependent on the electrolyte system, exhibiting quasi-Nernstian characteristics, the formation of stabilized dimeric species [Rc₂]²⁺, and interconversion among Ru(II), Ru(III), and Ru(IV) oxidation states. Rc-based systems exhibit superior performance as redox mediators and labels in electrochemical sensing systems in terms of electron-transfer kinetics, signal amplification, and surface immobilization. In the field of energy storage, Rc decreases the charging overpotential and increases the cycle life of Li-O₂ batteries. Rc further acts as a photoinitiator via charge-transfer-to-solvent and efficient photoinduced electron transfer in metalloporphyrin and fullerene dyads. In biomedical research, Rc derivatives as well as bioconjugates possess promising anticancer activities, displaying reactive oxygen species generation, topoisomerase inhibition, thioredoxin reductase inhibition, receptor-mediated uptake, and target peptide conjugation. Given its flexible ligand design, electrolyte driven redox behaviors, and antiproliferative properties, Rc exhibits a very adaptive molecular scaffold for next generation electrochemical technologies as well as metallodrug design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensor Materials)

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30 pages, 23210 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multiscale Cosine Convolution Neural Network for Robust and Interpretable Epileptic EEG Detection

by Jiale Chen, Weidong Zhou and Guoyang Liu

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040203 - 2 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 748

Abstract

The accurate detection of epileptic seizures using an electroencephalogram (EEG) is essential for clinical diagnosis and reducing the burden on clinicians but remains challenging due to low detection performance and model interpretability. In this study, we propose a Multiscale Cosine Convolutional Heterogeneous Two-Stream [...] Read more.

The accurate detection of epileptic seizures using an electroencephalogram (EEG) is essential for clinical diagnosis and reducing the burden on clinicians but remains challenging due to low detection performance and model interpretability. In this study, we propose a Multiscale Cosine Convolutional Heterogeneous Two-Stream Cosine Convolution Network (MCC-HTSCC) to overcome these limitations. First, the raw EEG signals are input into the Multiscale Cosine Convolution (MCC) module, where multiscale temporal features are extracted by cosine convolutional layers with varying kernel lengths. Subsequently, the extracted temporal features are further processed through spatial convolutional layers to obtain comprehensive spatiotemporal representations. These spatiotemporal features are fused and subsequently fed into the Heterogeneous Two-Stream Cosine Convolution (HTSCC) module, comprising both deep and shallow subnetworks to perform hierarchical feature extraction and classification. Extensive evaluations were conducted on the publicly available CHB-MIT dataset and a clinically collected SH-SDU dataset, achieving accuracies of 98.52% and 94.56%, sensitivities of 97.98% and 88.09%, and specificities of 98.50% and 95.89%, respectively. Furthermore, the cosine convolution operators reduce the learnable parameters of our model by approximately 18.12% compared to the model with traditional convolution operators, making it more suitable for embedded deployment. By employing the Gradient-Weighted Class Activation Mapping (Grad-CAM) technique, we further provide interpretability and transparency in model decision making, highlighting the substantial potential of MCC-HTSCC for effective patient-specific epilepsy monitoring and diagnostics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors and Healthcare)

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14 pages, 6393 KB

Open AccessArticle

Droplet-Interlaced Generator with On-Chip Metal–Liquid Micromirrors for Enhanced Microfluidic Absorbance Detection

by Haobo Liu, Laidi Jin, Zehang Gao, Chuanjin Cui, Yongjie Yu, Fei Deng, Xiuli Gao, Jianlong Zhao, Shengtai Bian and Shilun Feng

Biosensors 2026, 16(4), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/bios16040202 - 2 Apr 2026

Viewed by 993

Abstract

Droplet microfluidics has been widely used in biological, chemical, and medical research owing to its advantages of miniaturization, high throughput, and low reagent consumption. However, limited sensitivity and optical path length in on-chip absorbance detection remain major challenges for droplet-based microfluidic analysis. Traditional [...] Read more.

Droplet microfluidics has been widely used in biological, chemical, and medical research owing to its advantages of miniaturization, high throughput, and low reagent consumption. However, limited sensitivity and optical path length in on-chip absorbance detection remain major challenges for droplet-based microfluidic analysis. Traditional absorbance detection suffers from low sensitivity due to the extremely short optical path in microfluidic channels, while existing optical path extension methods have drawbacks such as complex fabrication, easy droplet rupture, or strict incident angle requirements. To address these issues, this study developed a droplet microfluidic absorbance detection platform integrating optical fibers, on-chip micromirrors, external fluidic actuation, and an absorbance detection module. Microchannel sidewalls filled with low-melting-point metal act as mirrors; the multi-reflection optical path, combined with optical fibers and micromirrors, compensates for insufficient light manipulation and effectively extends the absorption path length, improving sensitivity and accuracy. Using this method, the detection limit for methylene blue solution was 20 μM, and the sensitivity for Escherichia coli (E. coli) suspension was doubled compared with traditional Nanodrop OD600 measurement. This device features low fabrication difficulty and cost and stable detection, providing a proof-of-concept strategy for enhanced absorbance detection in droplet microfluidic systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microfluidics and Microscale Biological Analysis)

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