Polymers

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30 pages, 7497 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Artificial Hydrothermal Aging on Crush Boxes Made from Glass, Carbon and Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Composites

by Baran Erkek, Mehmet Şükrü Adin, Ertan Kosedag, Mateusz Bronis and Hamit Adin

Polymers 2026, 18(2), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020249 - 16 Jan 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 557

Abstract

Vehicle crush boxes are one of the safety elements used in vehicles to minimize damage that may occur during an accident. The task of crush boxes is to absorb the energy which is generated during an accident. In this study, peak force, energy [...] Read more.

Vehicle crush boxes are one of the safety elements used in vehicles to minimize damage that may occur during an accident. The task of crush boxes is to absorb the energy which is generated during an accident. In this study, peak force, energy absorption and specific energy absorption values of cylindrical composite crush boxes, to which 0.25% and 0.50% graphene was added, were experimentally investigated with hydrothermal aging. The composite crush boxes were produced with vacuum infusion method. Glass, aramid and carbon fibers and their hybridizations were used as fibers. During hybridization, the winding order of the fibers was changed from inside to outside. The parameters for hydrothermal aging were selected as 500 h and 1000 h at 60 °C. The highest energy absorption value was obtained in the carbon fiber-reinforced sample CFRPG1H2 with 0.25% graphene-added epoxy resin matrix, aged for 1000 h. The lowest peak strength was observed in the aramid fiber-reinforced sample AFRPG2H2 with 0.50% graphene-added epoxy resin matrix, hydrothermally aged for 1000 h. It was observed that increasing the graphene addition rate reduced the negative effects on aging. It was determined that increasing the graphene ratio by 0.25% had an effect on aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)

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15 pages, 3835 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Performance Evaluation of NiMOF@MGO-Modified Polysulfone Membranes for Heavy Metal Removal from Wastewater

by Javad Hashemibeni, Asif Jamil, Asta Bronusiene, Hesam Seifi, Arvydas Palevicius and Giedrius Janusas

Polymers 2026, 18(1), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010117 - 31 Dec 2025

Viewed by 557

Abstract

This work presents a detailed analysis of polysulfone (PSF) based mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) modified with NiMOF@MGO for water purification. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized and incorporated into the NiMOF@GO framework, with successful formation confirmed by FT-IR, XRD, BET, TGA, and SEM [...] Read more.

This work presents a detailed analysis of polysulfone (PSF) based mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) modified with NiMOF@MGO for water purification. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized and incorporated into the NiMOF@GO framework, with successful formation confirmed by FT-IR, XRD, BET, TGA, and SEM analyses. Membranes were prepared via phase inversion and modified with varying NiMOF@MGO contents. SEM, AFM, and contact angle analyses demonstrated enhanced membrane hydrophilicity with increasing MOF concentration, reducing the contact angle from 59.74° (0.05 wt%) to 49.70° (0.2 wt%). The highest flux of 117.85 L/m²·h was observed for the PMM-0.2 membrane. Heavy metal removal was most efficient at pH 6, with the PMM-0.1 membrane achieving 95.97% and 95.92% rejection for Pb²⁺ and Cu²⁺, respectively. In oil-water separation, PMM-0.1 exhibited optimal performance, with a water flux of 45.84 L/m²·h. Antifouling tests showed the PMM-0.2 membrane had the highest flux recovery of 85.97%, indicating improved fouling resistance. Overall, incorporation of NiMOF@MGO significantly enhanced membrane hydrophilicity, flux, selectivity and antifouling performance, demonstrating its potential for advanced water purification applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)

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14 pages, 6543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Metal–Organic Framework-Derived Co₉S₈ Nanowall Array Embellished Polypropylene Separator for Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anodes

by Deshi Feng, Ruiling Zheng, Li Qiao, Shiteng Li, Fengzhao Xu, Chuangen Ye, Jing Zhang and Yong Li

Polymers 2024, 16(13), 1924; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16131924 - 5 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1976

Abstract

Developing a reasonable design of a lithiophilic artificial solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) to induce the uniform deposition of Li⁺ ions and improve the Coulombic efficiency and energy density of batteries is a key task for the development of high-performance lithium metal anodes. [...] Read more.

Developing a reasonable design of a lithiophilic artificial solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) to induce the uniform deposition of Li⁺ ions and improve the Coulombic efficiency and energy density of batteries is a key task for the development of high-performance lithium metal anodes. Herein, a high-performance separator for lithium metal anodes was designed by the in situ growth of a metal–organic framework (MOF)-derived transition metal sulfide array as an artificial SEI on polypropylene separators (denoted as Co₉S₈-PP). The high ionic conductivity and excellent morphology provided a convenient transport path and fast charge transfer kinetics for lithium ions. The experimental data illustrate that, compared with commercial polypropylene separators, the Li//Cu half-cell with a Co₉S₈-PP separator can be cycled stably for 2000 h at 1 mA cm⁻² and 1 mAh cm⁻². Meanwhile, a Li//LiFePO₄ full cell with a Co₉S₈-PP separator exhibits ultra-long cycle stability at 0.2 C with an initial capacity of 148 mAh g⁻¹ and maintains 74% capacity after 1000 cycles. This work provides some new strategies for using transition metal sulfides to induce the uniform deposition of lithium ions to create high-performance lithium metal batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)

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15 pages, 11252 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Plastic with Two Types of Bolted Connections at Low Temperatures

by Hua Li, Feng Guo, Chenglin Han, Wei Su and Shuqi Wen

Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1715; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121715 - 16 Jun 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3083

Abstract

Carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) is frequently utilized as a bolted joint material in aircraft applications because of its high specific strength and specific modulus. Therefore, the performance of CFRP under −50° is significant. Here, we discuss the specimens of two bolted connections (single-nailed [...] Read more.

Carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) is frequently utilized as a bolted joint material in aircraft applications because of its high specific strength and specific modulus. Therefore, the performance of CFRP under −50° is significant. Here, we discuss the specimens of two bolted connections (single-nailed and double-nailed) used for static load tensile and tensile fatigue tests. We obtained the failure curves and fatigue life relationships of the specimens with two different connection methods at different tightening torques (2 N/m, 4 N/m, and 6 N/m) and low room temperatures. Our analysis reveals the effect of the bolt tightening torque and temperature on the structural mechanical properties of a CFRP bolted joint. It provides a data reference for researchers to design a composite bolted joint structure in an airplane flight environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)

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23 pages, 14306 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Accuracy of the Evaluation Method for the Interfacial Shear Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Thermoplastic Polymers through the Short Beam Shear Test

by Quan Jiang, Tetsuo Takayama and Akihiro Nishioka

Polymers 2024, 16(7), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16070883 - 23 Mar 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3000

Abstract

Short fiber-reinforced thermoplastic polymers (SFRTPs) are commonly used in various molding methods due to their high specific elasticity and strength. To evaluate the interfacial strength, several determination methods have been proposed, including the interfacial shear strength (IFSS). In previous research, an IFSS evaluation [...] Read more.

Short fiber-reinforced thermoplastic polymers (SFRTPs) are commonly used in various molding methods due to their high specific elasticity and strength. To evaluate the interfacial strength, several determination methods have been proposed, including the interfacial shear strength (IFSS). In previous research, an IFSS evaluation method based on the short beam shear method was proposed. However, this method is only applicable to micrometer-sized fibers with high stiffness levels that are not easily bent. When utilizing cellulose fiber, the interfacial shear strength (IFSS) results frequently exhibit significant deviations. To tackle this issue, we suggest an enhanced experimental technique that employs beam-shaped specimens with welding points based on the short beam shear test. Furthermore, we conducted a three-dimensional analysis of the original method to determine the fiber orientation angle and IFSS. The outcomes were compared with previously reported determinations. The IFSS achieved through the novel method proposed in this paper exhibits high precision and reliability, rendering it suitable for use with soft and flexible fibers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)

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15 pages, 10737 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mode I Fatigue and Fracture Assessment of Polyimide–Epoxy and Silicon–Epoxy Interfaces in Chip-Package Components

by Pedro Morais, Alireza Akhavan-Safar, Ricardo J. C. Carbas, Eduardo A. S. Marques, Bala Karunamurthy and Lucas F. M. da Silva

Polymers 2024, 16(4), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16040463 - 7 Feb 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2928

Abstract

Semiconductor advancements demand greater integrated circuit density, structural miniaturization, and complex material combinations, resulting in stress concentrations from property mismatches. This study investigates the failure in two types of interfaces found in chip packages: silicon–epoxy mold compound (EMC) and polyimide–EMC. These interfaces were [...] Read more.

Semiconductor advancements demand greater integrated circuit density, structural miniaturization, and complex material combinations, resulting in stress concentrations from property mismatches. This study investigates the failure in two types of interfaces found in chip packages: silicon–epoxy mold compound (EMC) and polyimide–EMC. These interfaces were subjected to quasi-static and fatigue loading conditions. Employing a compliance-based beam method, the tests determined interfacial critical fracture energy values, (

G_{I C}

), of 0.051 N/mm and 0.037 N/mm for the silicon–EMC and polyimide–EMC interfaces, respectively. Fatigue testing on the polyimide–epoxy interface revealed a fatigue threshold strain energy, (

G_{t h}

), of 0.042 N/mm. We also observed diverse failure modes and discuss potential mechanical failures in multi-layer chip packages. The findings of this study can contribute to the prediction and mitigation of failure modes in the analyzed chip packaging. The obtained threshold energy and crack growth rate provide insights for designing safe lives for bi-material interfaces in chip packaging under cyclic loads. These insights can guide future research directions, emphasizing the improvement of material properties and exploration of the influence of manufacturing parameters on delamination in multilayer semiconductors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)

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Review

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35 pages, 3549 KB

Open AccessReview

Multimatrix Composite Materials for Rocket Nozzle Manufacturing: A Comparative Review

by Mohammed Meiirbekov, Mukhammed Sadykov, Assem Kuandyk, Marat Nurguzhin, Marat Janikeyev, Partizan Gulmaira, Laura Mustafa and Nurmakhan Yesbolov

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2946; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212946 - 4 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3029

Abstract

Rocket engine nozzle blocks operate under extreme thermal and oxidative loads, requiring materials with high temperature resistance, dimensional stability, and a predictable lifetime without active cooling. This review provides a comparative overview of multimatrix composite materials-including C/C, C/SiC, SiC/SiC, MMC, and polymer-based ablative [...] Read more.

Rocket engine nozzle blocks operate under extreme thermal and oxidative loads, requiring materials with high temperature resistance, dimensional stability, and a predictable lifetime without active cooling. This review provides a comparative overview of multimatrix composite materials-including C/C, C/SiC, SiC/SiC, MMC, and polymer-based ablative systems-representing the full spectrum of materials used in non-cooled rocket nozzles. The study highlights the evolutionary continuum from polymeric ablative systems to carbon, ceramic, and metallic matrices, demonstrating how each class extends operational limits in temperature capability, reusability, and structural integrity. Polymer and ablative composites serve as the foundation of thermal protection through controlled ablation and insulation, while carbon- and ceramic-based systems ensure long-term performance at ultra-high temperatures (>1600 °C). MMCs bridge these classes by combining strength, impact toughness, and thermal conductivity in transition zones. Particular attention is given to manufacturing technologies such as PIP, CVI, LPI, RS, powder metallurgy, casting, diffusion bonding, and filament winding, emphasizing their effect on microstructure, porosity, and lifetime. A practical selection matrix linking nozzle zones, mission profiles, and composite types is proposed, outlining trade-offs among performance, mass, lifetime, and manufacturability, and guiding the design of next-generation thermal protection and propulsion systems based on the multimatrix concept. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)

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47 pages, 12662 KB

Open AccessReview

Strength in Adhesion: A Multi-Mechanics Review Covering Tensile, Shear, Fracture, Fatigue, Creep, and Impact Behavior of Polymer Bonding in Composites

by Murat Demiral

Polymers 2025, 17(19), 2600; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17192600 - 25 Sep 2025

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7226

Abstract

The growing demand for lightweight and reliable structures across aerospace, automotive, marine, and civil engineering has driven significant advances in polymer adhesive technology. These materials serve dual roles, functioning as matrices in composites and as structural bonding agents, where they must balance strength, [...] Read more.

The growing demand for lightweight and reliable structures across aerospace, automotive, marine, and civil engineering has driven significant advances in polymer adhesive technology. These materials serve dual roles, functioning as matrices in composites and as structural bonding agents, where they must balance strength, toughness, durability, and sometimes sustainability. Recent review efforts have greatly enriched understanding, yet most approach the topic from specialized angles—whether emphasizing nanoscale toughening, multifunctional formulations, sustainable alternatives, or microscopic failure processes in bonded joints. While such perspectives provide valuable insights, they often remain fragmented, leaving open questions about how nanoscale mechanisms translate into macroscopic reliability, how durability evolves under realistic service conditions, and how mechanical responses interact across different loading modes. To address this, the present review consolidates knowledge on the performance of polymer adhesives under tension, shear, fracture, fatigue, creep, and impact. By integrating experimental findings with computational modeling and emerging data-driven approaches, it situates localized mechanisms within a broader structure–performance framework. This unified perspective not only highlights persistent gaps—such as predictive modeling of complex failure, scalability of nanomodified systems, and long-term durability under coupled environments—but also outlines strategies for developing next-generation adhesives capable of delivering reliable, high-performance bonding solutions for demanding applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites: Design, Manufacture and Characterization)

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