Viruses

17 pages, 1837 KB

Open AccessArticle

BnSGS3 Has Differential Effects on the Accumulation of CMV, ORMV and TuMV in Oilseed Rape

by Quan Chen^1,2, Jie Wang¹, Mingsheng Hou¹, Shengyi Liu³

, Junyan Huang³ and Li Cai^1,*

¹ College of Plant Science and Technology of Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China

² Xiaozhou Agricultural Service Center in Wanzhou District, Chongqing 404089, China

³ Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Biologyand Genetic Breeding of Oil Crops, the Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan 430062, China

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4169-4185; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082815 - 27 Jul 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6123

Abstract

Virus diseases greatly affect oilseed rape (Brassica napus) production. Investigating antiviral genes may lead to the development of disease-resistant varieties of oilseed rape. In this study, we examined the effects of the suppressor of gene silencing 3 in Brassica napus (BnSGS3, a putative [...] Read more.

Virus diseases greatly affect oilseed rape (Brassica napus) production. Investigating antiviral genes may lead to the development of disease-resistant varieties of oilseed rape. In this study, we examined the effects of the suppressor of gene silencing 3 in Brassica napus (BnSGS3, a putative antiviral gene) with different genus viruses by constructing BnSGS3-overexpressing (BnSGS3-Ov) and BnSGS3-silenced (BnSGS3-Si) oilseed rape (cv. Zhongshuang No. 6) plants. These three viruses are Oilseed rape mosaic virus (ORMV), Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) and Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV). The native BnSGS3 expressed in all examined tissues with the highest expression in siliques. All three viruses induced BnSGS3 expression, but ORMV induced a dramatic increase in the BnSGS3-Ov plants, followed by TuMV and CMV. Upon inoculation with three different viruses, transcript abundance of BnSGS3 gene follows: BnSGS3-Ov > non-transgenic plants > BnSGS3-Si. The accumulation quantities of ORMV and TuMV exhibited a similar trend. However, CMV accumulation showed an opposite trend where virus accumulations were negatively correlated with BnSGS3 expression. The results suggest that BnSGS3 selectively inhibits CMV accumulation but promotes ORMV and TuMV accumulation. BnSGS3 should be used in different ways (up- and down-regulation) for breeding virus-resistant oilseed rape varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viruses of Plants, Fungi and Protozoa)

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18 pages, 407 KB

Open AccessReview

CCR5 Targeted Cell Therapy for HIV and Prevention of Viral Escape

by Gero Hütter^1,*, Josef Bodor², Scott Ledger³, Maureen Boyd⁴, Michelle Millington⁴, Marlene Tsie⁴ and Geoff Symonds⁴

¹ Cellex GmbH, Fiedlerstr. 36, 01307 Dresden, Germany

² Department of Cell Therapy, Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, U Nemocnice 1, 128 20 Prague 2, Czech Republic

³ Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052 NSW, Australia

⁴ Calimmune, Inc., Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4186-4203; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082816 - 27 Jul 2015

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 14200

Abstract

Allogeneic transplantation with CCR5-delta 32 (CCR5-d32) homozygous stem cells in an HIV infected individual in 2008, led to a sustained virus control and probably eradication of HIV. Since then there has been a high degree of interest to translate this approach to a [...] Read more.

Allogeneic transplantation with CCR5-delta 32 (CCR5-d32) homozygous stem cells in an HIV infected individual in 2008, led to a sustained virus control and probably eradication of HIV. Since then there has been a high degree of interest to translate this approach to a wider population. There are two cellular ways to do this. The first one is to use a CCR5 negative cell source e.g., hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) to copy the initial finding. However, a recent case of a second allogeneic transplantation with CCR5-d32 homozygous stem cells suffered from viral escape of CXCR4 quasi-species. The second way is to knock down CCR5 expression by gene therapy. Currently, there are five promising techniques, three of which are presently being tested clinically. These techniques include zinc finger nucleases (ZFN), clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 nuclease (CRISPR/Cas9), transcription activator-like effectors nuclease (TALEN), short hairpin RNA (shRNA), and a ribozyme. While there are multiple gene therapy strategies being tested, in this review we reflect on our current knowledge of inhibition of CCR5 specifically and whether this approach allows for consequent viral escape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gene Technology and Resistance to Viruses - Reviews)

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26 pages, 7246 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Trichodysplasia Spinulosa-Associated Polyomavirus Capsid Protein as a New Carrier for Construction of Chimeric Virus-Like Particles Harboring Foreign Epitopes

by Alma Gedvilaite

, Indre Kucinskaite-Kodze, Rita Lasickiene, Albertas Timinskas, Ausra Vaitiekaite, Danguole Ziogiene and Aurelija Zvirbliene^*

Vilnius University Institute of Biotechnology, V.A. Graiciuno 8, Vilnius LT-02241, Lithuania

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4204-4229; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082818 - 29 Jul 2015

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6442

Abstract

Recombinant virus-like particles (VLPs) represent a promising tool for protein engineering. Recently, trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus (TSPyV) viral protein 1 (VP1) was efficiently produced in yeast expression system and shown to self-assemble to VLPs. In the current study, TSPyV VP1 protein was exploited as [...] Read more.

Recombinant virus-like particles (VLPs) represent a promising tool for protein engineering. Recently, trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus (TSPyV) viral protein 1 (VP1) was efficiently produced in yeast expression system and shown to self-assemble to VLPs. In the current study, TSPyV VP1 protein was exploited as a carrier for construction of chimeric VLPs harboring selected B and T cell-specific epitopes and evaluated in comparison to hamster polyomavirus VP1 protein. Chimeric VLPs with inserted either hepatitis B virus preS1 epitope DPAFR or a universal T cell-specific epitope AKFVAAWTLKAAA were produced in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Target epitopes were incorporated either at the HI or BC loop of the VP1 protein. The insertion sites were selected based on molecular models of TSPyV VP1 protein. The surface exposure of the insert positions was confirmed using a collection of monoclonal antibodies raised against the intact TSPyV VP1 protein. All generated chimeric proteins were capable to self-assemble to VLPs, which induced a strong immune response in mice. The chimeric VLPs also activated dendritic cells and T cells as demonstrated by analysis of cell surface markers and cytokine production profiles in spleen cell cultures. In conclusion, TSPyV VP1 protein represents a new potential carrier for construction of chimeric VLPs harboring target epitopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals)

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24 pages, 8401 KB

Open AccessArticle

Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 Mediates RSV Infection in Vitro and in Vivo

by Michele Y.F. Kong^1,*, Richard J. Whitley¹, Ning Peng¹, Robert Oster², Trenton R. Schoeb³, Wayne Sullender⁴, Namasivayam Ambalavanan¹, John Paul Clancy⁵, Amit Gaggar² and J. Edwin Blalock²

¹ Departments of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, PPS 102, 1600 5th Ave South, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA

² Departments of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, PPS 102, 1600 5th Ave South, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA

³ Departments of Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, PPS 102, 1600 5th Ave South, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA

⁴ Center for Global Health, Colorado School of Public Health, 13199 E Montview Blvd, Suite 310,A090 Aurora, CO 80045, USA

⁵ Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4230-4253; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082817 - 30 Jul 2015

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7719

Abstract

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is an important human pathogen associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. The present study tested the hypothesis that RSV infection would increase matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 expression, and that MMP-9 inhibition would decrease RSV replication both in vitro and in [...] Read more.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is an important human pathogen associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. The present study tested the hypothesis that RSV infection would increase matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 expression, and that MMP-9 inhibition would decrease RSV replication both in vitro and in vivo. RSV A2 infection of human bronchial epithelial cells increased MMP-9 mRNA and protein release. Cells transfected with siRNA against MMP-9 following RSV infection had lower viral titers. In RSV infected wild-type (WT) mice, MMP-9, airway resistance and viral load peaked at day 2 post infection, and remained elevated on days 4 and 7. RSV infected MMP-9 knockout (KO) mice had decreased lung inflammation. On days 2 and 4 post inoculation, the RSV burden was lower in the MMP-9 KO mice compared to WT controls. In conclusion, our studies demonstrate that RSV infection is a potent stimulus of MMP-9 expression both in vitro and in vivo. Reduction of MMP-9 (via siRNA knockdown, and in MMP-9 KO mice) resulted in decreased viral replication. Our findings suggest MMP-9 is a potential therapeutic target for RSV disease. Full article

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28 pages, 179 KB

Open AccessReview

Public Acceptance of Plant Biotechnology and GM Crops

by Jan M. Lucht

Scienceindustries, Swiss Business Association Chemistry Pharma Biotech, P.O. Box 1826, Zurich CH-8021, Switzerland

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4254-4281; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082819 - 30 Jul 2015

Cited by 320 | Viewed by 42229

Abstract

A wide gap exists between the rapid acceptance of genetically modified (GM) crops for cultivation by farmers in many countries and in the global markets for food and feed, and the often-limited acceptance by consumers. This review contrasts the advances of practical applications [...] Read more.

A wide gap exists between the rapid acceptance of genetically modified (GM) crops for cultivation by farmers in many countries and in the global markets for food and feed, and the often-limited acceptance by consumers. This review contrasts the advances of practical applications of agricultural biotechnology with the divergent paths—also affecting the development of virus resistant transgenic crops—of political and regulatory frameworks for GM crops and food in different parts of the world. These have also shaped the different opinions of consumers. Important factors influencing consumer’s attitudes are the perception of risks and benefits, knowledge and trust, and personal values. Recent political and societal developments show a hardening of the negative environment for agricultural biotechnology in Europe, a growing discussion—including calls for labeling of GM food—in the USA, and a careful development in China towards a possible authorization of GM rice that takes the societal discussions into account. New breeding techniques address some consumers’ concerns with transgenic crops, but it is not clear yet how consumers’ attitudes towards them will develop. Discussions about agriculture would be more productive, if they would focus less on technologies, but on common aims and underlying values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gene Technology and Resistance to Viruses - Reviews)

21 pages, 3815 KB

Open AccessArticle

Whole-Genome Analysis of a Novel Fish Reovirus (MsReV) Discloses Aquareovirus Genomic Structure Relationship with Host in Saline Environments

by Zhong-Yuan Chen, Xiao-Chan Gao and Qi-Ya Zhang^*

State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4282-4302; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082820 - 3 Aug 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8945

Abstract

Aquareoviruses are serious pathogens of aquatic animals. Here, genome characterization and functional gene analysis of a novel aquareovirus, largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides reovirus (MsReV), was described. It comprises 11 dsRNA segments (S1–S11) covering 24,024 bp, and encodes 12 putative proteins including the inclusion [...] Read more.

Aquareoviruses are serious pathogens of aquatic animals. Here, genome characterization and functional gene analysis of a novel aquareovirus, largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides reovirus (MsReV), was described. It comprises 11 dsRNA segments (S1–S11) covering 24,024 bp, and encodes 12 putative proteins including the inclusion forming-related protein NS87 and the fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) protein NS22. The function of NS22 was confirmed by expression in fish cells. Subsequently, MsReV was compared with two representative aquareoviruses, saltwater fish turbot Scophthalmus maximus reovirus (SMReV) and freshwater fish grass carp reovirus strain 109 (GCReV-109). MsReV NS87 and NS22 genes have the same structure and function with those of SMReV, whereas GCReV-109 is either missing the coiled-coil region in NS79 or the gene-encoding NS22. Significant similarities are also revealed among equivalent genome segments between MsReV and SMReV, but a difference is found between MsReV and GCReV-109. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis showed that 13 aquareoviruses could be divided into freshwater and saline environments subgroups, and MsReV was closely related to SMReV in saline environments. Consequently, these viruses from hosts in saline environments have more genomic structural similarities than the viruses from hosts in freshwater. This is the first study of the relationships between aquareovirus genomic structure and their host environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Viruses)

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23 pages, 826 KB

Open AccessReview

Papillomavirus Infectious Pathways: A Comparison of Systems

by Jennifer Biryukov and Craig Meyers^*

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University, 500 University Drive, Hershey, PA 17033, USA

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4303-4325; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082823 - 4 Aug 2015

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7859

Abstract

The HPV viral lifecycle is tightly linked to the host cell differentiation, causing difficulty in growing virions in culture. A system that bypasses the need for differentiating epithelium has allowed for generation of recombinant particles, such as virus-like particles (VLPs), pseudovirions (PsV), and [...] Read more.

The HPV viral lifecycle is tightly linked to the host cell differentiation, causing difficulty in growing virions in culture. A system that bypasses the need for differentiating epithelium has allowed for generation of recombinant particles, such as virus-like particles (VLPs), pseudovirions (PsV), and quasivirions (QV). Much of the research looking at the HPV life cycle, infectivity, and structure has been generated utilizing recombinant particles. While recombinant particles have proven to be invaluable, allowing for a rapid progression of the HPV field, there are some significant differences between recombinant particles and native virions and very few comparative studies using native virions to confirm results are done. This review serves to address the conflicting data in the HPV field regarding native virions and recombinant particles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tumour Viruses)

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26 pages, 2111 KB

Open AccessReview

Translational Control of the HIV Unspliced Genomic RNA

by Bárbara Rojas-Araya¹, Théophile Ohlmann^2,3,4,5,6,* and Ricardo Soto-Rifo^1,*

¹ Molecular and Cellular Virology Laboratory, Program of Virology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Independencia 834100, Santiago, Chile

² CIRI, International Center for Infectiology Research, Université de Lyon, Lyon 69007, France

³ Inserm, U1111, Lyon 69007, France

⁴ Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon 69007, France

⁵ Université Lyon 1, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Lyon 69007, France

⁶ CNRS, UMR5308, Lyon 69007, France

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4326-4351; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082822 - 4 Aug 2015

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10316

Abstract

Post-transcriptional control in both HIV-1 and HIV-2 is a highly regulated process that commences in the nucleus of the host infected cell and finishes by the expression of viral proteins in the cytoplasm. Expression of the unspliced genomic RNA is particularly controlled at [...] Read more.

Post-transcriptional control in both HIV-1 and HIV-2 is a highly regulated process that commences in the nucleus of the host infected cell and finishes by the expression of viral proteins in the cytoplasm. Expression of the unspliced genomic RNA is particularly controlled at the level of RNA splicing, export, and translation. It appears increasingly obvious that all these steps are interconnected and they result in the building of a viral ribonucleoprotein complex (RNP) that must be efficiently translated in the cytosolic compartment. This review summarizes our knowledge about the genesis, localization, and expression of this viral RNP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Replication Complexes: Structures, Functions, Applications and Inhibitors)

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17 pages, 934 KB

Open AccessReview

Vpu Protein: The Viroporin Encoded by HIV-1

by María Eugenia González

Unidad de Expresión Viral, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Carretera de Majadahonda-Pozuelo Km 2, Majadahonda, Madrid 28220, Spain

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4352-4368; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082824 - 4 Aug 2015

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 11381

Abstract

Viral protein U (Vpu) is a lentiviral viroporin encoded by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and some simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) strains. This small protein of 81 amino acids contains a single transmembrane domain that allows for supramolecular organization via homoligomerization or [...] Read more.

Viral protein U (Vpu) is a lentiviral viroporin encoded by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and some simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) strains. This small protein of 81 amino acids contains a single transmembrane domain that allows for supramolecular organization via homoligomerization or interaction with other proteins. The topology and trafficking of Vpu through subcellular compartments result in pleiotropic effects in host cells. Notwithstanding the high variability of its amino acid sequence, the functionality of Vpu is well conserved in pandemic virus isolates. This review outlines our current knowledge on the interactions of Vpu with the host cell. The regulation of cellular physiology by Vpu and the validity of this viroporin as a therapeutic target are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viroporins)

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16 pages, 2736 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Humoral Responses Induced by an H7N9 Influenza Virus-Like Particle Vaccine in BALB/C Mice

by Li Zhang^1,†, Jing Lu^2,†, Yin Chen³, Fengjuan Shi³, Huiyan Yu³, Chao Huang³, Lunbiao Cui³, Zhiyang Shi³, Yongjun Jiao^3,* and Yuemei Hu^1,*

¹ Department of Vaccine Clinical Evaluation, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Preventionand Control, Nanjing 210009, China

² Department of HIV/STD prevention and control, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Preventionand Control, Nanjing 210009, China

³ Institute of Pathogenic Microbiology, Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Key Laboratory of Enteric Pathogenic Microbiology, Ministry Health, Nanjing 210009, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4369-4384; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082821 - 4 Aug 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7223

Abstract

In April 2013, human infections with a novel avian influenza (H7N9) virus emerged in China. It has caused serious concerns for public health throughout the world. However, there is presently no effective treatment, and an A (H7N9) H7 subtype influenza vaccine is not [...] Read more.

In April 2013, human infections with a novel avian influenza (H7N9) virus emerged in China. It has caused serious concerns for public health throughout the world. However, there is presently no effective treatment, and an A (H7N9) H7 subtype influenza vaccine is not available. Vaccination with virus-like particles (VLPs) has showed considerable promise for many other subtype influenza viruses. To produce H7N9 VLPs, full length, unmodified hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA), and matrix1 (M1) genes from the A/Wuxi/1/2013(H7N9) were cloned into a pCDNA5.1 FRT vector. By co-transfection, VLPs containing HA, NA, and M1 were secreted by 293T cells. VLPs were purified by ultracentrifugation and injected into mice by the intramuscular route. In animal experiments, humoral and cellular immunoresponse were all triggered by H7N9 VLPs. High levels of specific antibodies and the isotypes of IgG were detected by ELISA. Anamnestic cellular immune responses were examined by detecting specific cytotoxic T cell for IFN-Υ production in ELISPOT assay. The hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) against the homologous virus was more than 1:64, and cross-reactive HAI titers against the heterologous virus (H1N1 and H3N2) were more than 1:16. Moreover, VLPs immunized mice showed a rapid increase of neutralizing antibodies, with neutralizing antibody titers more than 1:8, which increased four-fold against PBS immunized mice in week four. By week six, the mice had high neutralization ability against the given strain and held a potent homologous virus neutralizing capacity. Thus, VLPs represent a potential strategy for the development of a safe and effective vaccine against novel avian influenza (H7N9) virus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals)

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29 pages, 401 KB

Open AccessReview

The Virus-Host Interplay: Biogenesis of +RNA Replication Complexes

by Colleen R. Reid^1,†, Adriana M. Airo^1,† and Tom C. Hobman^1,2,*

¹ Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada

² Department of Cell Biology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4385-4413; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082825 - 6 Aug 2015

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 11870

Abstract

Positive-strand RNA (+RNA) viruses are an important group of human and animal pathogens that have significant global health and economic impacts. Notable members include West Nile virus, Dengue virus, Chikungunya, Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) Coronavirus and enteroviruses of the Picornaviridae family.Unfortunately, prophylactic [...] Read more.

Positive-strand RNA (+RNA) viruses are an important group of human and animal pathogens that have significant global health and economic impacts. Notable members include West Nile virus, Dengue virus, Chikungunya, Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) Coronavirus and enteroviruses of the Picornaviridae family.Unfortunately, prophylactic and therapeutic treatments against these pathogens are limited. +RNA viruses have limited coding capacity and thus rely extensively on host factors for successful infection and propagation. A common feature among these viruses is their ability to dramatically modify cellular membranes to serve as platforms for genome replication and assembly of new virions. These viral replication complexes (VRCs) serve two main functions: To increase replication efficiency by concentrating critical factors and to protect the viral genome from host anti-viral systems. This review summarizes current knowledge of critical host factors recruited to or demonstrated to be involved in the biogenesis and stabilization of +RNA virus VRCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Replication Complexes: Structures, Functions, Applications and Inhibitors)

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24 pages, 3707 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the HCMV-Specific CD4 T Cell Responses that Are Associated with Protective Immunity

by Marie Wunsch¹, Wenji Zhang², Jodi Hanson², Richard Caspell², Alexey Y. Karulin², Mascha S. Recks³, Stefanie Kuerten¹, Srividya Sundararaman^2,* and Paul V. Lehmann²

¹ Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Koellikerstr 6, 97070 Wuerzburg, Germany

² Cellular Technology Limited, 20521 Chagrin Blvd, Shaker Heights, OH 44022, USA

³ Department of Anatomy I, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9, 50931 Cologne, Germany

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4414-4437; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082828 - 6 Aug 2015

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7469

Abstract

Most humans become infected with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Typically, the immune system controls the infection, but the virus persists and can reactivate in states of immunodeficiency. While substantial information is available on the contribution of CD8 T cells and antibodies to anti-HCMV immunity, [...] Read more.

Most humans become infected with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Typically, the immune system controls the infection, but the virus persists and can reactivate in states of immunodeficiency. While substantial information is available on the contribution of CD8 T cells and antibodies to anti-HCMV immunity, studies of the TH1, TH2, and TH17 subsets have been limited by the low frequency of HCMV-specific CD4 T cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC). Using the enzyme-linked Immunospotr assay (ELISPOT) that excels in low frequency measurements, we have established these in a sizable cohort of healthy HCMV controllers. Cytokine recall responses were seen in all seropositive donors. Specifically, interferon (IFN)- and/or interleukin (IL)-17 were seen in isolation or with IL-4 in all test subjects. IL-4 recall did not occur in isolation. While the ratios of TH1, TH2, and TH17 cells exhibited substantial variations between different individuals these ratios and the frequencies were relatively stable when tested in samples drawn up to five years apart. IFN- and IL-2 co-expressing polyfunctional cells were seen in most subjects. Around half of the HCMV-specific CD4 cells were in a reversible state of exhaustion. The data provided here established the TH1, TH2, and TH17 characteristic of the CD4 cells that convey immune protection for successful immune surveillance against which reactivity can be compared when the immune surveillance of HCMV fails. Full article

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23 pages, 2514 KB

Open AccessReview

RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerases of Picornaviruses: From the Structure to Regulatory Mechanisms

by Cristina Ferrer-Orta, Diego Ferrero and Núria Verdaguer^*

Molecular Biology Institute of Barcelona (CSIC), Barcelona Science Park (PCB), Baldiri i Reixac 10, Barcelona E-08028, Spain

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4438-4460; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082829 - 6 Aug 2015

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 10425

Abstract

RNA viruses typically encode their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) to ensure genome replication within the infected cells. RdRP function is critical not only for the virus life cycle but also for its adaptive potential. The combination of low fidelity of replication and [...] Read more.

RNA viruses typically encode their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) to ensure genome replication within the infected cells. RdRP function is critical not only for the virus life cycle but also for its adaptive potential. The combination of low fidelity of replication and the absence of proofreading and excision activities within the RdRPs result in high mutation frequencies that allow these viruses a rapid adaptation to changing environments. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about structural and functional aspects on RdRP catalytic complexes, focused mainly in the Picornaviridae family. The structural data currently available from these viruses provided high-resolution snapshots for a range of conformational states associated to RNA template-primer binding, rNTP recognition, catalysis and chain translocation. As these enzymes are major targets for the development of antiviral compounds, such structural information is essential for the design of new therapies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Replication Complexes: Structures, Functions, Applications and Inhibitors)

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21 pages, 769 KB

Open AccessReview

Structural and Functional Properties of the Hepatitis C Virus p7 Viroporin

by Vanesa Madan^1,* and Ralf Bartenschlager^1,2,*

¹ Department of Infectious Diseases, Molecular Virology, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

² Division of Virus-Associated Carcinogenesis, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4461-4481; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082826 - 6 Aug 2015

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 14628

Abstract

The high prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in the human population has triggered intensive research efforts that have led to the development of curative antiviral therapy. Moreover, HCV has become a role model to study fundamental principles that govern the replication [...] Read more.

The high prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in the human population has triggered intensive research efforts that have led to the development of curative antiviral therapy. Moreover, HCV has become a role model to study fundamental principles that govern the replication cycle of a positive strand RNA virus. In fact, for most HCV proteins high-resolution X-ray and NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance)-based structures have been established and profound insights into their biochemical and biological properties have been gained. One example is p7, a small hydrophobic protein that is dispensable for RNA replication, but crucial for the production and release of infectious HCV particles from infected cells. Owing to its ability to insert into membranes and assemble into homo-oligomeric complexes that function as minimalistic ion channels, HCV p7 is a member of the viroporin family. This review compiles the most recent findings related to the structure and dual pore/ion channel activity of p7 of different HCV genotypes. The alternative conformations and topologies proposed for HCV p7 in its monomeric and oligomeric state are described and discussed in detail. We also summarize the different roles p7 might play in the HCV replication cycle and highlight both the ion channel/pore-like function and the additional roles of p7 unrelated to its channel activity. Finally, we discuss possibilities to utilize viroporin inhibitors for antagonizing p7 ion channel/pore-like activity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viroporins)

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6 pages, 92 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: Gene Therapy with Emphasis on RNA Interference

by Kenneth Lundstrom

PanTherapeutics, Rue des Remparts 4, CH1095 Lutry, Switzerland

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4482-4487; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082830 - 6 Aug 2015

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5185

Abstract

Gene therapy was originally thought to cover replacement of malfunctioning genes in treatment of various diseases. Today, the field has been expanded to application of viral and non-viral vectors for delivery of recombinant proteins for the compensation of missing or insufficient proteins, anti-cancer [...] Read more.

Gene therapy was originally thought to cover replacement of malfunctioning genes in treatment of various diseases. Today, the field has been expanded to application of viral and non-viral vectors for delivery of recombinant proteins for the compensation of missing or insufficient proteins, anti-cancer genes and proteins for destruction of tumor cells, immunostimulatory genes and proteins for stimulation of the host defense system against viral agents and tumors. Recently, the importance of RNA interference and its application in gene therapy has become an attractive alternative for drug development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gene Therapy with Emphasis on RNA Interference)

19 pages, 3474 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Genetic Characterization of the Belgian Nephropathogenic Infectious Bronchitis Virus (NIBV) Reference Strain B1648

by Vishwanatha R.A.P. Reddy¹, Sebastiaan Theuns¹

, Inge D.M. Roukaerts¹, Mark Zeller², Jelle Matthijnssens^2,3 and Hans J. Nauwynck^1,*

¹ Laboratory of Virology, Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium

² Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Department of Microbiologyand Immunology, KU Leuven—University of Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium

³ Rega Institute for Medical Research, Laboratory of Viral Metagenomics, Department ofMicrobiology and Immunology, KU Leuven—University of Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, BE-3000 Leuven, Belgium

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4488-4506; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082827 - 7 Aug 2015

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 8942

Abstract

The virulent nephropathogenic infectious bronchitis virus (NIBV) strain B1648 was first isolated in 1984, in Flanders, Belgium. Despite intensive vaccination, B1648 and its variants are still circulating in Europe and North Africa. Here, the full-length genome of this Belgian NIBV reference strain was [...] Read more.

The virulent nephropathogenic infectious bronchitis virus (NIBV) strain B1648 was first isolated in 1984, in Flanders, Belgium. Despite intensive vaccination, B1648 and its variants are still circulating in Europe and North Africa. Here, the full-length genome of this Belgian NIBV reference strain was determined by next generation sequencing (NGS) to understand its evolutionary relationship with other IBV strains, and to identify possible genetic factors that may be associated with the nephropathogenicity. Thirteen open reading frames (ORFs) were predicted in the B1648 strain (51UTR-1a-1b-S-3a-3b-E-M-4b-4c-5a-5b-N-6b-31UTR). ORFs 4b, 4c and 6b, which have been rarely reported in literature, were present in B1648 and most of the other IBV complete genomes. According to phylogenetic analysis of the full-length genome, replicase transcriptase complex, spike protein, partial S1 gene and M protein, B1648 strain clustered with the non-Massachusetts type strains NGA/A116E7/2006, UKr 27-11, QX-like ITA/90254/2005, QX-like CK/SWE/0658946/10, TN20/00, RF-27/99, RF/06/2007 and SLO/266/05. Based on the partial S1 fragment, B1648 clustered with the strains TN20/00, RF-27/99, RF/06/2007 and SLO/266/05 and, further designated as B1648 genotype. The full-length genome of B1648 shared the highest sequence homology with UKr 27-11, Gray, JMK, and NGA/A116E7/2006 (91.2% to 91.6%) and was least related with the reference Beaudette and Massachusetts strains (89.7%). Nucleotide and amino acid sequence analyses indicated that B1648 strain may have played an important role in the evolution of IBV in Europe and North Africa. Further, the nephropathogenicity determinants might be located on the 1a, spike, M and accessory proteins (3a, 3b, 4b, 4c, 5a, 5b and 6b). Overall, strain B1648 is distinct from all the strains reported so far in Europe and other parts of the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Viruses)

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22 pages, 270 KB

Open AccessReview

Mate-Pair Sequencing as a Powerful Clinical Tool for the Characterization of Cancers with a DNA Viral Etiology

by Ge Gao and David I. Smith^*

Division of Experimental Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4507-4528; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082831 - 7 Aug 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8764

Abstract

DNA viruses are known to be associated with a variety of different cancers. Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are a family of viruses and several of its sub-types are classified as high-risk HPVs as they are found to be associated with the development of a [...] Read more.

DNA viruses are known to be associated with a variety of different cancers. Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are a family of viruses and several of its sub-types are classified as high-risk HPVs as they are found to be associated with the development of a number of different cancers. Almost all cervical cancers appear to be driven by HPV infection and HPV is also found in most cancers of the anus and at least half the cancers of the vulva, penis and vagina, and increasingly found in one sub-type of head and neck cancers namely oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Our understanding of HPVs role in cancer development comes from extensive studies done on cervical cancer and it has just been assumed that HPV plays an identical role in the development of all other cancers arising in the presence of HPV sequences, although this has not been proven. Most invasive cervical cancers have the HPV genome integrated into one or more sites within the human genome. One powerful tool to examine all the sites of HPV integration in a cancer but that also provides a comprehensive view of genomic alterations in that cancer is the use of next generation sequencing of mate-pair libraries produced from the DNA isolated. We will describe how this powerful technology can provide important information about the genomic organization within an individual cancer genome, and how this has demonstrated that HPVs role in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma is distinct from that in cervical cancer. We will also describe why the sequencing of mate-pair libraries could be a powerful clinical tool for the management of patients with a DNA viral etiology and how this could quickly transform the care of these patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next Generation Sequencing: New Developments and Discoveries in Virology)

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34 pages, 2741 KB

Open AccessReview

Replication and Inhibitors of Enteroviruses and Parechoviruses

by Lonneke Van der Linden^1,*, Katja C. Wolthers¹ and Frank J.M. Van Kuppeveld²

¹ Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, Amsterdam 1105 AZ, The Netherlands

² Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, Utrecht 3584 CL, The Netherlands

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4529-4562; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082832 - 10 Aug 2015

Cited by 128 | Viewed by 24844

Abstract

The Enterovirus (EV) and Parechovirus genera of the picornavirus family include many important human pathogens, including poliovirus, rhinovirus, EV-A71, EV-D68, and human parechoviruses (HPeV). They cause a wide variety of diseases, ranging from a simple common cold to life-threatening diseases such as encephalitis [...] Read more.

The Enterovirus (EV) and Parechovirus genera of the picornavirus family include many important human pathogens, including poliovirus, rhinovirus, EV-A71, EV-D68, and human parechoviruses (HPeV). They cause a wide variety of diseases, ranging from a simple common cold to life-threatening diseases such as encephalitis and myocarditis. At the moment, no antiviral therapy is available against these viruses and it is not feasible to develop vaccines against all EVs and HPeVs due to the great number of serotypes. Therefore, a lot of effort is being invested in the development of antiviral drugs. Both viral proteins and host proteins essential for virus replication can be used as targets for virus inhibitors. As such, a good understanding of the complex process of virus replication is pivotal in the design of antiviral strategies goes hand in hand with a good understanding of the complex process of virus replication. In this review, we will give an overview of the current state of knowledge of EV and HPeV replication and how this can be inhibited by small-molecule inhibitors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Replication Complexes: Structures, Functions, Applications and Inhibitors)

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19 pages, 3378 KB

Open AccessArticle

eEF1A Interacts with the NS5A Protein and Inhibits the Growth of Classical Swine Fever Virus

by Su Li^†, Shuo Feng, Jing-Han Wang, Wen-Rui He, Hua-Yang Qin, Hong Dong, Lian-Feng Li, Shao-Xiong Yu, Yongfeng Li and Hua-Ji Qiu^*

¹ State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, Heilongjiang, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4563-4581; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082833 - 10 Aug 2015

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7221

Abstract

The NS5A protein of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) is involved in the RNA synthesis and viral replication. However, the NS5A-interacting cellular proteins engaged in the CSFV replication are poorly defined. Using yeast two-hybrid screen, the eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) was identified [...] Read more.

The NS5A protein of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) is involved in the RNA synthesis and viral replication. However, the NS5A-interacting cellular proteins engaged in the CSFV replication are poorly defined. Using yeast two-hybrid screen, the eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) was identified to be an NS5A-binding partner. The NS5A–eEF1A interaction was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation, glutathione S-transferase (GST) pulldown and laser confocal microscopy assays. The domain I of eEF1A was shown to be critical for the NS5A–eEF1A interaction. Overexpression of eEF1A suppressed the CSFV growth markedly, and conversely, knockdown of eEF1A enhanced the CSFV replication significantly. Furthermore, eEF1A, as well as NS5A, was found to reduce the translation efficiency of the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) of CSFV in a dose-dependent manner, as demonstrated by luciferase reporter assay. Streptavidin pulldown assay revealed that eEF1A could bind to the CSFV IRES. Collectively, our results suggest that eEF1A interacts with NS5A and negatively regulates the growth of CSFV. Full article

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20 pages, 1610 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Interaction between Cyclin B1 and Cytomegalovirus Protein Kinase pUL97 is Determined by an Active Kinase Domain

by Mirjam Steingruber¹, Eileen Socher²

, Corina Hutterer¹, Rike Webel¹, Tim Bergbrede³, Tihana Lenac⁴, Heinrich Sticht² and Manfred Marschall^1,*

¹ Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany

² Division of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), 91054 Erlangen, Germany

³ Lead Discovery Center GmbH, 44227 Dortmund, Germany

⁴ Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4582-4601; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082834 - 11 Aug 2015

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7326

Abstract

Replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is characterized by a tight virus-host cell interaction. Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (CDKs) are functionally integrated into viral gene expression and protein modification. The HCMV-encoded protein kinase pUL97 acts as a CDK ortholog showing structural and functional similarities. Recently, [...] Read more.

Replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is characterized by a tight virus-host cell interaction. Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (CDKs) are functionally integrated into viral gene expression and protein modification. The HCMV-encoded protein kinase pUL97 acts as a CDK ortholog showing structural and functional similarities. Recently, we reported an interaction between pUL97 kinase with a subset of host cyclins, in particular with cyclin T1. Here, we describe an interaction of pUL97 at an even higher affinity with cyclin B1. As a striking feature, the interaction between pUL97 and cyclin B1 proved to be strictly dependent on pUL97 activity, as interaction could be abrogated by treatment with pUL97 inhibitors or by inserting mutations into the conserved kinase domain or the nonconserved C-terminus of pUL97, both producing loss of activity. Thus, we postulate that the mechanism of pUL97-cyclin B1 interaction is determined by an active pUL97 kinase domain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Viruses)

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22 pages, 2543 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phage ΦPan70, a Putative Temperate Phage, Controls Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Planktonic, Biofilm and Burn Mouse Model Assays

by Angela V. Holguín¹, Guillermo Rangel¹, Viviana Clavijo¹, Catalina Prada¹, Marcela Mantilla¹, María Catalina Gomez¹, Elizabeth Kutter²

, Corinda Taylor³, Peter C. Fineran³, Andrés Fernando González Barrios⁴ and Martha J. Vives^1,*

¹ Department of Biological Sciences, Universidad de los Andes, Carrera 1#18A-12, Bogotá 111711, Colombia

² Phage Lab, the Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington, DC 98505, USA

³ Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand

⁴ Grupo de Diseño de Productos y Procesos (GDPP). Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Carrera 1E# 19A-40, Bogotá 111711, Colombia

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4602-4623; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082835 - 12 Aug 2015

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 9642

Abstract

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the Multi-Drug-Resistant organisms most frequently isolated worldwide and, because of a shortage of new antibiotics, bacteriophages are considered an alternative for its treatment. Previously, P. aeruginosa phages were isolated and best candidates were chosen based on their ability [...] Read more.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the Multi-Drug-Resistant organisms most frequently isolated worldwide and, because of a shortage of new antibiotics, bacteriophages are considered an alternative for its treatment. Previously, P. aeruginosa phages were isolated and best candidates were chosen based on their ability to form clear plaques and their host range. This work aimed to characterize one of those phages, ΦPan70, preliminarily identified as a good candidate for phage-therapy. We performed infection curves, biofilm removal assays, transmission-electron-microscopy, pulsed-field-gel-electrophoresis, and studied the in vivo ΦPan70 biological activity in the burned mouse model. ΦPan70 was classified as a member of the Myoviridae family and, in both planktonic cells and biofilms, was responsible for a significant reduction in the bacterial population. The burned mouse model showed an animal survival between 80% and 100%, significantly different from the control animals (0%). However, analysis of the ΦPan70 genome revealed that it was 64% identical to F10, a temperate P. aeruginosa phage. Gene annotation indicated ΦPan70 as a new, but possible temperate phage, therefore not ideal for phage-therapy. Based on this, we recommend genome sequence analysis as an early step to select candidate phages for potential application in phage-therapy, before entering into a more intensive characterization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 21st Evergreen International Phage Biology Meeting - Emerging Research)

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16 pages, 855 KB

Open AccessArticle

Wolbachia Do Not Induce Reactive Oxygen Species-Dependent Immune Pathway Activation in Aedes albopictus

by Jennifer C. Molloy¹ and Steven P. Sinkins^2,*

¹ Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research and Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3SY, UK

² Biomedical and Life Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4624-4639; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082836 - 13 Aug 2015

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8649

Abstract

Aedes albopictus is a major vector of dengue (DENV) and chikungunya (CHIKV) viruses, causing millions of infections annually. It naturally carries, at high frequency, the intracellular inherited bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia strains wAlbA and wAlbB; transinfection with the higher-density Wolbachia strain wMel from Drosophila [...] Read more.

Aedes albopictus is a major vector of dengue (DENV) and chikungunya (CHIKV) viruses, causing millions of infections annually. It naturally carries, at high frequency, the intracellular inherited bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia strains wAlbA and wAlbB; transinfection with the higher-density Wolbachia strain wMel from Drosophila melanogaster led to transmission blocking of both arboviruses. The hypothesis that reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced immune activation plays a role in arbovirus inhibition in this species was examined. In contrast to previous observations in Ae. aegypti, elevation of ROS levels was not observed in either cell lines or mosquito lines carrying the wild-type Wolbachia or higher-density Drosophila Wolbachia strains. There was also no upregulation of genes controlling innate immune pathways or with antioxidant/ROS-producing functions. These data suggest that ROS-mediated immune activation is not an important component of the viral transmission-blocking phenotype in this species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of the Insect Microbiome on Arbovirus Transmission)

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17 pages, 1890 KB

Open AccessReview

Flaviviral Replication Complex: Coordination between RNA Synthesis and 5’-RNA Capping

by Valerie J. Klema¹, Radhakrishnan Padmanabhan² and Kyung H. Choi^1,*

¹ Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX 77555-0647, USA

² Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, DC 20057, USA

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4640-4656; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082837 - 13 Aug 2015

Cited by 114 | Viewed by 14201

Abstract

Genome replication in flavivirus requires (—) strand RNA synthesis, (+) strand RNA synthesis, and 5’-RNA capping and methylation. To carry out viral genome replication, flavivirus assembles a replication complex, consisting of both viral and host proteins, on the cytoplasmic side of the endoplasmic [...] Read more.

Genome replication in flavivirus requires (—) strand RNA synthesis, (+) strand RNA synthesis, and 5’-RNA capping and methylation. To carry out viral genome replication, flavivirus assembles a replication complex, consisting of both viral and host proteins, on the cytoplasmic side of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. Two major components of the replication complex are the viral non-structural (NS) proteins NS3 and NS5. Together they possess all the enzymatic activities required for genome replication, yet how these activities are coordinated during genome replication is not clear. We provide an overview of the flaviviral genome replication process, the membrane-bound replication complex, and recent crystal structures of full-length NS5. We propose a model of how NS3 and NS5 coordinate their activities in the individual steps of (—) RNA synthesis, (+) RNA synthesis, and 5’-RNA capping and methylation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Replication Complexes: Structures, Functions, Applications and Inhibitors)

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19 pages, 2934 KB

Open AccessArticle

Autophagy Activated by Bluetongue Virus Infection Plays a Positive Role in Its Replication

by Shuang Lv, Qingyuan Xu, Encheng Sun, Tao Yang, Junping Li, Yufei Feng, Qin Zhang, Haixiu Wang, Jikai Zhang and Donglai Wu^*

State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4657-4675; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082838 - 17 Aug 2015

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7928 | Correction

Abstract

Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an important pathogen of wild and domestic ruminants. Despite extensive study in recent decades, the interplay between BTV and host cells is not clearly understood. Autophagy as a cellular adaptive response plays a part in many viral infections. In [...] Read more.

Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an important pathogen of wild and domestic ruminants. Despite extensive study in recent decades, the interplay between BTV and host cells is not clearly understood. Autophagy as a cellular adaptive response plays a part in many viral infections. In our study, we found that BTV1 infection triggers the complete autophagic process in host cells, as demonstrated by the appearance of obvious double-membrane autophagosome-like vesicles, GFP-LC3 dots accumulation, the conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II and increased levels of autophagic flux in BSR cells (baby hamster kidney cell clones) and primary lamb lingual epithelial cells upon BTV1 infection. Moreover, the results of a UV-inactivated BTV1 infection assay suggested that the induction of autophagy was dependent on BTV1 replication. Therefore, we investigated the role of autophagy in BTV1 replication. The inhibition of autophagy by pharmacological inhibitors (3-MA, CQ) and RNA interference (siBeclin1) significantly decreased viral protein synthesis and virus yields. In contrast, treating BSR cells with rapamycin, an inducer of autophagy, promoted viral protein expression and the production of infectious BTV1. These findings lead us to conclude that autophagy is activated by BTV1 and contributes to its replication, and provide novel insights into BTV-host interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Viruses)

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31 pages, 4281 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structure and Biophysical Properties of a Triple-Stranded Beta-Helix Comprising the Central Spike of Bacteriophage T4

by Sergey A. Buth¹, Laure Menin², Mikhail M. Shneider^1,3, Jürgen Engel⁴, Sergei P. Boudko^{4,5,6,7,*,†} and Petr G. Leiman^1,5,*

¹ Institute of Physics of Biological Systems, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), BSP 415, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland

² Service de Spectrométrie de Masse, ISIC, EPFL, BCH 1520, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland

³ Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Laboratory of Molecular Bioengineering, 16/10 Miklukho-Maklaya St., 117997 Moscow, Russia

⁴ Department of Biophysical Chemistry, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland

⁵ Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, 915 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA

⁶ The Research Department, Shriner's Hospital for Children, 3101 Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239, USA

⁷ Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239, USA

^† Current address: Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Vanderbilt University, 1161 21st Avenue South, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4676-4706; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082839 - 18 Aug 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8456

Abstract

Gene product 5 (gp5) of bacteriophage T4 is a spike-shaped protein that functions to disrupt the membrane of the target cell during phage infection. Its C-terminal domain is a long and slender β-helix that is formed by three polypeptide chains wrapped around a [...] Read more.

Gene product 5 (gp5) of bacteriophage T4 is a spike-shaped protein that functions to disrupt the membrane of the target cell during phage infection. Its C-terminal domain is a long and slender β-helix that is formed by three polypeptide chains wrapped around a common symmetry axis akin to three interdigitated corkscrews. The folding and biophysical properties of such triple-stranded β-helices, which are topologically related to amyloid fibers, represent an unsolved biophysical problem. Here, we report structural and biophysical characterization of T4 gp5 β-helix and its truncated mutants of different lengths. A soluble fragment that forms a dimer of trimers and that could comprise a minimal self-folding unit has been identified. Surprisingly, the hydrophobic core of the β-helix is small. It is located near the C-terminal end of the β-helix and contains a centrally positioned and hydrated magnesium ion. A large part of the β-helix interior comprises a large elongated cavity that binds palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids in an extended conformation suggesting that these molecules might participate in the folding of the complete β-helix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 21st Evergreen International Phage Biology Meeting - Emerging Research)

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27 pages, 515 KB

Open AccessReview

Regulation of the Host Antiviral State by Intercellular Communications

by Sonia Assil^†, Brian Webster^*,† and Marlène Dreux^*

¹ CIRI, Université de Lyon, Inserm, U1111, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, LabEx Ecofect, Université de Lyon, Lyon F-69007, France

^† These authors equally contributed to the work.

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4707-4733; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082840 - 19 Aug 2015

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 12435

Abstract

Viruses usually induce a profound remodeling of host cells, including the usurpation of host machinery to support their replication and production of virions to invade new cells. Nonetheless, recognition of viruses by the host often triggers innate immune signaling, preventing viral spread and [...] Read more.

Viruses usually induce a profound remodeling of host cells, including the usurpation of host machinery to support their replication and production of virions to invade new cells. Nonetheless, recognition of viruses by the host often triggers innate immune signaling, preventing viral spread and modulating the function of immune cells. It conventionally occurs through production of antiviral factors and cytokines by infected cells. Virtually all viruses have evolved mechanisms to blunt such responses. Importantly, it is becoming increasingly recognized that infected cells also transmit signals to regulate innate immunity in uninfected neighboring cells. These alternative pathways are notably mediated by vesicular secretion of various virus- and host-derived products (miRNAs, RNAs, and proteins) and non-infectious viral particles. In this review, we focus on these newly-described modes of cell-to-cell communications and their impact on neighboring cell functions. The reception of these signals can have anti- and pro-viral impacts, as well as more complex effects in the host such as oncogenesis and inflammation. Therefore, these “broadcasting” functions, which might be tuned by an arms race involving selective evolution driven by either the host or the virus, constitute novel and original regulations of viral infection, either highly localized or systemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Exosomes)

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22 pages, 643 KB

Open AccessReview

Regulation of the Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway by Human Papillomavirus E6 and E7 Oncoproteins

by Jesus Omar Muñoz Bello¹, Leslie Olmedo Nieva², Adriana Contreras Paredes³, Alma Mariana Fuentes Gonzalez¹, Leticia Rocha Zavaleta¹ and Marcela Lizano^1,3,*

¹ Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 3000, Col. Ciudad Universitaria, Del. Coyoacán, México DF CP. 04510, Mexico

² Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 3000,Col. Ciudad Universitaria, Del. Coyoacán, México DF CP. 04510, Mexico

³ Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer/Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. San Fernando 22, Col. Sección XVI, Del. Tlalpan, México DF CP. 14080, Mexico

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4734-4755; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082842 - 19 Aug 2015

Cited by 86 | Viewed by 15414

Abstract

Cell signaling pathways are the mechanisms by which cells transduce external stimuli, which control the transcription of genes, to regulate diverse biological effects. In cancer, distinct signaling pathways, such as the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, have been implicated in the deregulation of critical molecular processes [...] Read more.

Cell signaling pathways are the mechanisms by which cells transduce external stimuli, which control the transcription of genes, to regulate diverse biological effects. In cancer, distinct signaling pathways, such as the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, have been implicated in the deregulation of critical molecular processes that affect cell proliferation and differentiation. For example, changes in β-catenin localization have been identified in Human Papillomavirus (HPV)-related cancers as the lesion progresses. Specifically, β-catenin relocates from the membrane/cytoplasm to the nucleus, suggesting that this transcription regulator participates in cervical carcinogenesis. The E6 and E7 oncoproteins are responsible for the transforming activity of HPV, and some studies have implicated these viral oncoproteins in the regulation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Nevertheless, new interactions of HPV oncoproteins with cellular proteins are emerging, and the study of the biological effects of such interactions will help to understand HPV-related carcinogenesis. Viruses 2015, 7 4735 This review addresses the accumulated evidence of the involvement of the HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins in the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tumour Viruses)

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16 pages, 1586 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Antiviral Effect of Baicalin on Enterovirus 71 In Vitro

by Xiang Li^1,4,†, Yuanyuan Liu^2,†, Tingting Wu^3,†, Yue Jin¹, Jianpin Cheng¹, Changbiao Wan¹, Weihe Qian¹, Fei Xing¹ and Weifeng Shi^4,*

¹ Department of Clinical Laboratory, Huai'an Hospital Affiliated of Xuzhou Medical College, 62 Huaihai south road, Huai'an, Jiangsu 223300, China

² Department of Endocrinology, Huai'an First Affliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, 6 Beijing west road, Huai'an, Jiangsu 223300, China

³ Department of Clinical Laboratory, the Fourth People's Hospital of Huai'an, 128 Yanan east road, Huai'an, Jiangsu 223300, China

⁴ Department of Clinical Laboratory, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 185 Juqian street, Changzhou, Jiangsu 213003, China

^† These author contributed equally to this work.

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4756-4771; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082841 - 19 Aug 2015

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 7818

Abstract

Baicalin is a flavonoid compound extracted from Scutellaria roots that has been reported to possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral activities. However, the antiviral effect of baicalin on enterovirus 71 (EV71) is still unknown. In this study, we found that baicalin showed inhibitory activity [...] Read more.

Baicalin is a flavonoid compound extracted from Scutellaria roots that has been reported to possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral activities. However, the antiviral effect of baicalin on enterovirus 71 (EV71) is still unknown. In this study, we found that baicalin showed inhibitory activity on EV71 infection and was independent of direct virucidal or prophylactic effect and inhibitory viral absorption. The expressions of EV71/3D mRNA and polymerase were significantly blocked by baicalin treatment at early stages of EV71 infection. In addition, baicalin could decrease the expressions of FasL and caspase-3, as well as inhibit the apoptosis of EV71-infected human embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells. Altogether, these results indicate that baicalin exhibits potent antiviral effect on EV71 infection, probably through inhibiting EV71/3D polymerase expression and Fas/FasL signaling pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals)

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11 pages, 628 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Artificial TALE as a Convenient Protein Platform for Engineering Broad-Spectrum Resistance to Begomoviruses

by Xiaofei Cheng^1,*,†, Fangfang Li^2,†, Jianyu Cai³, Wei Chen¹, Nan Zhao², Yuqiang Sun¹, Yushuang Guo⁴, Xiuling Yang² and Xiaoyun Wu^3,*

¹ College of Life and Environmental Science, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 310036, Zhejiang, China

² Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, Zhejiang, China

³ College of Agricultural and Food Science, Zhejiang Agricultural and Forestry University, Lin'an 311300, Zhejiang, China

⁴ Key Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, China National Tobacco Corporation, Guizhou, Institute of Tobacco Science, Guiyang 550083, Guizhou, China

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4772-4782; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082843 - 20 Aug 2015

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 7699

Abstract

Transcription activator–like effectors (TALEs) are a class of sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins that utilize a simple and predictable modality to recognize target DNA. This unique characteristic allows for the rapid assembly of artificial TALEs, with high DNA binding specificity, to any target DNA sequences [...] Read more.

Transcription activator–like effectors (TALEs) are a class of sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins that utilize a simple and predictable modality to recognize target DNA. This unique characteristic allows for the rapid assembly of artificial TALEs, with high DNA binding specificity, to any target DNA sequences for the creation of customizable sequence-specific nucleases used in genome engineering. Here, we report the use of an artificial TALE protein as a convenient platform for designing broad-spectrum resistance to begomoviruses, one of the most destructive plant virus groups, which cause tremendous losses worldwide. We showed that artificial TALEs, which were assembled based on conserved sequence motifs within begomovirus genomes, could confer partial resistance in transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana to all three begomoviruses tested. Furthermore, the resistance was maintained even in the presence of their betasatellite. These results shed new light on the development of broad-spectrum resistance against DNA viruses, such as begomoviruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viruses of Plants, Fungi and Protozoa)

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17 pages, 636 KB

Open AccessArticle

Oral Application of T4 Phage Induces Weak Antibody Production in the Gut and in the Blood

by Joanna Majewska, Weronika Beta, Dorota Lecion, Katarzyna Hodyra-Stefaniak, Anna Kłopot, Zuzanna Kaźmierczak, Paulina Miernikiewicz, Agnieszka Piotrowicz, Jarosław Ciekot, Barbara Owczarek, Agnieszka Kopciuch, Karolina Wojtyna, Marek Harhala, Mateusz Mąkosa and Krystyna Dąbrowska^*

Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. R. Weigla 12, 53-114 Wrocław, Poland

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4783-4799; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082845 - 20 Aug 2015

Cited by 144 | Viewed by 13020

Abstract

A specific humoral response to bacteriophages may follow phage application for medical purposes, and it may further determine the success or failure of the approach itself. We present a long-term study of antibody induction in mice by T4 phage applied per os: 100 [...] Read more.

A specific humoral response to bacteriophages may follow phage application for medical purposes, and it may further determine the success or failure of the approach itself. We present a long-term study of antibody induction in mice by T4 phage applied per os: 100 days of phage treatment followed by 112 days without the phage, and subsequent second application of phage up to day 240. Serum and gut antibodies (IgM, IgG, secretory IgA) were analyzed in relation to microbiological status of the animals. T4 phage applied orally induced anti-phage antibodies when the exposure was long enough (IgG day 36, IgA day 79); the effect was related to high dosage. Termination of phage treatment resulted in a decrease of IgA again to insignificant levels. Second administration of phage induces secretory IgA sooner than that induced by the first administrations. Increased IgA level antagonized gut transit of active phage. Phage resistant E. coli dominated gut flora very late, on day 92. Thus, the immunological response emerges as a major factor determining phage survival in the gut. Phage proteins Hoc and gp12 were identified as highly immunogenic. A low response to exemplary foreign antigens (from Ebola virus) presented on Hoc was observed, which suggests that phage platforms can be used in oral vaccine design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 21st Evergreen International Phage Biology Meeting - Emerging Research)

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26 pages, 910 KB

Open AccessReview

Cloak and Dagger: Alternative Immune Evasion and Modulation Strategies of Poxviruses

by Susanna R. Bidgood^† and Jason Mercer^*,†

¹ Medical Research Council-Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4800-4825; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082844 - 21 Aug 2015

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 13124

Abstract

As all viruses rely on cellular factors throughout their replication cycle, to be successful they must evolve strategies to evade and/or manipulate the defence mechanisms employed by the host cell. In addition to their expression of a wide array of host modulatory factors, [...] Read more.

As all viruses rely on cellular factors throughout their replication cycle, to be successful they must evolve strategies to evade and/or manipulate the defence mechanisms employed by the host cell. In addition to their expression of a wide array of host modulatory factors, several recent studies have suggested that poxviruses may have evolved unique mechanisms to shunt or evade host detection. These potential mechanisms include mimicry of apoptotic bodies by mature virions (MVs), the use of viral sub-structures termed lateral bodies for the packaging and delivery of host modulators, and the formation of a second, “cloaked” form of infectious extracellular virus (EVs). Here we discuss these various strategies and how they may facilitate poxvirus immune evasion. Finally we propose a model for the exploitation of the cellular exosome pathway for the formation of EVs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Exosomes)

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10 pages, 271 KB

Open AccessCommentary

New Structure Sheds Light on Selective HIV-1 Genomic RNA Packaging

by Erik D. Olson

, William A. Cantara and Karin Musier-Forsyth^*

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Center for Retrovirus Research, and Center for RNA Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA

Viruses 2015, 7(8), 4826-4835; https://doi.org/10.3390/v7082846 - 24 Aug 2015

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 11439

Abstract

Two copies of unspliced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 genomic RNA (gRNA) are preferentially selected for packaging by the group-specific antigen (Gag) polyprotein into progeny virions as a dimer during the late stages of the viral lifecycle. Elucidating the RNA features responsible for selective [...] Read more.

Two copies of unspliced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 genomic RNA (gRNA) are preferentially selected for packaging by the group-specific antigen (Gag) polyprotein into progeny virions as a dimer during the late stages of the viral lifecycle. Elucidating the RNA features responsible for selective recognition of the full-length gRNA in the presence of an abundance of other cellular RNAs and spliced viral RNAs remains an area of intense research. The recent nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) structure by Keane et al. [1] expands upon previous efforts to determine the conformation of the HIV-1 RNA packaging signal. The data support a secondary structure wherein sequences that constitute the major splice donor site are sequestered through base pairing, and a tertiary structure that adopts a tandem 3-way junction motif that exposes the dimerization initiation site and unpaired guanosines for specific recognition by Gag. While it remains to be established whether this structure is conserved in the context of larger RNA constructs or in the dimer, this study serves as the basis for characterizing large RNA structures using novel NMR techniques, and as a major advance toward understanding how the HIV-1 gRNA is selectively packaged. Full article

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Viruses, Volume 7, Issue 8 (August 2015) – 33 articles

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