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Polymers, Volume 18, Issue 1 (January-1 2026) – 146 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This study develops new FKM fluoroelastomer compounds with gadolinium(III) oxide and gadolinium borate fillers. The results show significant mechanical improvements, such as an increase of up to 162% in tensile strength and almost double the elongation. Due to their composition with gadolinium and boron, elements with high neutron capture capacity, these materials show promising potential for applications in neutron shielding. View this paper
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15 pages, 3005 KB  
Article
Nitrogen-Doped Biochar Derived from Starch for Enzyme-Free Colorimetric Detection of Uric Acid in Human Body Fluids
by Feihua Ye, Fan Chen, Yunhong Zhang, Yunwei Huang, Shasha Liu, Jiangfei Cao and Yanni Wu
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010146 - 5 Jan 2026
Viewed by 489
Abstract
Uric acid (UA), a key end-product of human purine metabolism, serves as an important biomarker linked to multiple disorders. This study developed a novel enzyme-free colorimetric sensing platform based on starch-derived nitrogen-doped biochar (NC) for the highly sensitive and selective detection of UA [...] Read more.
Uric acid (UA), a key end-product of human purine metabolism, serves as an important biomarker linked to multiple disorders. This study developed a novel enzyme-free colorimetric sensing platform based on starch-derived nitrogen-doped biochar (NC) for the highly sensitive and selective detection of UA in human body fluids. The NC material with a high specific surface area and abundant nitrogen active sites was prepared via a two-step strategy involving hydrothermal synthesis followed by high-temperature pyrolysis, using starch and urea as raw materials. Under mild conditions, the NC effectively catalyzes dissolved oxygen to produce reactive oxygen species (·O2− and 1O2), which oxidize 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) to a blue-colored oxidation product (TMBox). The presence of UA reduces TMBox to colorless TMB, leading to a measurable decrease in absorbance at 652 nm and enabling quantitative UA detection. Key reaction conditions were systematically optimized. Material characterization and mechanistic investigations confirmed the catalytic performance of the NC. The method demonstrated a wide linear response from 10 to 500 μmol·L−1, with a detection limit of 4.87 μmol·L−1, and demonstrated outstanding selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. Practical application in human serum and urine samples yielded results consistent with clinical reference ranges, and spike-recovery rates ranged from 95.5% to 103.6%, indicating great potential for real-sample analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
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15 pages, 5010 KB  
Article
Aluminum-Foil/Polyester Core-Spun Yarns Conductive Fabric Enabling High Electromagnetic Interference Shielding
by Yanyan Sun, Xiaoyu Han, Kun Zhao, Weili Zhao, Zhitong He, Zhengyang He, Yingtie Mo, Changliu Chu, Toshiaki Natsuki and Jun Natsuki
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010145 - 5 Jan 2026
Viewed by 523
Abstract
With the rapid advancement of modern electronic devices and wireless communication systems, electromagnetic pollution has become a prominent issue, prompting the development of high-performance electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding materials. Although traditional metal shielding materials exhibit excellent conductivity, there are many limitations such as [...] Read more.
With the rapid advancement of modern electronic devices and wireless communication systems, electromagnetic pollution has become a prominent issue, prompting the development of high-performance electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding materials. Although traditional metal shielding materials exhibit excellent conductivity, there are many limitations such as high weight, poor flexibility, susceptibility to corrosion, and high cost. To overcome these challenges, in this study, we design and fabricate core-spun yarns using polyester filaments as the core and an aluminum-foil-wrapped layer as the conductive outer component, and further weave them into three conductive fabrics with different structural parameters. Through systematic investigation of their surface morphology, air permeability, electrical properties, and EMI shielding performance, DT5W27 demonstrates optimal overall performance: electrical conductivity of 2722.64 S·m−1, shielding effectiveness of 37.29 dB, and electromagnetic wave attenuation rate of 99.99%. Specifically, even after 100 bending, twisting cycles, and exposure to solutions with pH values ranging from 3 to 9, the fabric maintains high shielding performance. The fabrication process is facile and low cost, and these composites have good flexibility, outstanding EMI shielding performance, exceptional mechanical durability, and chemical stability. These advantages make them have broad application potential in protective clothing and lightweight shielding materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Thermoplastic Polymer Composites: From Fabrication to Application)
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28 pages, 7160 KB  
Article
Evaluation of the Seismic Behavior of Carbon-Grid-Reinforced Walls with Varying Anchorage and Axial Load Ratios
by Kyung-Min Kim, Sung-Woo Park, Bhum-Keun Song, Kyung-Jae Min and Seon-Hee Yoon
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010144 - 5 Jan 2026
Viewed by 340
Abstract
Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) are being increasingly used to replace rebars as reinforcements for concrete. This study evaluated the seismic behavior of concrete walls reinforced with grid-type carbon FRP (CFRP; carbon grid) through quasi-static cyclic tests and compared the results with that of the [...] Read more.
Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) are being increasingly used to replace rebars as reinforcements for concrete. This study evaluated the seismic behavior of concrete walls reinforced with grid-type carbon FRP (CFRP; carbon grid) through quasi-static cyclic tests and compared the results with that of the reinforced concrete (RC) wall. The experimental variables were the ratio of the carbon-grid anchorage length in the foundation to the wall length and the axial force ratio. Based on the results of the quasi-static cyclic tests, the ratio of the equivalent stiffness at the crushing of the compression-edge cover concrete to the initial stiffness of the carbon-grid-reinforced concrete specimens was 0.14 on average. This indicates that the specimens reached their maximum load due to the crushing of the compression-edge cover concrete after a significant reduction in stiffness due to cracking. The skeleton curve for the carbon-grid-reinforced concrete specimens was found to be bilinear, with reduced stiffness due to cracking and failure due to the crushing of the compression-edge cover concrete, making it definable and predictable. Additionally, in specimens with a high axial force or small ratio of the anchorage length in the foundation to the wall length, some of the longitudinal CFRP strands fractured at the same time as they reached the failure load. Moreover, the load at the crushing of the compression-edge cover concrete of the carbon-grid-reinforced concrete specimen increased by 1.10 times with the increase in the axial force ratio and decreased by 0.96 times with the decrease in the ratio of the anchorage length in the foundation to the wall length. It was found to be 0.73–0.80 times the flexural strength based on the assumption of plane sections remaining plane. In comparison with RC specimen, the cumulative absorbed energy of the carbon-grid-reinforced concrete specimen began to decrease after a story drift ratio of 1%, and the cumulative absorbed energy up to the target story drift ratio of 3.0% was found to be 0.60–0.62 times that of the RC specimen. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites in Construction Materials)
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17 pages, 3498 KB  
Article
Impact of Thermomechanical Aging on Marginal Fit and Fracture Resistance of CAD/CAM Endocrowns Fabricated from Different Materials
by Bülent Kadir Tartuk and Gizem Akın Tartuk
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010143 - 5 Jan 2026
Viewed by 616
Abstract
The restoration of endodontically treated teeth remains a clinical challenge, particularly when substantial coronal tissue loss is present. Endocrowns fabricated using CAD/CAM technologies offer a conservative and esthetic alternative to conventional post-core systems; however, their long-term performance may be influenced by age-related mechanical [...] Read more.
The restoration of endodontically treated teeth remains a clinical challenge, particularly when substantial coronal tissue loss is present. Endocrowns fabricated using CAD/CAM technologies offer a conservative and esthetic alternative to conventional post-core systems; however, their long-term performance may be influenced by age-related mechanical and thermal stresses. This study evaluated the effect of thermomechanical aging on the marginal adaptation and fracture resistance of endocrowns fabricated from three CAD/CAM materials: zirconia-reinforced lithium silicate (ZLS), polyetherether ketone (PEEK), and 3D-printed resin. Sixty extracted human molars were endodontically treated and restored with endocrowns produced from these materials (n = 20 per group) and then subdivided into aged (n = 10) and control (n = 10) subgroups. Thermomechanical aging involved 5000 thermal cycles between 5 °C and 55 °C, and 75,000 mechanical loading cycles at 50 N. Marginal gaps were examined using scanning electron microscopy, and fracture resistance was tested under axial load at a crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/min. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test (α = 0.05). Thermomechanical aging significantly increased the marginal gaps in all materials (p < 0.05). The smallest marginal discrepancies were observed in the 3D-printed resin group, while the largest occurred in the ZLS after aging, likely due to dimensional changes during crystallization. Fracture resistance decreased in ZLS (−21.2%) and 3D resin (−20.9%) after aging (p < 0.05) but was not significantly affected in PEEK (−5.4%, p = 0.092). Thermomechanical aging adversely affects marginal adaptation across all materials, whereas its impact on strength is material-dependent. PEEK demonstrated the most stable mechanical performance and may represent a promising alternative for long-term endocrown restorations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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23 pages, 4355 KB  
Article
Impedance Spectroscopy Study of Solid Co(II/III) Redox Mediators Prepared with Poly(Ethylene Oxide), Succinonitrile, Cobalt Salts, and Lithium Perchlorate for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
by Ravindra Kumar Gupta, Ahamad Imran, Aslam Khan, Muhammad Ali Shar, Khalid M. Alotaibi, Idriss Bedja and Abdullah Saleh Aldwayyan
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010142 - 4 Jan 2026
Viewed by 517
Abstract
Countries like Saudi Arabia receive abundant sunshine with exceptionally high solar irradiance. High temperatures in desert regions and the sunray angle dependence of solar modules are some of the key challenges of conventional solar cells. Dye-sensitized solar cells present a compelling alternative with [...] Read more.
Countries like Saudi Arabia receive abundant sunshine with exceptionally high solar irradiance. High temperatures in desert regions and the sunray angle dependence of solar modules are some of the key challenges of conventional solar cells. Dye-sensitized solar cells present a compelling alternative with the simple cell design and use of non-toxic materials without angle dependence, but their performance hinges on the solid redox mediators used for dye regeneration. These mediators must have an electrical conductivity (σ25°C) of more than 10−4 S cm−1 with an activation energy of less than 0.3 eV for device application. Our work focused on novel solid Co(II/III) redox mediators using cobalt complexes and LiClO4 in different matrices: pure PEO (an abbreviation for poly(ethylene oxide) with its redox mediator as M1), a [PEO–SN] blend (M2A and M2B with ethylene oxide to lithium ions molar ratio of 112.9 and 225.8, respectively), and pure SN (an abbreviation for succinonitrile with its redox mediator as M3). Impedance spectroscopy was the key technique, showing M1 and M2 behave like a mediator explainable with an (R1–C)-type circuit, while M3 is explainable with an (R1 − [R2‖C])-type circuit. M3 achieved the highest value of σ25°C with 2 × 10−3 S cm−1, while M1 had the lowest σ25°C, 3 × 10−5 S cm−1. M2 achieved an optimal balance with σ25°C of 4 × 10−4 S cm−1 (M2A) and 1.5 × 10−4 S cm−1 (M2B). M2 exhibited a remarkably low pseudo-activation energy of 0.042 eV and a Vogel–Tammann–Fulcher behavior ideal for consistent performance across temperatures. In contrast, M1 and M3 showed higher Arrhenius-type activation energies (>0.74 eV) in their solid states. These results correlated with those of the XRD, FT-IR spectroscopy, XPS, SEM, DSC, and TGA analyses. Ultimately, the [PEO–SN] blend emerges as a robust matrix, enabling the combination of high conductivity and low activation energy needed for a durable device in harsh environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flexible, Highly Efficient Polymer Solar Cells)
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20 pages, 3125 KB  
Article
Organocatalyzed Atom Transfer Radical (Co)Polymerization of Fluorinated and POSS-Containing Methacrylates: Synthesis and Properties of Linear and Star-Shaped (Co)Polymers
by Hleb Baravoi, Heorhi Belavusau, Aliaksei Vaitusionak, Valeriya Kukanova, Anastasia Frolova, Peter Timashev, Hongzhi Liu and Sergei Kostjuk
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010141 - 4 Jan 2026
Viewed by 781
Abstract
Hybrid fluorinated copolymers containing POSS moieties along with fluorinated homopolymers were synthesized via organocatalyzed atom transfer radical (co)polymerization (O-ATRP) of fluoroalkyl methacrylate (FMA) and a POSS-based monomer (IBSS) using perylene as a photocatalyst. Linear and four- and eight-armed star-shaped [...] Read more.
Hybrid fluorinated copolymers containing POSS moieties along with fluorinated homopolymers were synthesized via organocatalyzed atom transfer radical (co)polymerization (O-ATRP) of fluoroalkyl methacrylate (FMA) and a POSS-based monomer (IBSS) using perylene as a photocatalyst. Linear and four- and eight-armed star-shaped (co)polymers in a wide range of molecular weights with Mn(SEC) up to 53,100 g/mol for poly(FMA), 22,700 g/mol for poly(IBSS) and 87,300 g/mol for poly(FMA-co-IBSS) were successfully prepared. During polymerization, C–F activation was found to induce chain transfer and branching reactions, contributing to structural diversity. A mechanism for chain transfer to the polymer resulting in branching was proposed, applying density functional theory (DFT). Films based on the obtained (co)polymers showed tunable morphology, high thermal stability (up to 306 °C) and hydrophobicity, with water contact angles reaching 98°. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments of Photopolymerization in Advanced Materials)
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16 pages, 2188 KB  
Article
3D-Printed Poly(lactic acid)/Poly(ethylene glycol) Scaffolds with Shape-Memory Effect near Physiological Temperature
by Anastasia A. Fetisova, Abdullah bin Firoz, Alexandr S. Lozhkomoev, Elena I. Senkina, Egor E. Ryumin, Maria A. Surmeneva and Roman A. Surmenev
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010140 - 3 Jan 2026
Viewed by 781
Abstract
Biocompatible poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was plasticized with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) added at concentrations of 10, 15, and 20 wt.% relative to PLA, and then processed into gyroid triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) scaffolds using fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing. The influence of [...] Read more.
Biocompatible poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was plasticized with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) added at concentrations of 10, 15, and 20 wt.% relative to PLA, and then processed into gyroid triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) scaffolds using fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing. The influence of PEG concentration and gyroid structure (50% infill density) on thermal transitions, crystallinity, and low–temperature shape-memory performance was systematically investigated. The shape-memory effect (SME) of the PLA–based scaffolds was tailored through compositional control and structural design. Shape recovery under thermal activation at 40 °C and 50 °C was examined to reveal the correlation between composition and structure in governing low–temperature shape-memory behavior. The optimal composition (PLA/10 PEG, 50% gyroid infill) achieved shape recovery with a recovery ratio (Rr) of 97 ± 1% at 40 °C within 6 ± 1 min, demonstrating optimal shape-memory activation close to physiological temperature. Structural and morphological changes were characterized using ATR–FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, DSC, XRD, and SEM, providing comprehensive insight into the plasticization of the PLA matrix and its impact on structure–property relationships relevant to bone tissue engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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22 pages, 3163 KB  
Article
Dual-Band Electrochromic Poly(Amide-Imide)s with Redox-Stable N,N,N’,N’-Tetraphenyl-1,4-Phenylenediamine Segments
by Bo-Wei Huang and Sheng-Huei Hsiao
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010139 - 3 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 477
Abstract
Two amide-preformed aromatic diamine monomers, N,N-bis(4-(3-aminobenzamido)phenyl)-N’,N’-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,4-phenylenediamine (m-6) and N,N-bis(4-(4-aminobenzamido)phenyl)-N’,N’-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,4-phenylenediamine (p-6), were synthesized and utilized to prepare two series of electroactive poly(amide-imide)s [...] Read more.
Two amide-preformed aromatic diamine monomers, N,N-bis(4-(3-aminobenzamido)phenyl)-N’,N’-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,4-phenylenediamine (m-6) and N,N-bis(4-(4-aminobenzamido)phenyl)-N’,N’-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,4-phenylenediamine (p-6), were synthesized and utilized to prepare two series of electroactive poly(amide-imide)s (PAIs) through a two-step polycondensation reaction with commercially available aromatic tetracarboxylic dianhydrides. The obtained polymers exhibited solubility in various polar organic solvents, and most of them could form transparent, flexible films via solution casting. Thermal analysis indicated glass transition temperatures (Tg) ranging from 250 °C to 277 °C, as measured by DSC, with no significant weight loss observed before 400 °C in TGA tests. Cyclic voltammograms (CV) of the polymer films on ITO-coated glass substrates revealed two reversible oxidation redox pairs between 0.67 and 1.04 V vs. Ag/AgCl in an electrolyte-containing acetonitrile solution. The PAI films showed stable redox activity with high optical contrast both in the visible and near-infrared regions, transitioning from colorless in the neutral state to green and blue in the oxidized states. Furthermore, the polymer films retained good electrochemical and electrochromic stability even after more than 100 cyclic switching operations. The PAIs displayed outstanding electrochromic performance, including high optical contrast (up to 95%), rapid response times (below 4.6 s for coloring and 5.7 s for bleaching), high coloration efficiency (up to 240 cm2/C), and low decay in optical contrast (less than 5% after 100 switching cycles for most PAIs). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Smart and Functional Polymers)
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33 pages, 405 KB  
Review
Contemporary Use of Polymers in Dentistry: A Narrative Review
by Svetla Ivanova, Zlatina Tomova, Angelina Vlahova, Iliyana L. Stoeva, Elena Vasileva, Yordanka Uzunova, Magdalina Urumova, Desislav Tomov and Atanas Chonin
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010138 - 2 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1472
Abstract
This narrative review examines contemporary applications of polymeric materials in dentistry from 2020 to 2025, spanning prosthodontics, restorative dentistry, orthodontics, endodontics, implantology, diagnostics, and emerging technologies. We searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase for peer reviewed English language articles and synthesized [...] Read more.
This narrative review examines contemporary applications of polymeric materials in dentistry from 2020 to 2025, spanning prosthodontics, restorative dentistry, orthodontics, endodontics, implantology, diagnostics, and emerging technologies. We searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase for peer reviewed English language articles and synthesized evidence on polymer classes, processing routes, mechanical and chemical behavior, and clinical performance. Approximately 116 articles were included. Polymers remain central to clinical practice: poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) is still widely used for dentures, high performance systems such as polyether ether ketone (PEEK) are expanding framework and implant-related indications, and resin composites and adhesives continue to evolve through nanofillers and bioactive formulations aimed at improved durability and reduced secondary caries. Thermoplastic polyurethane and copolyester systems drive clear aligner therapy, while polymer-based obturation materials and fiber-reinforced posts support endodontic rehabilitation. Additive manufacturing and computer aided design computer aided manufacturing (CAD CAM) enable customized prostheses and surgical guides, and sustainability trends are accelerating interest in biodegradable or recyclable dental polymers. Across domains, evidence remains heterogeneous and clinical translation depends on balancing strength, esthetics, biocompatibility, aging behavior, and workflow constraints. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers Strategies in Dental Therapy)
14 pages, 5134 KB  
Article
Silicon Effect on Conductive Behavior in Rubber Recycled Composites
by Marc Marín-Genescà, Ramon Mujal Rosas, Jordi García Amorós, Lluis Massagues and Xavier Colom
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010137 - 2 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 418
Abstract
In the present research, the structure and thermal–dielectric behavior of Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) and of the SBR/EPDMd composite with SiO2 with different compositions and concentrations of EPDMd are analyzed. In this sense, interesting behaviors are observed for the DC-AC regime of [...] Read more.
In the present research, the structure and thermal–dielectric behavior of Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) and of the SBR/EPDMd composite with SiO2 with different compositions and concentrations of EPDMd are analyzed. In this sense, interesting behaviors are observed for the DC-AC regime of the conductive behavior of the material; therefore, a very marked DC and AC regime is observed in the conductivities, showing a different dielectric behavior at low and high frequencies. On the other hand, peak relaxations due to polarization phenomena are observed in terms of the imaginary modulus. Conductively, SiO2 does not produce significant or relevant changes, but it does produce changes in the permittivity and the electrical modulus, so it is concluded that the impact of the incorporation of SiO2 in these compounds affects energy storage (permittivity and modulus) in these types of compounds. Compared with compounds without silica (insights—no SiO2), it is observed that SiO2 maintains a similar operating regime to the initial one (SBR and SBR + EPDMd + SiO2) without SiO2 dielectric changes occurring, so silica presence modifies the dielectric behavior, reducing polarization effects, as can be seen in the dielectric results. Conductively, SiO2 produces more insulating compounds, that is, less conductive; this property can make it interesting as electrical insulation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Functional Rubber and Elastomer Composites, 3rd Edition)
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3 pages, 134 KB  
Editorial
State of the Art and Perspectives on Polymer Science and Technology in China
by Sixun Zheng
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010136 - 2 Jan 2026
Viewed by 525
Abstract
In 2023, the Polymers journal launched a Special Issue to report research by Chinese scholars focusing on the physics and processing of polymers, the development of new materials, and the application of new technologies [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art and Perspectives of Polymer Science and Technology in China)
22 pages, 4387 KB  
Article
The Optimal Amount of PAMAM G3 Dendrimer in Polyurethane Matrices Makes Them a Promising Tool for Controlled Drug Release
by Magdalena Zaręba, Magdalena Zuzanna Twardowska, Paweł Błoniarz, Jaromir B. Lechowicz, Jakub Czechowicz, Dawid Łysik, Magdalena Rzepna and Łukasz Stanisław Uram
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010135 - 1 Jan 2026
Viewed by 740
Abstract
Systemic anticancer therapy causes a number of side effects; therefore, local drug release devices may play an important role in this area. In this study, we developed polyurethane-dendrimer foams containing different amounts of third-generation poly (amidoamine) dendrimers (PAMAM G3) to evaluate their ability [...] Read more.
Systemic anticancer therapy causes a number of side effects; therefore, local drug release devices may play an important role in this area. In this study, we developed polyurethane-dendrimer foams containing different amounts of third-generation poly (amidoamine) dendrimers (PAMAM G3) to evaluate their ability to encapsulate and release the model anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX), as well as their biocompatibility and effectiveness against normal and cancer cells in vitro. PU–PAMAM foams containing 10–50 wt% PAMAM G3 were prepared using glycerin-based polyether polyol and castor oil as co-components. Structural and rheological analyses revealed that foams containing up to 20 wt% PAMAM G3 exhibited a well-developed porous structure, while higher dendrimer loadings (≥30 wt%) led to irregular cell shapes, pore coalescence, and thinning of cell walls, and indicated a gradual loss of structural integrity. Rheological creep–recovery measurements confirmed the structural findings: moderate PAMAM G3 incorporation (≤20 wt%) increased both the instantaneous and delayed elastic modulus (E1 ≈ 130–140 kPa; E2 ≈ 80 kPa) and enhanced elastic recovery, reflecting improved cross-link density and foam stability. Higher dendrimer contents (30–50 wt%) caused a decline in these parameters and higher viscoelastic compliance, indicating a softer, less stable structure. The DOX loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency increased with PAMAM G3 content, reaching maximum values of 35% and 51% for 30–40 wt% PAMAM G3, respectively. However, the most sustained DOX release profiles were observed for matrices containing 20 wt% PAMAM G3. Analysis of cumulative release and kinetic modeling revealed a transition from diffusion-controlled release at low PAMAM contents to burst-dominated release at higher dendrimer loadings. Importantly, matrices containing 10–20 wt% PAMAM G3 also indicated selective anticancer action against squamous cell carcinoma (SCC-15) compared to non-cancerous human keratinocytes (HaCaT). Moreover, the DOX they released effectively destroyed cancer cells. Overall, PU–PAMAM foams containing 10–20 wt% PAMAM G3 provide the most balanced combination of structural stability, controlled drug release, and cytocompatibility. These materials therefore represent a promising platform as passive carriers in drug delivery systems (DDSs), such as local implants, anticancer patches, or bioactive wound dressings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Preparation, Properties and Application of Polyurethane, Cellulose and Their Composites (3rd Edition))
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16 pages, 3090 KB  
Article
Experimental and Numerical Assessment of Flexural Behavior of CFRP–Strengthened Timber Beams
by Milot Muhaxheri, Enes Krasniqi, Naser Kabashi, Ylli Murati and Ridvan Mahmuti
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010134 - 1 Jan 2026
Viewed by 567
Abstract
Glued laminated timber (glulam) is increasingly adopted as a sustainable structural material; however, its performance under bending can be limited by brittle tensile failures and variability caused by natural defects. This study examines the flexural behavior of glulam beams strengthened with externally bonded [...] Read more.
Glued laminated timber (glulam) is increasingly adopted as a sustainable structural material; however, its performance under bending can be limited by brittle tensile failures and variability caused by natural defects. This study examines the flexural behavior of glulam beams strengthened with externally bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. A four-point bending experimental program was carried out on glulam beams with varying CFRP bonded lengths, including unreinforced control beams. The results demonstrate that CFRP reinforcement enhanced load–carrying capacity by up to 48%, increased stiffness, and shifted failure modes from brittle tension–side ruptures to more favorable compression–controlled mechanisms. A nonlinear finite element (FE) model was developed using DIANA software 10.5 to simulate the structural response of both unreinforced and CFRP–strengthened beams. The numerical model accurately reproduced the experimental load–deflection behavior, stress redistribution, and failure trends, with deviations in ultimate load prediction generally within ±16% across all reinforcement configurations. The simulations further revealed the critical influence of CFRP bonded length on stress transfer efficiency and failure mode transition, mimicking experimental observations. By integrating experimental findings with numerical simulations and simplified analytical predictions, the study demonstrates that reinforcement length and bond activation govern the effectiveness of CFRP strengthening. The proposed combined methodology provides a reliable framework for evaluating and designing CFRP strengthened glulam beams. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Polymer Materials and Fiber-Reinforced Composites for Engineering Applications)
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17 pages, 6328 KB  
Article
Effect of Bead Geometry and Layer Time on Microstructure and Thermomechanical Properties of Large-Format Polymer Composites
by Tyler M. Corum, Johnna C. O’Connell, Samuel Pankratz, Maximilian Heres, Jeff Foote and Chad E. Duty
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010133 - 1 Jan 2026
Viewed by 706
Abstract
Large-format additive manufacturing (LFAM) is a manufacturing process in which high volumes of material are extruded in a layer-by-layer fashion to create large structures with often complex geometries. The Loci-One system, operated and developed by Loci Robotics Inc., is an LFAM-type system that [...] Read more.
Large-format additive manufacturing (LFAM) is a manufacturing process in which high volumes of material are extruded in a layer-by-layer fashion to create large structures with often complex geometries. The Loci-One system, operated and developed by Loci Robotics Inc., is an LFAM-type system that was used to print single-bead walls of 20% by weight carbon fiber reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (CF-ABS) using various print parameter inputs. This study observed the influence of bead width and layer time on thermomechanical performance via material characterization techniques that accounted for the complex microstructure of LFAM parts to develop a better understanding of parameter–structure–property relationships. Printed parts were characterized by measuring the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and interlayer strength. Near the edges of the printed beads, microscopy revealed a “thinning effect” experienced by a shell composed primarily of highly oriented fiber as the bead width was increased; however, this effect was diminished with a higher shear rate. The CTE results demonstrated the influence of mesostructure on the thermomechanical response. Increased shear rates were expected to lower CTE in the x-direction due to a higher ratio of fiber oriented in the print direction, but this relationship was not always observed. For the larger bead widths printed at higher shear rates, the randomly oriented fiber at the core dominated the thermomechanical response and increased CTE overall in the x-direction. A heat transfer model was developed for this work to determine how much time was required for the deposited bead to cool to the glass transition temperature. Interlayer strength results revealed a rapid decrease once the printed layer time exceeded the time required for the extrudate to cool below the glass transition temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Based Materials)
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13 pages, 3153 KB  
Article
Fabrication of a Superhydrophobic Surface via Wet Etching of a Polydimethylsiloxane Micropillar Array
by Wu-Hsuan Pei, Chuan-Chieh Hung and Yi-Je Juang
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010132 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 605
Abstract
Superhydrophobic surfaces have gained considerable attention due to their ability to repel water and reduce surface adhesion, and they are now widely applied for self-cleaning, anti-fouling, anti-icing, and corrosion resistance purposes. In this study, either a computer numerical control (CNC) machine or photolithographic [...] Read more.
Superhydrophobic surfaces have gained considerable attention due to their ability to repel water and reduce surface adhesion, and they are now widely applied for self-cleaning, anti-fouling, anti-icing, and corrosion resistance purposes. In this study, either a computer numerical control (CNC) machine or photolithographic techniques were employed to fabricate molds with microwells, followed by soft lithography to obtain a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) micropillar array. An etching process was then carried out. It was found that, as etching time increased, the diameters of micropillars decreased, leading to a decrease in the solid fraction of the composite surface and increases in contact angles. When the ratios of spacing to diameter (W/D) and of height to diameter (H/D) both exceeded 1.5, the contact angle was found to exceed 150° and the original PDMS micropillar surface with a contact angle of around 135° became superhydrophobic. A drastic decrease in sliding angle was also observed at this threshold. Changes in contact angles with different W/D values were in good agreement with values calculated using the Cassie–Baxter equation, and the droplet state was verified by a pressure balance model. Meanwhile, the PDMS etching rate when using acetone as the solvent was approximately 6–8 times faster than that when using 1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), a result which is comparable to data in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Microfabrication and 3D/4D Printing)
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16 pages, 1863 KB  
Article
Novel Acrylic Bone Cement Containing Graphene Oxide: Synthesis and Characterization
by Luiz Fabiano Gomes Gularte, Guilherme Kurz Maron, Camila Perelló Ferrúa, Andressa da Silva Barboza, Tiago Fernandez Garcia, Geovanna Peter Correa, Cainá Corrêa do Amaral, Bruna Godinho Corrêa, Chiara das Dores do Nascimento, Everton Granemann Souza, Cesar Aguzzoli, Neftali Lenin Villarreal Carreño, Juliana Silva Ribeiro de Andrade, Rafael Guerra Lund and Fernanda Nedel
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010131 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 627
Abstract
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) bone cement is widely used in orthopedics, accounting for approximately 80% of knee joint replacements in the United States. While prosthesis designs and materials have evolved to improve performance and durability, PMMA cement has undergone minimal compositional changes. Carbon-based nanomaterials, particularly [...] Read more.
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) bone cement is widely used in orthopedics, accounting for approximately 80% of knee joint replacements in the United States. While prosthesis designs and materials have evolved to improve performance and durability, PMMA cement has undergone minimal compositional changes. Carbon-based nanomaterials, particularly graphene oxide (GO), have attracted interest for their ability to enhance the mechanical and thermal properties of orthopedic cements. This study evaluated the effects of incorporating different GO concentrations into PMMA bone cement on its mechanical properties, cytocompatibility, and antibacterial activity. PMMA was modified with GO at 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5 weight percent (wt%) for mechanical and antibacterial tests, and at 1.0 wt% for cytocompatibility. Mechanical performance was assessed via four-point bending tests. Cytocompatibility was evaluated using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (NIH/3T3), and antibacterial activity was tested against Staphylococcus aureus using a modified direct contact assay. GO incorporation significantly increased Young’s modulus (0.1% and 0.25%, p = 0.009) and improved tensile strength (p = 0.0015) and flexural strength (p = 0.025) at 0.1%. Cytocompatibility remained comparable to the control (p = 0.873). Antibacterial activity was concentration dependent, with 0.25% and 0.5% GO maintaining significant bacterial inhibition up to 48 h, whereas 0.1% showed no sustained effect. Overall, 0.25 wt% GO provided the most suitable balance between mechanical integrity and antibacterial performance, indicating that PMMA–GO bone cements with this composition can combine enhanced mechanical properties with relevant antibacterial activity without compromising biocompatibility, and are therefore promising candidates for orthopedic applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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14 pages, 2394 KB  
Article
The Stiffness for Viscous Deformation in the Interlamellar Amorphous Region of Polyethylene
by P.-Y. Ben Jar, Na Tan, Salman Obaidoon, Arash Alizadeh and João B. P. Soares
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010130 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 405
Abstract
A spring–dashpot model, consisting of a spring branch and two Maxwell (named long- and short-term) branches, was used to simulate stress drop during the relaxation stages of multi-relaxation (MR) tests. This work shows that the stress drop at relaxation in a deformation range [...] Read more.
A spring–dashpot model, consisting of a spring branch and two Maxwell (named long- and short-term) branches, was used to simulate stress drop during the relaxation stages of multi-relaxation (MR) tests. This work shows that the stress drop at relaxation in a deformation range around the peak stress could be closely simulated without changing the parameter values for the short-term branch. This possibility was confirmed using three ethylene/1-hexene copolymers and one ethylene homo-polymer, among which the main differences are mass density and short-chain branch (SCB) content. The work examined the influence of SCB content and mass density on the stiffness of the two Maxwell branches, and the results showed that, unlike the long-term branch counterpart, stiffness of the short-term branch is not a monotonic function of the SCB content or the mass density. This led to a discussion on the possible relationship between the stiffness of the two Maxwell branches and the deformation resistance of the amorphous phase at different locations of the microstructure, i.e., in the interlamellar region and as part of the network structure. The paper concludes that a combination of the MR test and the spring–dashpot model could provide information that is related to the stiffness in different parts of PE’s amorphous phase, though further work is needed to verify this conclusion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)
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21 pages, 1137 KB  
Review
Substance-Based Medical Device in Wound Care: Bridging Regulatory Clarity and Therapeutic Innovation
by Daiana Ianev, Michela Mori, Barbara Vigani, Caterina Valentino, Marco Ruggeri, Giuseppina Sandri and Silvia Rossi
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010129 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1198
Abstract
Substance-based medical devices (SBMDs) are increasingly used in wound care due to their favorable safety profile, physicochemical mechanisms of action, and therapeutic effectiveness. These products often incorporate biopolymers such as hyaluronic acid or chitosan, alone or in combination with antimicrobial agents like silver [...] Read more.
Substance-based medical devices (SBMDs) are increasingly used in wound care due to their favorable safety profile, physicochemical mechanisms of action, and therapeutic effectiveness. These products often incorporate biopolymers such as hyaluronic acid or chitosan, alone or in combination with antimicrobial agents like silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) or silver sulfadiazine (SSD), offering hydration, tissue protection, and control of microbial burden in both acute and chronic wounds. Despite their widespread clinical use, the regulatory classification of SBMDs under Regulation (EU) 2017/745 (MDR) remains one of the most challenging and debated areas within the current European framework. This review analyzes the scientific and regulatory context of topical SBMDs, with particular emphasis on borderline products that share similarities with medicinal products in terms of formulation, composition, or claimed effects. The discussion focuses on the application of MDR Annex VIII, specifically Rule 21 for substance-based devices and Rule 14 for devices incorporating medicinal substances with ancillary action, together with interpretative guidance provided by MDCG 2022-5 Rev.1 and the Association of the European Self-Care Industry (AESGP) Position Paper. Particular attention is given to the identification of the critical role of the primary mode of action (MoA) as the determining criterion for regulatory qualification, especially for products containing antimicrobial substances. Through selected examples and case analyses, the review highlights inconsistencies in classification across Member States and underscores the need for a more harmonized, evidence-based, and proportionate regulatory approach. Overall, SBMDs challenge traditional regulatory boundaries and call for a framework capable of accommodating complex, multifunctional products while ensuring patient safety and regulatory coherence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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21 pages, 5007 KB  
Article
Biowastes as Reinforcements for Sustainable PLA-Biobased Composites Designed for 3D Printing Applications: Structure–Rheology–Process–Properties Relationships
by Mohamed Ait Balla, Abderrahim Maazouz, Khalid Lamnawar and Fatima Ezzahra Arrakhiz
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010128 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 737
Abstract
This work focused on the development of eco-friendly bio-composites based on polylactic acid (PLA) and sugarcane bagasse (SCB) as a natural fiber from Moroccan vegetable waste. First, the fiber surface was treated with an alkaline solution to remove non-cellulosic components. Then, the composite [...] Read more.
This work focused on the development of eco-friendly bio-composites based on polylactic acid (PLA) and sugarcane bagasse (SCB) as a natural fiber from Moroccan vegetable waste. First, the fiber surface was treated with an alkaline solution to remove non-cellulosic components. Then, the composite materials with various amounts of treated sugarcane bagasse (TSCB) were fabricated using two routes, melt processing and solvent casting. The primary objective was to achieve high fiber dispersion/distribution and homogeneous bio-composites. The dispersion properties were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Subsequently, the thermal, mechanical, and melt shear rheological properties of the obtained PLA-based bio-composites were investigated. Through a comparative approach between the dispersion state of fillers with extrusion/injection molding and solvent casting method, the work aimed to identify the most suitable processing route for producing PLA-based composites with optimal dispersion, improved thermal stability, and mechanical reinforcement. The results support the potential of TSCB fibers as an effective bio-based additive for PLA filament production, paving the way for the development of eco-friendly and high-performance materials designed for 3D printing applications. Since the solvent-based route did not allow further improvement and presents clear limitations for large-scale or industrial implementation, the transition toward 3D printing became a natural progression in this work. Material extrusion offers several decisive advantages, notably the ability to preserve the original morphology of the fibers due to the moderate thermo-mechanical stresses involved, and the possibility of manufacturing complex geometries that cannot be obtained through conventional injection molding. Although some printing defects may occur during layer deposition, the mechanical properties obtained through 3D printing remain promising and demonstrate the relevance of this approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufactuging of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites and Composites: Progress and Prospects)
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18 pages, 3419 KB  
Article
A Phosphorus–Nitrogen Synergistic Flame Retardant for Enhanced Fire Safety of Polybutadiene
by Hongwu Zhang, Huafeng Wei, Heng Yue and Mingdong Yu
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010127 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 560
Abstract
Polybutadiene has excellent mechanical properties and flexibility. It is widely used in elastomers and industrial fields. However, it has the characteristic of high flammability. The low LOI and rapid heat release upon ignition pose significant fire hazards. This results in a significant fire [...] Read more.
Polybutadiene has excellent mechanical properties and flexibility. It is widely used in elastomers and industrial fields. However, it has the characteristic of high flammability. The low LOI and rapid heat release upon ignition pose significant fire hazards. This results in a significant fire safety risk during service. Therefore, its application in some key fields has been restricted. In this study, polybutadiene with high-performance flame-retardant properties was developed by adding phosphorus–nitrogen synergistic flame retardants to address this challenge. This flame retardant mainly enhances its flame retardancy through the synergistic gas-phase and condensed-phase mechanisms. Dense and continuous carbon layers could be promoted by flame retardants during combustion. It provides an effective thermal barrier and oxygen barrier. In addition, phosphorus-containing volatiles can function by suppressing flame propagation via radical quenching in the gas phase. The modified polybutadiene reached UL-94 V-1 grade at the optimal load of 1.0 wt%. Meanwhile, its LOI increased to 27%. The cone calorimeter test further confirms a high reduction in peak heat release rate (pHRR). This work provides a feasible strategy for developing advanced polybutadiene materials. It can effectively enhance its fire safety. At the same time, it maintains a balance between flame retardancy and the overall material performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flame-Retardant Polymer Composites, 3rd Edition)
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14 pages, 2805 KB  
Article
Comparison Between Ultrasound and High-Pressure Homogenization for Encapsulation of β-Carotene in CNF-Stabilized Pickering Emulsions
by Adila Abdirym, Xue Wu and Bin Liu
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010126 - 31 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 507
Abstract
This work investigated the stabilization mechanisms and β-carotene encapsulation characteristics of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) stabilized Pickering emulsions (PE) prepared by different emulsification processes. For 48 days of storage, ultrasound-prepared Pickering emulsions (US-PE) stabilized by at least 2.0 wt.% CNFs have obvious cream stabilization, [...] Read more.
This work investigated the stabilization mechanisms and β-carotene encapsulation characteristics of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) stabilized Pickering emulsions (PE) prepared by different emulsification processes. For 48 days of storage, ultrasound-prepared Pickering emulsions (US-PE) stabilized by at least 2.0 wt.% CNFs have obvious cream stabilization, and high-pressure homogenization-prepared Pickering emulsions (HPH-PE) stabilized by over 1.6 wt.% CNFs have excellent cream stabilization. The stabilization of HPH-PE, which was superior to that of US-PE, mainly relied on the steric stabilization of CNFs’ space networks. Although the encapsulation efficiency of β-carotene in US-PE was higher than that in HPH-PE when the CNF concentration was over 1.2 wt.%, the retention rate of β-carotene in US-PE was obviously lower than that in HPH-PE. So, the internal space structure of CNF-stabilized HPH-PE was conducive to stabilizing the emulsion and protecting the bioactive molecule. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymers for Food Industry)
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21 pages, 5571 KB  
Article
Molecular Dynamics Simulation and Experimental Study on the Mechanical Properties of Functionalized Graphene-Enhanced PEEK/PTFE
by Yan Wang, Jingjing Chen, Henan Tang, Bin Yang, Shijie Wang and Ning Wang
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010125 - 31 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 509
Abstract
The reinforcement mechanism of functionalized graphene nanosheets (GNS) on the mechanical properties of polyetheretherketone (PEEK)/polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) composites was investigated. Composite specimens were fabricated using PGNS, as well as GNS grafted with hydroxyl, carboxyl (-COOH) and amino functional groups, and mechanical characterizations were conducted [...] Read more.
The reinforcement mechanism of functionalized graphene nanosheets (GNS) on the mechanical properties of polyetheretherketone (PEEK)/polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) composites was investigated. Composite specimens were fabricated using PGNS, as well as GNS grafted with hydroxyl, carboxyl (-COOH) and amino functional groups, and mechanical characterizations were conducted on the prepared specimens. The results demonstrated that carboxyl-functionalized GNS (COOH-GNS) exhibited the most remarkable reinforcing effect on PEEK/PTFE composites, with its elastic modulus, tensile strength, yield strength and compressive modulus increased by 47.09%, 31.1%, 45.16% and 20.91%, respectively, compared with PGNS-reinforced composites. Combined with experimental measurements and molecular dynamics simulations, the reinforcement mechanism of this composite system was elucidated. The functional groups on the surface of GNS can induce interfacial interactions with the PEEK/PTFE matrix, by which the mobility of polymer molecular chains is restricted, the deformation and slippage of molecular chains are suppressed, and the interfacial bonding between GNS and the polymer matrix is simultaneously strengthened. The enhancement of interfacial binding energy, the reduction in free volume in the composite system, and the restriction of polymer molecular chain mobility were identified as the critical atomic-scale mechanisms responsible for the improvement of the macroscopic mechanical properties of the composites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Physics and Theory)
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6 pages, 173 KB  
Editorial
Injection Molding and Special Injection Molding Technologies of Polymer and Polymer Composites
by Jian Wang
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010124 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 771
Abstract
Injection molding is one of the most widely employed manufacturing processes for the mass production of polymer products, owing to its high efficiency, reproducibility, and versatility [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Injection Molding and Special Injection Molding Technologies of Polymer and Polymer Composites)
38 pages, 2368 KB  
Review
Integrating Polymeric 3D-Printed Microneedles with Wearable Devices: Toward Smart and Personalized Healthcare Solutions
by Mahmood Razzaghi
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010123 - 31 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1691
Abstract
Wearable healthcare is shifting from passive tracking to active, closed-loop care by integrating polymeric three-dimensional (3D)-printed microneedle arrays (MNAs) with soft electronics and wireless modules. This review surveys the design, materials, and the manufacturing routes that enable skin-conformal MNA wearables for minimally invasive [...] Read more.
Wearable healthcare is shifting from passive tracking to active, closed-loop care by integrating polymeric three-dimensional (3D)-printed microneedle arrays (MNAs) with soft electronics and wireless modules. This review surveys the design, materials, and the manufacturing routes that enable skin-conformal MNA wearables for minimally invasive access to the interstitial fluid and precise but localized drug delivery. Looking ahead, the converging advances in multimaterial printing, nano/biofunctional coatings, and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven control are promising “wearable clinics” that can personalize monitoring and therapy in real time, thus accelerating the translation of MNA-integrated wearables from laboratory prototypes to clinically robust, patient-centric systems. Overall, this review identifies a clear transition from proof-of-concept MNA devices toward integrated, wearable, and closed-loop therapeutic platforms. Key challenges remain in scalable manufacturing, drug dose limitations, long-term stability, and regulatory translation. Addressing these gaps through advances in hollow MNA architectures, system integration, and standardized evaluation protocols is expected to accelerate clinical adoption. However, the realization of closed-loop wearable MNA-based systems remains constrained by challenges related to power consumption, real-time data latency, and the need for robust clinical validation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers in Next-Gen Sensors: From Flexibility to AI Integration)
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23 pages, 2008 KB  
Article
Backpropagation DNN and Thermokinetic Analysis of the Thermal Devolatilization of Dried Pulverized Musa sapientum (Banana) Peel
by Abdulrazak Jinadu Otaru
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010122 - 31 Dec 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 491
Abstract
This study examined the thermal degradation of pulverized Musa sapientum (banana) peel waste through thermogravimetric measurements and thermokinetic modelling. For the first time, it also incorporated backpropagation deep learning to model pyrolysis traces, enabling the prediction and optimization of the process. Physicochemical characterization [...] Read more.
This study examined the thermal degradation of pulverized Musa sapientum (banana) peel waste through thermogravimetric measurements and thermokinetic modelling. For the first time, it also incorporated backpropagation deep learning to model pyrolysis traces, enabling the prediction and optimization of the process. Physicochemical characterization confirmed the material’s lignocellulosic composition. TGA was performed between 30 and 950 °C at heating rates of 5, 10, 20, and 40 °C min−1, identifying a primary devolatilization range of 190 to 660 °C. The application of a backpropagation machine learning technique to the processed TGA data enabled the estimation of arbitrary constants that accurately captured the characteristic behaviour of the experimental data (R2~0.99). This modelling and simulation approach achieved a significant reduction in training loss—decreasing from 35.9 to 0.07—over 47,688 epochs and 1.4 computational hours. Sensitivity analysis identified degradation temperature as the primary parameter influencing the thermochemical conversion of BP biomass. Furthermore, analyzing deconvoluted DTG traces via Criado master plots revealed that the 3D diffusion model (Jander [D3]) is the most suitable reaction model for the hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin components, followed by the R2 and R3 geometrical contraction models. The estimated overall activation energy values obtained through the Starink (STK) and Friedman (FR) model-free isoconversional kinetic methods were 82.8 ± 3.3 kJ.mol−1 and 97.6 ± 3.9 kJ.mol−1, respectively. The thermodynamic parameters estimated for the pyrolysis of BP indicate that the formation of activated complexes is endothermic, endergonic, and characterized by reduced disorder, thereby establishing BP as a potential candidate material for bioenergy generation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Valorization and Conversion for Sustainable Polymer Composites)
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46 pages, 2006 KB  
Review
PLA-Based Biodegradable Polymer from Synthesis to the Application
by Junui Wi, Jimin Choi and Sang-Ho Lee
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010121 - 31 Dec 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1613
Abstract
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) has emerged as a leading bio-based polymer due to its renewability, processability, and biodegradability, yet its broader adoption remains constrained by limitations in thermal stability, mechanical performance, and end-of-life control. This review provides a comparative and application-oriented overview of recent [...] Read more.
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) has emerged as a leading bio-based polymer due to its renewability, processability, and biodegradability, yet its broader adoption remains constrained by limitations in thermal stability, mechanical performance, and end-of-life control. This review provides a comparative and application-oriented overview of recent advances in PLA from synthesis and catalyst landscapes to structure–property–biodegradation relationships and practical applications. Representative polymerization routes and catalyst systems are critically compared in terms of achievable molecular weight, stereochemical control, scalability, and sustainability. Key structure–property modification strategies—including stereocomplex formation, blending, and copolymerization—are quantitatively evaluated with respect to thermal and mechanical properties, highlighting inherent trade-offs. Importantly, environment-specific biodegradation behaviors are assessed using representative quantitative metrics under industrial composting, soil, marine, and enzymatic conditions, underscoring the strong dependence of degradation on both material design and testing environment. Finally, application-driven requirements for food packaging, fibers, and agricultural materials are discussed alongside regulatory considerations, processing constraints, and qualitative cost positioning relative to conventional polymers. By integrating recent representative studies into comparative tables and synthesis-driven discussions, this review offers design guidelines for tailoring PLA-based materials toward targeted performance and sustainable deployment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Structures: Chemistry for Engineering Applications)
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27 pages, 4480 KB  
Article
Synthesis and Characterization of Hybrid Bio-Adsorbents for the Biosorption of Chromium Ions from Aqueous Solutions
by Nomthandazo Precious Sibiya-Dlomo, Sakhile Cebekhulu, Thembisile Patience Monama and Sudesh Rathilal
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010120 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 626
Abstract
Industrial effluents include toxic chemicals, particularly heavy metals, that remain in the environment and jeopardize human and ecological health. This research synthesized hybrid biosorbents (HBs) for the extraction of Cr (III) from wastewater by using sugarcane bagasse, banana peels, and orange peels in [...] Read more.
Industrial effluents include toxic chemicals, particularly heavy metals, that remain in the environment and jeopardize human and ecological health. This research synthesized hybrid biosorbents (HBs) for the extraction of Cr (III) from wastewater by using sugarcane bagasse, banana peels, and orange peels in conjunction with magnetite at ratios of 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1. The synthesized biosorbents—MSC, MBP, and MOP—were characterized using FTIR, XRD, TEM, BET, and SEM/EDX, therefore validating their structural, functional, morphological attributes and elementary composition. Batch studies showed MBP (1:1) to be the most efficient sorbent, with over 80% removal of Cr (III). Optimization experiments indicated that the peak removal efficiency (92.10%) was achieved at an initial concentration of 100 mg/L, a pH of 3, a dose of 0.4 g/100 mL, and a contact duration of 60 min. Isotherm analysis revealed that adsorption adhered to a homogeneous monolayer mechanism, optimally characterized by the Langmuir Type 1 model (R2 = 0.9688), whereas kinetic analysis demonstrated that the pseudo-second-order model (R2 = 0.9419) yielded the most accurate fit. MBP (1:1) has significant promise as an economical and sustainable biosorbent for the efficient removal of Cr (III) from wastewater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Polymers as Future Wastewater Decontamination Alternative)
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22 pages, 6766 KB  
Article
Zn–IMP 3D Coordination Polymers for Drug Delivery: Crystal Structure and Computational Studies
by Hafiz Zeshan Aqil, Yanhong Zhu, Masooma Hyder Khan, Yaqoot Khan, Beenish Sandhu, Muhammad Irfan and Hui Li
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010119 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 548
Abstract
Coordination polymers (CPs) are garnering attention in the field of medicine day by day. The goal is to develop a CP with biosafe and environment-friendly characteristics. Herein, we report two such novel 3D coordination polymers of zinc-inosine-5′-monophosphate (Zn-IMP) and bpe/azpy (as linkers) which [...] Read more.
Coordination polymers (CPs) are garnering attention in the field of medicine day by day. The goal is to develop a CP with biosafe and environment-friendly characteristics. Herein, we report two such novel 3D coordination polymers of zinc-inosine-5′-monophosphate (Zn-IMP) and bpe/azpy (as linkers) which were engineered as metal–organic frameworks that can be used as drug carriers for hydroxyurea (HU). We employed SCXRD, PXRD, solid-state CD, FTIR and TGA for crystal structure characterizations; the results achieved 3D coordination polymers which contain a P21 space group with chiral distorted tetrahedral geometry. Solution phase studies like UV–vis and CD were carried out to understand mechanistic pathways for interaction and chirality, respectively. We have also performed computational studies to evaluate the drug delivery capacity of both 3D CPs. Molecular docking and multi-pH molecular dynamics (MD) quantify that HU binds more strongly with CP−1 (ΔG =−10.87 ± 0.12) as compared to CP−2 (ΔG = −7.59 ± 0.26 kcal·mol−1), at normal and basic pH. MD simulation analysis indicated that a more compact and rigid cavity is observed by CP−1 as compared to CP−2 at physiological pH. Across acidic pH, for CP−1 the ligand RMSD increases markedly and U becomes slightly less negative, which indicated partial loss of contacts, thus releasing drugs in a tumor-like environment more easily. These result showed that CP−1 offers stronger binding, higher structural stability and a more pronounced pH-responsive release profile than CP−2, making CP-1 more promising candidate for targeted HU drug delivery, while CP−2 may serve as a weaker-binding, faster-release complement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Commemorative Issue in Honor of Professor Sir Fraser Stoddart: Functional Coordination Polymers)
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20 pages, 5622 KB  
Article
Kraft Lignin-Based Polyurethane with GVL: A Sustainable Coating Alternative for Recycled Linerboard
by Julia C. Figueiredo, Roberto C. C. Lelis, Rosane N. Castro, Fernando J. B. Gomes, Ericka F. A. Redmond and Biljana M. Bujanovic
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010118 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 540
Abstract
Food packaging is the largest segment of the global plastics market, yet its low degradability and limited performance in preserving perishable goods highlight the need for more sustainable alternatives. This study investigates the use of industrial softwood kraft lignin, a renewable polyol, and [...] Read more.
Food packaging is the largest segment of the global plastics market, yet its low degradability and limited performance in preserving perishable goods highlight the need for more sustainable alternatives. This study investigates the use of industrial softwood kraft lignin, a renewable polyol, and γ-valerolactone (GVL), an excellent green lignin solvent, to synthesize bio-based polyurethane (PU) coatings for recycled linerboard. PU was synthesized with hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), GVL, and 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO) as a catalyst and applied to recycled linerboard (166.6 g/m2) at three coating weights: 13.5, 16.5, and 23.5 g/m2. The coating enhanced water resistance, as shown by the reduced water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) and Cobb1800 values. Oil resistance was also significantly improved, reaching a Kit rating of 11 at the highest coating weight. Mechanical performance was maintained or enhanced, with increases in ring crush strength (RCT) and tensile index. These findings confirm the effectiveness of lignin-based PU in improving both the barrier and mechanical properties of packaging paper. Additionally, this approach presents an environmentally responsible alternative to petroleum-based coatings, adding value to lignin as a byproduct of the pulp and paper industry and supporting the transition toward more circular and sustainable packaging materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignin-Based Polymers)
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15 pages, 3835 KB  
Article
Fabrication and Performance Evaluation of NiMOF@MGO-Modified Polysulfone Membranes for Heavy Metal Removal from Wastewater
by Javad Hashemibeni, Asif Jamil, Asta Bronusiene, Hesam Seifi, Arvydas Palevicius and Giedrius Janusas
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010117 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 513
Abstract
This work presents a detailed analysis of polysulfone (PSF) based mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) modified with NiMOF@MGO for water purification. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized and incorporated into the NiMOF@GO framework, with successful formation confirmed by FT-IR, XRD, BET, TGA, and SEM [...] Read more.
This work presents a detailed analysis of polysulfone (PSF) based mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) modified with NiMOF@MGO for water purification. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized and incorporated into the NiMOF@GO framework, with successful formation confirmed by FT-IR, XRD, BET, TGA, and SEM analyses. Membranes were prepared via phase inversion and modified with varying NiMOF@MGO contents. SEM, AFM, and contact angle analyses demonstrated enhanced membrane hydrophilicity with increasing MOF concentration, reducing the contact angle from 59.74° (0.05 wt%) to 49.70° (0.2 wt%). The highest flux of 117.85 L/m2·h was observed for the PMM-0.2 membrane. Heavy metal removal was most efficient at pH 6, with the PMM-0.1 membrane achieving 95.97% and 95.92% rejection for Pb2+ and Cu2+, respectively. In oil-water separation, PMM-0.1 exhibited optimal performance, with a water flux of 45.84 L/m2·h. Antifouling tests showed the PMM-0.2 membrane had the highest flux recovery of 85.97%, indicating improved fouling resistance. Overall, incorporation of NiMOF@MGO significantly enhanced membrane hydrophilicity, flux, selectivity and antifouling performance, demonstrating its potential for advanced water purification applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)
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