Journal of Eye Movement Research

28 pages, 13731 KB

Open AccessArticle

Participant-Independent Classification of Autism-Related Visual Attention Patterns from Eye-Tracking Scanpath Images Using a Global–Local Fusion Network

by Kun Zhang, Junling Kong, Junhui Zhang, Shuo Zhang and Jingying Chen

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040085 - 10 Aug 2026

Abstract

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit atypical patterns of visual attention allocation and social-cue processing. Eye-tracking scanpath (ETSP) retains information about fixation points, saccade paths and their temporal changes in the form of images, providing an intuitive and computable data representation [...] Read more.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit atypical patterns of visual attention allocation and social-cue processing. Eye-tracking scanpath (ETSP) retains information about fixation points, saccade paths and their temporal changes in the form of images, providing an intuitive and computable data representation for analyzing ASD-related visual attention patterns. However, in ASD auxiliary identification studies, the same participant often generates multiple eye-tracking recordings or multiple visual representation samples. If participant independence is not properly considered during model evaluation, the training and test sets may share individualized eye-movement patterns from the same child. In such cases, the model may learn subject-specific characteristics rather than stable and transferable ASD-related visual attention features, leading to an overestimation of its recognition ability on unseen participants. To address this issue, we propose a Global–Local Collaborative Fusion Network (GLCF-Net) under a strict participant-independent splitting protocol. Specifically, the proposed method first maps ETSP images into patch token sequences through a shared Patch Embedding layer. A CNN-based local branch is then used to extract local trajectory morphology, path density, and spatial neighborhood structure, while a ViT-based global branch models cross-region gaze transitions and the overall attention distribution. Finally, a gated adaptive fusion module dynamically integrates local and global information to enhance the representation of stable visual attention features. In the primary repeated stratified five-fold participant-level evaluation, averaging the two out-of-fold probabilities for each participant yielded an Accuracy of 87.0% and a ROC-AUC of 93.7%; the original participant split, retained as a secondary analysis, yielded an Accuracy of 83.52% and a ROC-AUC of 90.27%. Under the reported frozen-backbone configurations, the model also showed a balanced pattern across Accuracy, Recall, and F1-score. These results characterize performance for unseen participants within the same dataset and acquisition conditions. Full article

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23 pages, 1799 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Exhibit Text Presentation Types on Visual Attention Patterns and Cognitive Load in Digital Museums: An Eye-Tracking Study

by Yingying Zhu, Ming Liu, Yinghuang Luo, Xuanjia Ren and Jinho Yim

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040084 - 3 Aug 2026

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Abstract

Exhibit texts are commonly presented as labels or information panels near artworks to provide visitors with direct access to key exhibit information. Digital museums offer flexible and diverse ways to present artworks and communicate their cultural meanings. They also allow exhibit texts to [...] Read more.

Exhibit texts are commonly presented as labels or information panels near artworks to provide visitors with direct access to key exhibit information. Digital museums offer flexible and diverse ways to present artworks and communicate their cultural meanings. They also allow exhibit texts to be displayed in different formats, which may shape users’ reading behavior and cognitive experience. This study used a repeated-measures, within-subject design (N = 38) to compare three types of exhibit text presentation: environment-based, object-based, and user-based. Eye tracking, the NASA Task Load Index, and semi-structured interviews were used to examine the users’ visual attention patterns and cognitive load. The results showed significant differences in cognitive load across presentation conditions (p < 0.05), with the object-based layout associated with relatively higher cognitive load and more active visual behavior. These findings provide empirical evidence on how exhibit text presentation affects visitors’ experience in digital museums and offer design implications for textual information in digital reading environments. Full article

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16 pages, 2335 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deaf Child Signers’ Reading Behaviors Are Predicted by Their Bilingual (Signed and Spoken) Vocabularies: Evidence from Eye-Tracking

by Frances G. Cooley and David Quinto-Pozos

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040083 - 3 Aug 2026

Viewed by 438

Abstract

Deaf children who acquire a signed language at home and at school prior to learning to read are a unique group of developing bilinguals. They are first-language users of a signed language (e.g., American Sign Language; ASL) and second-language users of the written [...] Read more.

Deaf children who acquire a signed language at home and at school prior to learning to read are a unique group of developing bilinguals. They are first-language users of a signed language (e.g., American Sign Language; ASL) and second-language users of the written form of the ambient spoken language (e.g., English). Because signed languages do not possess orthographies that are widely used, deaf readers typically read in their second language. This profile stands in contrast to hearing bilingual readers, who read in their first language and, sometimes, their second language. In studies of child readers, vocabulary knowledge is a strong predictor of reading comprehension for both monolinguals and bilinguals. We combine the unique linguistic backgrounds of young signing deaf readers with what is known about vocabulary knowledge and reading, guided by the following research question: Does signed (L1) and spoken (L2) vocabulary knowledge predict reading (eye-gaze) behaviors of deaf children when reading in their L2? We present results from an exploratory pilot eye-tracking study of nine deaf ASL-English bilingual children ages 9–11, examining whether ASL and English vocabulary knowledge predict different aspects of the reading paradigm. Results suggest that ASL vocabulary predicts where-decisions and measures of oculomotor control such as skipping and regressions, while English vocabulary predicts when-decisions and first-pass durations. We suggest these results from this small-scale study provide initial support for the language interdependence hypothesis because deaf child signers’ first-language vocabulary knowledge predicts some of the variance in second-language reading performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Movements in Reading and Related Difficulties)

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18 pages, 1296 KB

Open AccessArticle

Regressive Saccades During Reading: Effects of Target Distance and the Role of Individual Differences in Spatial Memory and Linguistic Skill

by Anne Friede, Christian Vorstius, Albrecht Inhoff and Ralph Radach

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040082 - 3 Aug 2026

Viewed by 161

Abstract

The current study examined the control of long-range regressive eye movements during sentence reading. Skilled readers were asked to read single-line sentences for comprehension. As a secondary task, they identified a probe word presented to the right of each sentence, and then went [...] Read more.

The current study examined the control of long-range regressive eye movements during sentence reading. Skilled readers were asked to read single-line sentences for comprehension. As a secondary task, they identified a probe word presented to the right of each sentence, and then went back to check the corresponding target word for spelling errors that had been added after reading. The regression target was located either close to or far from the probe. Consistent with prior work, initial regressions were larger for far than for near targets, and the finding of far targets required more eye movements and more search time. We replicated previous descriptions of visuomotor regression strategies but also discovered a novel strategy in which readers frequently send their initial regressions to the center of the line, followed by subsequent saccades. Apparently, this happened primarily when spatial knowledge on saccade target location was lacking. Spatial memory and reading skill made distinct contributions to regression targeting. Memory skills strongly determined primary regressions, especially to near targets, whereas reading speed influenced the time needed to attain targets with subsequent saccades. Full article

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22 pages, 600 KB

Open AccessArticle

Found in Translation: Humor and Style Attributes Unveiled by Horton

by Tanya Beelders and Luna Bergh

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040081 - 24 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Background: The popularity of Dr. Seuss books across generations and languages is worthy of introspective analysis in order to establish how well the translation adheres to the original essence that is the underlying reason for its enduring nature. This article analyses Horton Hears [...] Read more.

Background: The popularity of Dr. Seuss books across generations and languages is worthy of introspective analysis in order to establish how well the translation adheres to the original essence that is the underlying reason for its enduring nature. This article analyses Horton Hears a Who! and its Afrikaans translation. Methods: A basic stylistic analysis of Dr. Seuss’ Horton Hears a Who! was conducted in order to determine whether its rhythmic nature and the meter used in the original text translate well into Afrikaans. Additionally, two extracts were used for an eye-tracking experiment whereby participants were asked to read both so that gaze behavior could be analyzed and compared between Afrikaans and English. Results: Eye-tracking results of both passages reveal that readers are comfortably within typical reading behavior and do not experience difficulty when reading the unique style of Dr. Seuss in either language. Stylistic meter does however change the position of elevated fixation durations, but made-up words and the underlying playful tone do not result in difficulty. However, text characteristics, such as length and number of syllables, and word positions, significantly affect gaze behavior. Conclusions: It is concluded that the very nature of Dr. Seuss books that makes the stories come alive for children over generations is successfully embodied in the Afrikaans translation with respect to the aspects tested and that both the serious, skillful writing and the more frivolous story-telling tone is present in the Afrikaans target text. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights from Eye-Tracking on Second Language Learning and Processing)

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23 pages, 1293 KB

Open AccessArticle

Do Two Eyes Identify Better than One? Interpretable Binocular Dynamics for Virtual Reality Gaze Biometrics

by Yiyu Zhang, Huijun Tang and Xiajing Yao

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040080 - 22 Jul 2026

Viewed by 337

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) headsets with built-in eye trackers can record binocular gaze, but prior biometric studies have largely emphasized monocular gaze or general spatial trajectories, leaving the identity value of interocular coordination largely untested. We test whether that geometry provides identity information beyond [...] Read more.

Virtual reality (VR) headsets with built-in eye trackers can record binocular gaze, but prior biometric studies have largely emphasized monocular gaze or general spatial trajectories, leaving the identity value of interocular coordination largely untested. We test whether that geometry provides identity information beyond monocular gaze dynamics. Using the GazeBaseVR dataset, we derive disparity, vergence-dynamic, and fixation disparity features and evaluate them in cross-session identification, task transfer, sequence modeling, replay detection, and return-visit analyses. Adding binocular features to monocular features improves cross-session Rank-1 identification, while binocular features alone provide complementary but limited discrimination. Performance is strongest when enrollment and probe tasks match and weakens sharply across tasks. Per-recording disparity centering leaves much of the binocular-only result intact, and a matched-input temporal convolutional network (TCN) performs better with binocular input than with duplicated monocular input. The TCN embedding overlaps with the disparity and vergence features, and simple feature-level fusion does not improve Rank-1 performance. Left-right gaze consistency can reject simple monocular replay attempts in this constrained setting, but score query adaptation reduces detection performance. In this setting, binocular dynamics are best treated as auxiliary evidence for VR gaze biometrics rather than as a standalone authenticator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)

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13 pages, 661 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship Between Gaze and Classroom Conversation in Primary Education in Chile: A Comparison by Sex and Urban–Rural Context

by Marco Antonio Villalta-Paucar, Jéssica Verónica Rebolledo-Etchepare and Lautaro Barriga-Carvajal

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040079 - 17 Jul 2026

Viewed by 380

Abstract

This study analyzes the relationship between verbal interaction and eye behavior among 112 primary school students in urban and rural classrooms in Chile, using wireless eye-tracking technology. The results reveal statistically significant differences based on socioeducational context and sex. Linear regression analyses show [...] Read more.

This study analyzes the relationship between verbal interaction and eye behavior among 112 primary school students in urban and rural classrooms in Chile, using wireless eye-tracking technology. The results reveal statistically significant differences based on socioeducational context and sex. Linear regression analyses show that gaze is a significantly more robust predictor of class participation in rural contexts (R² adjusted = 0.671) than in urban contexts (R² adjusted = 0.342). Furthermore, eye behavior explained 71% of the variance in male students, compared to 37.7% in female students. While female students focused their attention primarily on teachers, male students relied on a shared visual distribution between the teacher and peers to regulate their participation in class. In conclusion, the gaze acts as a differentiated scaffolding whose importance intensifies in boys and rural environments. These findings suggest distinct maturational trajectories that require teachers to implement visually intentional instructional strategies to ensure communicative efficiency in the classroom. Full article

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20 pages, 1408 KB

Open AccessArticle

Antisaccade Performance in Adolescent Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Evidence from a Familial-Risk Design

by Oguz Bilal Karakus, Ayse Akca, Muhammed Said Demirkan, Zeynep Ahsen Ozcan, Didem Cek Ozturk, Ilayda Barankoglu Sevin, Sumeyra Karakus, Ibrahim Selcuk Esin and Onur Burak Dursun

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040078 - 15 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study aimed to compare antisaccade performance among adolescents with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), their unaffected siblings, and healthy controls, and to examine whether this performance may serve as a candidate familial-risk marker for OCD. The study included 48 adolescents aged 12–18 years with [...] Read more.

This study aimed to compare antisaccade performance among adolescents with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), their unaffected siblings, and healthy controls, and to examine whether this performance may serve as a candidate familial-risk marker for OCD. The study included 48 adolescents aged 12–18 years with OCD, 35 unaffected siblings, and 39 healthy controls. Participants completed an antisaccade task using an eye-tracking device. Antisaccade correct response rate and latency were evaluated as the primary outcomes, whereas saccadic velocity was examined as an exploratory measure of oculomotor execution. The OCD group showed lower antisaccade correct response rate and longer latency compared with healthy controls, whereas the sibling group demonstrated intermediate performance. Exploratory analyses identified statistically significant group differences in mean saccadic velocity; however, this finding should be interpreted cautiously. Regression analyses indicated that both OCD diagnosis and sibling status were independently associated with antisaccade correct response rate and latency, whereas findings for saccadic velocity should be considered exploratory. These findings suggest that impairments in antisaccade performance may not be specific to OCD but may also be present, albeit to a milder extent, in unaffected siblings, providing preliminary evidence supporting antisaccade performance as a candidate familial-risk marker for OCD that warrants further investigation within an endophenotype framework. Full article

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22 pages, 4080 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Sleep Monitoring Terminal Displays-Related Factors on User Visual Perception via Eye-Tracking and Tasks

by Jianghao Xiao, Jinyi Zhi, Shiyu Dong, Yao Zhou, Yao Xiao and Dengkai Chen

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040077 - 14 Jul 2026

Viewed by 366

Abstract

The sleep monitoring terminal display (SMTD) designated for sleep cabins provides data visualizations of sleep profiles, yet poses challenges concerning visually informed interfaces. Given the scarcity of research on the SMTD interface, this study aims to evaluate the influence of SMTD-related factors, including [...] Read more.

The sleep monitoring terminal display (SMTD) designated for sleep cabins provides data visualizations of sleep profiles, yet poses challenges concerning visually informed interfaces. Given the scarcity of research on the SMTD interface, this study aims to evaluate the influence of SMTD-related factors, including stimulus areas of interest (AOIs), user experiences and tasks, on user visual perceptions while interacting with the SMTD system. Eye-tracking experimental contexts drawn from authentic settings are used to examine how the SMTD interfaces affect visual perceptions under varying tasks. Forty valid samples were collected, and pupil sizes (PSs), task performances, satisfaction, and usability were statistically compared and evaluated. The findings indicated that tasks had no significant effects, but user experiences and stimuli AOIs had significant main effects on PSs. In addition, task completion time ratio and tracking ratio between the two tasks varied; physical demand exceeded mental demand in task 1, whereas it was the opposite in task 2. The effectiveness of post-optimized interfaces was additionally substantiated through combining subjective ratings and objective metrics. The SMTD study provides novel insights for digital interface development and helps enhance users’ integrated visual perception. Full article

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27 pages, 3764 KB

Open AccessArticle

gp3tools: An R Package for Reproducible Analysis and Reporting of Gazepoint GP3 Eye-Tracking Exports

by Stefanos Balaskas

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040076 - 14 Jul 2026

Viewed by 429

Abstract

Reproducible eye-movement research requires a documented path from device exports to structured, quality-checked, and reportable data objects. Gazepoint GP3 and Gazepoint Analysis provide accessible gaze, fixation, pupil, timing, media, and area-of-interest data, but their folder-based CSV exports are not automatically analysis-ready. Existing R [...] Read more.

Reproducible eye-movement research requires a documented path from device exports to structured, quality-checked, and reportable data objects. Gazepoint GP3 and Gazepoint Analysis provide accessible gaze, fixation, pupil, timing, media, and area-of-interest data, but their folder-based CSV exports are not automatically analysis-ready. Existing R tools support important stages of eye-tracking and pupillometry analysis, but they generally assume that data have already been organised into suitable structures; they do not provide a Gazepoint-aware workflow beginning with export-folder checks, all-gaze/fixation pairing, sampling and tracking-quality diagnostics, and preservation of preprocessing decisions through reporting. This article presents gp3tools, an open-source R package (R version 4.6.1) that converts Gazepoint GP3/Gazepoint Analysis exports into structured R objects, diagnostic summaries, preprocessing outputs, model-ready tables, interoperability objects, and reproducible reports. Rather than introducing a new statistical estimator, the package provides an export-aware workflow scaffold for import checking, quality control, pupil preprocessing, area-of-interest, fixation and transition summaries, model preparation, interoperability, and reporting. A synthetic Gazepoint-style demonstration dataset was used to evaluate workflow execution without exposing private participant data. The demonstration identified all expected file pairs and produced sample-level gaze/pupil tables, fixation tables, sampling-quality summaries, area-of-interest summaries, review flags, and reporting outputs. A small, private real-export compatibility check further showed that the workflow could process one empirical Gazepoint folder without manual restructuring. These results support a bounded software-evaluation claim: gp3tools executes the tested Gazepoint-style workflow and returns expected diagnostic and reporting objects, but the evidence does not establish hardware accuracy, preprocessing accuracy, computational scalability, general robustness across all Gazepoint exports, or substantive psychological or perceptual effects. Full article

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18 pages, 1266 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Coupling Between Shannon Entropy and Dwell-Time Entropy Across Emotional and Safety-Critical Visual Tasks

by Yejin Lee and Kwangtae Jung

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040075 - 9 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study investigated the relationship between fixation-frequency-based Shannon entropy and dwell-time-based entropy across two different visual task domains: emotional evaluation of automotive exterior designs and safety-critical monitoring of nuclear power plant emergency scenarios. Although gaze entropy has been widely used to explain emotional [...] Read more.

This study investigated the relationship between fixation-frequency-based Shannon entropy and dwell-time-based entropy across two different visual task domains: emotional evaluation of automotive exterior designs and safety-critical monitoring of nuclear power plant emergency scenarios. Although gaze entropy has been widely used to explain emotional responses, task performance, and situation awareness, the relationship between entropy measures derived from fixation counts and fixation durations remains insufficiently examined. Eye-tracking data were analyzed from two experiments with different attentional characteristics. In the emotional visual task, 10 participants evaluated three automotive design images. In the safety-critical task, 20 participants performed four nuclear power plant emergency monitoring scenarios. Shannon entropy and dwell-time entropy were calculated using fixation count and fixation duration distributions across Areas of Interest, respectively. Pearson correlation and simple regression analyses were conducted within each task domain. The results showed strong positive associations between Shannon entropy and dwell-time entropy in both domains. The emotional task showed a correlation of r = 0.844, while the safety-critical task showed a correlation of r = 0.890. These findings suggest that fixation-frequency-based and dwell-time-based entropy measures exhibit substantial overlap across different visual task contexts. However, the observed associations may partly reflect mathematical dependency between fixation frequency and cumulative dwell-time, and the findings should be interpreted as exploratory evidence rather than proof of metric interchangeability. The study highlights that gaze entropy metrics should be interpreted in relation to task-dependent attentional contexts. Higher entropy may be associated with exploratory visual attention in emotional evaluation, whereas lower entropy may be associated with focused monitoring in safety-critical tasks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Tracking Techniques and Applications)

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27 pages, 4195 KB

Open AccessArticle

Eye-Movement-Assisted Time–Frequency EEG Decoding for Multimodal Robotic Arm Control

by Xiangyang Sun, Wenjun Zhang, Jiahua Wu, Xingwei Xiong and Haixia Mei

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040074 - 7 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has shown potential for future rehabilitation-related and assistive control applications. Nevertheless, single-modality electroencephalography-based motor imagery (EEG-MI) signals are susceptible to interference, whereas existing algorithmic models suffer from limited classification accuracy and insufficient actionable control commands for interactive devices, thereby [...] Read more.

Brain–computer interface (BCI) technology has shown potential for future rehabilitation-related and assistive control applications. Nevertheless, single-modality electroencephalography-based motor imagery (EEG-MI) signals are susceptible to interference, whereas existing algorithmic models suffer from limited classification accuracy and insufficient actionable control commands for interactive devices, thereby impeding their practical deployment. To tackle these limitations, this study presents a multimodal human–computer interaction control scheme that integrates eye-movement command encoding with EEG motor imagery decoding. Self-collected EEG-MI and eye-movement datasets were established to support the proposed multimodal control framework. In this framework, eye movements are not used merely as auxiliary inputs, but are encoded as discrete commands for start, stop, grasp, and release, thereby reducing the command burden of EEG-MI decoding. The EEG-TransNet model is enhanced by integrating a time–frequency feature branch and replacing the original convolutional encoder with an adaptive multi-branch EEG feature gating module, strengthening the representation and fusion of multi-domain features. The model yields average classification accuracies of 86.96% and 88.73% on the BCI IV-2a dataset and the self-collected EEG dataset, respectively. Four independent SVM binary classifiers are adopted to identify four eye movement patterns. The EEG and eye movement classification results are binary-encoded to generate hardware-compatible control commands. Robotic-arm grasping experiments with healthy trained participants showed an average task completion time of 17 s, and the repeated grasping success-rate results further provide preliminary evidence for the real-time feasibility of the multimodal control framework under controlled laboratory conditions. Full article

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16 pages, 2227 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Pictogram and Typeface Complexity on Visual Attention: Eye-Tracking Study

by Klementina Možina, Dorotea Kovačević, Petra Buljat, Iva Šarčević, Barbara Blaznik, Tanja Medved and Maja Brozović

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040073 - 7 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study investigated how congruence between pictogram complexity and typographic complexity influences visual processing and perceived appropriateness in multimodal communication. Drawing on theories of visual communication, legibility and aesthetic perception, the study examined whether simple or complex pictograms harmonise more effectively with sans-serif [...] Read more.

This study investigated how congruence between pictogram complexity and typographic complexity influences visual processing and perceived appropriateness in multimodal communication. Drawing on theories of visual communication, legibility and aesthetic perception, the study examined whether simple or complex pictograms harmonise more effectively with sans-serif or serif typefaces. Ninety participants viewed stimuli from three thematic categories (cobbler, herbal pharmacy and gluten-free restaurant), while their eye movements were recorded using a Tobii Pro Fusion eye-tracking device. Measures included reading time, fixation count and saccade count, together with subjective evaluations of pictogram–typeface suitability. The results show that reading time was the most sensitive indicator of formal congruence. In the cobbler and gluten-free restaurant categories, simple pictograms increased reading time with sans-serif typography but decreased it with serif typography. In the herbal pharmacy category, simple pictograms and sans-serif typography independently supported faster reading performance. Subjective evaluations showed no significant differences between combinations, indicating that participants perceived all pairings as similarly appropriate despite measurable differences in processing efficiency. The findings suggest that the effectiveness of pictogram–typeface combinations depends on both formal complexity and thematic context. Eye-tracking proved valuable for revealing subtle cognitive processing differences not reflected in subjective judgements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)

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11 pages, 449 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Signatures of Emotional Processing via Pupil Diameter, Galvanic Skin Response, and Gaze Behavior: A Pilot Study

by Miwa Horiuchi-Hirose

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040072 - 7 Jul 2026

Viewed by 385

Abstract

Background: This pilot study investigated the effects of emotional images on gaze behavior, pupil diameter, and galvanic skin response (GSR). After measuring trait anxiety, 37 healthy adults were shown images (disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, or neutral) from the International Affective Picture System for [...] Read more.

Background: This pilot study investigated the effects of emotional images on gaze behavior, pupil diameter, and galvanic skin response (GSR). After measuring trait anxiety, 37 healthy adults were shown images (disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, or neutral) from the International Affective Picture System for 4 s each while recording eye tracking and physiological responses. Methods: Recorded data included total fixation duration, average fixation duration, fixation count, first fixation duration, mean pupil diameter during fixation, and average GSR. Results: Compared to images depicting happiness, those depicting fear were associated with longer average fixation duration, fewer fixations, and larger pupil diameters. Compared with neutral images, those showing happiness were associated with larger pupil diameters. No significant differences in GSR were observed across emotion categories. Regarding anxiety levels, fear-inducing images tended to be associated with fewer fixations and larger pupil diameters across all anxiety groups. In moderate- and high-anxiety groups, there was a tendency for longer fixation duration compared to images evoking happiness. Conclusions: Overall, these preliminary findings suggest that while individuals tend to fixate on fear images less often than on happiness images, they fixate for longer on them, which may cause pupil dilation. However, no significant response was observed depending on the level of trait anxiety. Further research using a larger sample size is needed to confirm these initial observations. Full article

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26 pages, 2159 KB

Open AccessReview

Autoimmune Diseases and the Vestibular and Oculomotor System: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Treatment

by Felix K. Schwarz, Gerald Wiest and Paulus Rommer

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040071 - 2 Jul 2026

Viewed by 1139

Abstract

Vertigo, dizziness, and oculomotor disturbances may occur as manifestations of immune-mediated disorders affecting the inner ear, central vestibular pathways, or multisystem autoimmune disease. Although uncommon, these conditions are clinically important because delayed recognition may lead to irreversible hearing loss, vestibular dysfunction, or neurological [...] Read more.

Vertigo, dizziness, and oculomotor disturbances may occur as manifestations of immune-mediated disorders affecting the inner ear, central vestibular pathways, or multisystem autoimmune disease. Although uncommon, these conditions are clinically important because delayed recognition may lead to irreversible hearing loss, vestibular dysfunction, or neurological disability. This review summarizes the clinical presentation, diagnostic approach, and treatment of immune-mediated vestibular and oculomotor disorders. We suggest a practical classification into isolated immune-mediated inner ear disease, systemic autoimmune disorders with audio-vestibular involvement, and autoimmune disorders of the central or peripheral nervous system affecting balance and eye movements. Red flags for such conditions include bilateral or progressive symptoms, fluctuating audio-vestibular deficits, associated neurological signs, and accompanied autoimmune disease. Corticosteroids remain the main first-line treatment in many of these disorders, mainly due to missing data from controlled trials. Steroid-sparing immunosuppressants, biologics, and tumor-directed therapies are effective in many cases; however, because of the missing data, they are only used in selected entities without any other choice. A structured neuro-otological and immunological workup is essential to improve diagnostic accuracy and enable timely therapy. Full article

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12 pages, 942 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rehabilitation Oculomotor Screening Evaluation in Persons with Traumatic Brain Injury

by Aimy Vadeboncoeur, Chelsey Lai Kwan, Ada Mocanu, Sarah Schipper, Olivia Taylor, Elizabeth Dannenbaum and Joyce Fung

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040070 - 2 Jul 2026

Viewed by 464

Abstract

Background: Many individuals with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) exhibit oculomotor dysfunctions that impact their daily functioning. As current clinical screening tools are limited, we have created and pilot-tested the Rehabilitation Oculomotor Screening Evaluation (ROSE) previously in a small sample of people with [...] Read more.

Background: Many individuals with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) exhibit oculomotor dysfunctions that impact their daily functioning. As current clinical screening tools are limited, we have created and pilot-tested the Rehabilitation Oculomotor Screening Evaluation (ROSE) previously in a small sample of people with acquired brain injuries and neurotypical participants. The current study aims to validate ROSE in persons with TBI, focusing on mild TBI (mTBI). Methods: Participants with TBI (n = 25) completed different clinical scales, including ROSE, Sensory Organization Test (SOT) for standing balance, Reintegration to Normal Living Index (RNLI), Timed Up and Go (TUG) for mobility, and a visual analogue scale for the subjective perception of visual vertigo. Neurotypical individuals (n = 24) who were age- and sex-matched completed only ROSE. Results: The group with mTBI (n = 18) had significantly higher ROSE scores compared to the neurotypical group, with a large effect size. Significant correlation was found between ROSE and RNLI scores, but not with other clinical outcomes. Conclusions: Significant between-group difference in ROSE scores and their association with RNLI scores suggest that ROSE is a valid tool in detecting oculomotor dysfunction in TBI. Future studies should continue the validation of ROSE in other TBI and neurologic populations and in larger sample sizes. Full article

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15 pages, 6677 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phase-Sensitive Gaze Allocation in a Progressive Calligraphy Task

by Yujun Liu, Nina Xie, Xutang Tong and Yuanyuan Wang

J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(4), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19040069 - 30 Jun 2026

Viewed by 338

Abstract

Eye-movement studies of manual production often average gaze across an entire trial, obscuring how visual information use changes once actions begin. We separated the pre-writing and writing phases in a fixed progressive Chinese calligraphy task. Thirty-seven postgraduate students completed two style-guided transfer (SGT) [...] Read more.

Eye-movement studies of manual production often average gaze across an entire trial, obscuring how visual information use changes once actions begin. We separated the pre-writing and writing phases in a fixed progressive Chinese calligraphy task. Thirty-seven postgraduate students completed two style-guided transfer (SGT) pages, a worked example, and two evolution-based mapping (EBM) pages; 34 contributed usable gaze data. On SGT pages, reference allocation fell from 0.626 before writing to 0.131 during writing, whereas the share of reference viewing directed to diagnostic tokens rose from 0.473 to 0.601. On EBM pages, allocation to the cue-plus-context display fell from 0.825 to 0.447 after pen onset but remained substantial; cue share and context coverage also declined. Participant-level process blocks did not improve quality models. In exploratory page-level EBM analyses, greater pre-writing context coverage was associated with higher product quality. These findings identify pen onset as a useful boundary for analyzing visual information use in constrained production: external sampling is greatest before writing, and task-specific re-access persists during execution. Because the task order was fixed, page-family differences cannot be separated from practice or scaffolding. Phase-specific area-of-interest measures can therefore add process information to product scores without treating gaze as a direct measure of cognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future Challenges of Eye Tracking Technologies)

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J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 19, Issue 4 (August 2026) – 17 articles

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