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Reduced Capacity for Parafoveal Processing (ReCaPP) Leads to Differences in Prediction Between First and Second Language Readers of English
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How Do Stress Situations Affect Higher-Level Text Processing in L1 and L2 Readers? An Eye-Tracking Study
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Influence of Visual Coding Based on Attraction Effect on Human–Computer Interface
Journal Description
Journal of Eye Movement Research
Journal of Eye Movement Research
(JEMR) is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on all aspects of oculomotor functioning including methodology of eye recording, neurophysiological and cognitive models, attention, reading, as well as applications in neurology, ergonomy, media research and other areas published bimonthly online by MDPI (from Volume 18, Issue 1, 2025).
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Ophthalmology) / CiteScore - Q2 (Ophthalmology)
- Rapid Publication: first decisions in 18 days; acceptance to publication in 4 days (median values for MDPI journals in the second half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review, and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
Impact Factor:
2.8 (2024);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.8 (2024)
Latest Articles
Improving Reading and Eye Movement Control in Readers with Oculomotor and Visuo-Attentional Deficits
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(4), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18040025 - 23 Jun 2025
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The initial saccade of experienced readers tends to land halfway between the beginning and the middle of words, at a position originally referred to as the preferred viewing location (PVL). This study investigated whether a simple physical manipulation—namely, increasing the saliency (brightness or
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The initial saccade of experienced readers tends to land halfway between the beginning and the middle of words, at a position originally referred to as the preferred viewing location (PVL). This study investigated whether a simple physical manipulation—namely, increasing the saliency (brightness or color) of the letter located at the PVL—can positively influence saccadic targeting strategies and optimize reading performance. An eye-movement experiment was conducted with 25 adults and 24 s graders performing a lexical decision task. Results showed that this manipulation had no effect on initial landing positions in proficient readers, who already landed most frequently at the PVL, suggesting that PVL saliency is irrelevant once automatized saccade targeting routines are established. In contrast, the manipulation shifted the peak of the landing site distribution toward the PVL for a cluster of readers with immature saccadic strategies (with low reading-level scores and ILPs close to the beginning of words), but only in the brightness condition, and had a more compelling effect in a cluster with oculomotor instability (with flattened and diffuse landing position curves along with oculomotor and visuo-attentional deficits). These findings suggest that guiding the eyes toward the PVL may offer a novel way to improve reading efficiency, particularly for individuals with oculomotor and visuo-attentional difficulties.
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Open AccessArticle
Is the Prosodic Structure of Texts Reflected in Silent Reading? An Eye-Tracking Corpus Analysis
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Marijan Palmović and Kristina Cergol
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030024 - 18 Jun 2025
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The aim of this study was to test the Implicit Prosody Hypothesis using a reading corpus, i.e., a text without experimental manipulation labelled with eye-tracking parameters. For this purpose, a bilingual Croatian–English reading corpus was analysed. In prosodic terms, Croatian and English are
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The aim of this study was to test the Implicit Prosody Hypothesis using a reading corpus, i.e., a text without experimental manipulation labelled with eye-tracking parameters. For this purpose, a bilingual Croatian–English reading corpus was analysed. In prosodic terms, Croatian and English are at the opposite ends of the spectrum: English is considered a time-framed language, while Croatian is a syllable-framed language. This difference served as a kind of experimental control in this study on natural reading. The results show that readers’ eyes lingered more on stressed syllables than on the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables for both languages. This is especially pronounced for English, a language with greater differences in the duration of stressed and unstressed syllables. This study provides indirect evidence in favour of the Implicit Prosody Hypothesis, i.e., the idea that readers are guided by their inner voice with its suprasegmental features when reading silently. The differences between the languages can be traced back to the typological differences in stress in English and Croatian.
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Open AccessReview
Trends and Transformations: A Bibliometric Analysis of Eye-Tracking Research in Educational Technology
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Liqi Lai, Baohua Su and Linwei She
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030023 - 16 Jun 2025
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This study employs bibliometric analysis to provide a comprehensive review of eye-tracking research in the field of educational technology. The study analyzed 374 relevant papers published in 19 high-quality journals from the Web of Science core collection between 2001 and 1 June 2024.
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This study employs bibliometric analysis to provide a comprehensive review of eye-tracking research in the field of educational technology. The study analyzed 374 relevant papers published in 19 high-quality journals from the Web of Science core collection between 2001 and 1 June 2024. The findings reveal research trends, hot topics, and future directions in this field. The findings indicate an upward trend in the application of eye-tracking technology in educational technology, with a significant increase noted after 2014. China, the United States, Germany, and the Netherlands dominate research in this area, contributing to a substantial amount of high-quality research output. Keyword co-occurrence analysis reveals that terms such as “attention,” “cognitive load,” “information,” and “comprehension” are currently hot topics of research. Burst keyword analysis further reveals the evolution of research trends. These trends have shifted from an initial focus on information processing and application studies to a growing emphasis on learner understanding and behavior analysis, ultimately concentrating on learning outcomes and the exploration of emerging technology applications. This study not only provides researchers in the field of educational technology with a comprehensive understanding of the current state of eye-tracking research but also points to future research directions, particularly in optimizing instructional design, enhancing learning outcomes, and exploring the applications of emerging educational technologies using eye-tracking technology.
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Open AccessArticle
Learners’ Perception of Scientific Text Layouts Design Using Eye-Tracking
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Elizabeth Wianto, Hapnes Toba and Maya Malinda
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030022 - 13 Jun 2025
Cited by 1
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Lifelong learning, particularly in adult education, has gained considerable attention due to rapid lifestyle changes, including pandemic-induced lockdowns. This research targets adult learners returning to higher education after gap years, emphasizing their preference for technology with clear, practical benefits. However, many still need
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Lifelong learning, particularly in adult education, has gained considerable attention due to rapid lifestyle changes, including pandemic-induced lockdowns. This research targets adult learners returning to higher education after gap years, emphasizing their preference for technology with clear, practical benefits. However, many still need help operating digital media. This research aims to identify best practices for sustainably providing digital scientific materials to students by examining respondents’ tendencies in viewing journal article pages and scientific posters, with a focus on layout designs that include both textual and schematic elements. The research questions focus on (1) identifying the characteristics of Areas of Interest (AoI) that effectively attract learners’ attention and (2) determining the preferred characteristics for each learner group. Around 110 respondents were selected during the experiments using web tracking technology. Utilizing this web-based eye-tracking tool, we propose eight activities to detect learners’ perceptions of text-based learning object materials. The fact that first language significantly shapes learners’ attention was confirmed by time-leap analysis and AoI distances showing they focus more on familiar elements. While adult learners exhibit deeper engagement with scientific content and sustained concentration during reading, their unique preferences toward digital learning materials result in varied focus patterns, particularly in initial interest and time spent on tasks. Thus, it is recommended that lecturers deliver digital content for adult learners in a textual format or by placing the important parts of posters in the center.
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Open AccessArticle
Attention and Outcomes Across Learning Conditions in L2 Vocabulary Acquisition: Evidence from Eye-Tracking
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Yiyang Yang and Hulin Ren
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030021 - 13 Jun 2025
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The role of attention has been shown to be essential in second language (L2) learning. However, the impact of different learning conditions on attention and learning outcomes remains underdeveloped, particularly through the application of eye-tracking technology. This study aims to evaluate the effect
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The role of attention has been shown to be essential in second language (L2) learning. However, the impact of different learning conditions on attention and learning outcomes remains underdeveloped, particularly through the application of eye-tracking technology. This study aims to evaluate the effect of intentional learning conditions (i.e., data-driven learning) on vocabulary learning and attentional allocations. Twenty-six intermediate English L2 learners participated in the study to learn the usage of four artificial attributive adjectives in noun phrases (NPs). Learning outcomes were analysed to assess the types of knowledge developed, shedding light on the role of attention and the conscious processing of word usage. Eye-tracking data, collected using Eyelink 1000 plus, investigated gaze patterns and the allocation of attentional sources when applying the learned usage of adjectives. The results indicate that fixation stability and regression movements significantly differ under the impact of intentional learning conditions. Post-test results also indicate a shift in attention from the target adjectives to the associated nouns. These findings underscore the critical role of attention and highlight the influence of learning conditions on L2 vocabulary learning, providing practical implications and empirical validation for L2 educators and researchers aiming to enhance vocabulary instruction through intentional learning strategies.
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Open AccessArticle
Binocular and Fellow Eye Acuity Deficits in Amblyopia: Impact of Fixation Instability and Sensory Factors
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Yulia Haraguchi, Gokce Busra Cakir, Aasef Shaikh and Fatema Ghasia
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030020 - 3 Jun 2025
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Amblyopia, a neurodevelopmental disorder, is commonly assessed through amblyopic eye visual acuity (VA) deficits, but recent studies also highlight abnormalities in the fellow eye. This study quantified binocular and fellow/dominant eye VA in individuals with amblyopia and strabismus without amblyopia and examined factors
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Amblyopia, a neurodevelopmental disorder, is commonly assessed through amblyopic eye visual acuity (VA) deficits, but recent studies also highlight abnormalities in the fellow eye. This study quantified binocular and fellow/dominant eye VA in individuals with amblyopia and strabismus without amblyopia and examined factors influencing these measures, including fixation eye movement (FEM) abnormalities. Identifying which subsets of patients—such as those with nystagmus, concurrent strabismus, or greater fixation instability—exhibit more pronounced deficits in binocular visual acuity and binocular summation can enhance clinical decision-making by enabling tailored interventions and aiding patient counseling. Sixty-eight amblyopic, seventeen strabismic without amblyopia, and twenty-four control subjects were assessed using an adaptive psychophysical staircase procedure and high-resolution video-oculography to evaluate FEMs and fixation instability (FI). Binocular and fellow eye VA were significantly lower in amblyopia, regardless of type or nystagmus presence, whereas binocular and dominant eye VA in strabismus without amblyopia did not differ from the controls. Despite reduced binocular acuity, amblyopic and strabismic subjects exhibited binocular summation, with binocular VA exceeding fellow/dominant eye VA. Reduced binocular VA correlated with greater fellow eye VA deficits, diminished binocular summation, and increased FI in the amblyopic eye. Fellow eye VA deficits were linked to greater amblyopic eye VA deficits, an increased degree of anisometropia, higher FI, and stronger nystagmus correlation. These findings suggest amblyopia affects both visual sensory and motor systems, impacting binocular function and fixation stability, with potential consequences for everyday visuomotor tasks like reading.
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Open AccessArticle
Research on Flight Training Optimization with Instrument Failure Based on Eye Movement Data
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Jiwen Tai, Yu Qian, Zhili Song, Xiuyi Li, Ziang Qu and Chengzhi Yang
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030019 - 23 May 2025
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To improve the quality of flight training in instrument failure scenarios, eye movement data were collected from flight instructors during climbing, descending, and turning flights when the primary attitude direction indicator failed. The performance data of the excellent instructors was selected to produce
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To improve the quality of flight training in instrument failure scenarios, eye movement data were collected from flight instructors during climbing, descending, and turning flights when the primary attitude direction indicator failed. The performance data of the excellent instructors was selected to produce eye movement tutorials. These tutorials were used to conduct eye movement training for the experimental group of flight trainees. In contrast, the control group received traditional training. The performance and eye movement data of the two groups of flight trainees were then compared and analyzed. The results showed that flight trainees who received eye movement training performed better when facing instrument failure. Specifically, the deviations in the rate of descent, heading during the descent, airspeed during the turn, and slope during the turn were significantly different from those of the control group. Compared to the control group, the experimental group had a significantly lower fixation frequency on the failed instrument during the turn. Additionally, the average glance duration on the failed instrument during the climb and turn was significantly reduced. The study demonstrated the effectiveness of eye movement training in improving the quality of flight training in instrument failure scenarios.
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Open AccessArticle
Eye-Tracking Algorithm for Early Glaucoma Detection: Analysis of Saccadic Eye Movements in Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma
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Cansu Yuksel Elgin
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030018 - 19 May 2025
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Glaucoma remains a leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide, with early detection crucial for preventing vision loss. This study developed and validated a novel eye-tracking algorithm to detect oculomotor abnormalities in primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG). We conducted a case–control study (March–June 2021), recruiting
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Glaucoma remains a leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide, with early detection crucial for preventing vision loss. This study developed and validated a novel eye-tracking algorithm to detect oculomotor abnormalities in primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG). We conducted a case–control study (March–June 2021), recruiting 16 patients with moderate POAG, 16 with preperimetric POAG, and 16 age-matched controls. The participants underwent a comprehensive ophthalmic examination and eye movement recording using a high-resolution infrared tracker during two tasks: saccades to static targets and saccades to moving targets. The patients with POAG exhibited a significantly increased saccadic latency and reduced accuracy compared to the controls, with more pronounced differences in the moving target task. Notably, preperimetric POAG patients showed significant abnormalities despite having normal visual fields based on standard perimetry. Our machine learning algorithm incorporating multiple saccadic parameters achieved an excellent discriminative ability between glaucomatous and healthy subjects (AUC = 0.92), with particularly strong performance for moderate POAG (AUC = 0.97) and good performance for preperimetric POAG (AUC = 0.87). These findings suggest that eye movement analysis may serve as a sensitive biomarker for early glaucomatous damage, potentially enabling earlier intervention and improved visual outcomes.
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Open AccessArticle
On the Validity and Benefit of Manual and Automated Drift Correction in Reading Tasks
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Naser Al Madi
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030017 - 9 May 2025
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Drift represents a common distortion that affects the position of fixations in eye tracking data. While manual correction is considered very accurate, it is considered subjective and time-consuming. On the other hand, automated correction is fast, objective, and considered less accurate. An objective
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Drift represents a common distortion that affects the position of fixations in eye tracking data. While manual correction is considered very accurate, it is considered subjective and time-consuming. On the other hand, automated correction is fast, objective, and considered less accurate. An objective comparison of the accuracy of manual and automated correction has not been conducted before, and the extent of subjectivity in manual correction is not entirely quantified. In this paper, we compare the accuracy of manual and automated correction of eye tracking data in reading tasks through a novel approach that relies on synthetic data with known ground truth. Moreover, we quantify the subjectivity in manual human correction with real eye tracking data. Our results show that expert human correction is significantly more accurate than automated algorithms, yet novice human correctors are on par with the best automated algorithms. In addition, we found that human correctors show excellent agreement in their correction, challenging the notion that manual correction is “highly subjective”. Our findings provide unique insights, quantifying the benefits of manual and automated correction.
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Open AccessArticle
Age-Related Differences in Visual Attention to Heritage Tourism: An Eye-Tracking Study
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Linlin Yuan, Zihao Cao, Yongchun Mao, Mohd Hafizal Mohd Isa and Muhammad Hafeez Abdul Nasir
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030016 - 8 May 2025
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With the rising significance of visual marketing, differences in how tourists from various age groups visually engage with tourism promotional materials remain insufficiently studied. This study recruited 48 participants and used a quasi-experimental design combined with eye-tracking technology to examine visual attention, scan
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With the rising significance of visual marketing, differences in how tourists from various age groups visually engage with tourism promotional materials remain insufficiently studied. This study recruited 48 participants and used a quasi-experimental design combined with eye-tracking technology to examine visual attention, scan path patterns, and their relationship to reading performance among different age groups. Independent t-tests, correlation analyses, and Lag Sequential Analysis were conducted to compare the differences between the two groups. Results indicated that elder participants had significantly higher fixation counts and longer fixation durations in text regions than younger participants, as well as higher perceived novelty scores. A positive correlation emerged between text fixation duration and perceived novelty. Additionally, elder participants showed greater interaction between text and images, while younger participants exhibited a more linear reading pattern. This study offers empirical insights to optimize tourism promotional materials, highlighting the need for age-specific communication strategies.
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Open AccessArticle
Natural or Human Landscape Beauty? Quantifying Aesthetic Experience at Longji Terraces Through Eye-Tracking
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Ting Zhang, Yue Jiang, Donghong Liu, Shijie Zeng and Pengjin Sheng
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030015 - 7 May 2025
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This study investigated tourists’ visual perception, aesthetic experience, and behavioral intentions across four types of landscapes. A total of 353 questionnaires were distributed on-site, and the SOR model was used to examine the visual stimuli and aesthetic responses perceived by tourists, followed by
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This study investigated tourists’ visual perception, aesthetic experience, and behavioral intentions across four types of landscapes. A total of 353 questionnaires were distributed on-site, and the SOR model was used to examine the visual stimuli and aesthetic responses perceived by tourists, followed by laboratory eye-tracking to observe tourists’ points of attention on the Longji Terraced Fields landscape Key findings reveal that different residences and revisiting conditions affect tourists’ visual attention, with the most attention given at the intersections of landscape elements. Furthermore, although landscape visual stimuli do not significantly affect the intention response, eye movement parameters are positively correlated with aesthetic experience. The study contributes to understanding tourist aesthetic perception in terraced rice field landscapes and provides Chinese cases for the aesthetic appreciation of the terrace landscape.
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Open AccessArticle
Binocular Advantage in Established Eye–Hand Coordination Tests in Young and Healthy Adults
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Michael Mendes Wefelnberg, Felix Bargstedt, Marcel Lippert and Freerk T. Baumann
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(3), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18030014 - 7 May 2025
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Background: Eye–hand coordination (EHC) plays a critical role in daily activities and is affected by monocular vision impairment. This study evaluates existing EHC tests to detect performance decline under monocular conditions, supports the assessment and monitoring of vision rehabilitation, and quantifies the binocular
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Background: Eye–hand coordination (EHC) plays a critical role in daily activities and is affected by monocular vision impairment. This study evaluates existing EHC tests to detect performance decline under monocular conditions, supports the assessment and monitoring of vision rehabilitation, and quantifies the binocular advantage of each test. Methods: A total of 70 healthy sports students (aged 19–30 years) participated in four EHC tests: the Purdue Pegboard Test (PPT), Finger–Nose Test (FNT), Alternate Hand Wall Toss Test (AHWTT), and Loop-Wire Test (LWT). Each participant completed the tests under both binocular and monocular conditions in a randomized order, with assessments conducted by two independent raters. Performance differences, binocular advantage, effect sizes, and interrater reliability were analyzed. Results: Data from 66 participants were included in the final analysis. Significant performance differences between binocular and monocular conditions were observed for the LWT (p < 0.001), AHWTT (p < 0.001), and PPT (p < 0.05), with a clear binocular advantage and large effect sizes (SMD range: 0.583–1.660) for the AHWTT and LWT. Female participants performed better in fine motor tasks, while males demonstrated superior performance in gross motor tasks. Binocular performance averages aligned with published reference values. Conclusions: The findings support the inclusion of the LWT and AHWTT in clinical protocols to assess and assist individuals with monocular vision impairment, particularly following sudden uniocular vision loss. Future research should extend these findings to different age groups and clinically relevant populations.
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Open AccessArticle
Analyzing Gaze During Driving: Should Eye Tracking Be Used to Design Automotive Lighting Functions?
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Korbinian Kunst, David Hoffmann, Anıl Erkan, Karina Lazarova and Tran Quoc Khanh
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(2), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18020013 - 10 Apr 2025
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In this work, an experiment was designed in which a defined route consisting of country roads, highways, and urban roads was driven by 20 subjects during the day and at night. The test vehicle was equipped with GPS and a camera, and the
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In this work, an experiment was designed in which a defined route consisting of country roads, highways, and urban roads was driven by 20 subjects during the day and at night. The test vehicle was equipped with GPS and a camera, and the subject wore head-mounted eye-tracking glasses to record gaze. Gaze distributions for country roads, highways, urban roads, and specific urban roads were then calculated and compared. The day/night comparisons showed that the horizontal fixation distribution of the subjects was wider during the day than at night over the whole test distance. When the distributions were divided into urban roads, country roads, and motorways, the difference was also seen in each road environment. For the vertical distribution, no clear differences between day and night can be seen for country roads or urban roads. In the case of the highway, the vertical dispersion is significantly lower, so the gaze is more focused. On highways and urban roads there is a tendency for the gaze to be lowered. The differentiation between a residential road and a main road in the city made it clear that gaze behavior differs significantly depending on the urban area. For example, the residential road led to a broader gaze behavior, as the sides of the street were scanned much more often in order to detect potential hazards lurking between parked cars at an early stage. This paper highlights the contradictory results of eye-tracking research and shows that it is not advisable to define a holy grail of gaze distribution for all environments. Gaze is highly situational and context-dependent, and generalized gaze distributions should not be used to design lighting functions. The research highlights the importance of an adaptive light distribution that adapts to the traffic situation and the environment, always providing good visibility for the driver and allowing a natural gaze behavior.
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Open AccessArticle
Influence of Visual Coding Based on Attraction Effect on Human–Computer Interface
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Linlin Wang, Yujie Liu, Xinyi Tang, Chengqi Xue and Haiyan Wang
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18020012 - 8 Apr 2025
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Decision-making is often influenced by contextual information on the human–computer interface (HCI), with the attraction effect being a common situational effect in digital nudging. To address the role of visual cognition and coding in the HCI based on the attraction effect, this research
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Decision-making is often influenced by contextual information on the human–computer interface (HCI), with the attraction effect being a common situational effect in digital nudging. To address the role of visual cognition and coding in the HCI based on the attraction effect, this research takes online websites as experimental scenarios and demonstrates how the coding modes and attributes influence the attraction effect. The results show that similarity-based attributes enhance the attraction effect, whereas difference-based attributes do not modulate its intensity, suggesting that the influence of the relationship driven by coding modes is weaker than that of coding attributes. Additionally, variations in the strength of the attraction effect are observed across different coding modes under the coding attribute of similarity, with color coding having the strongest effect, followed by size, and labels showing the weakest effect. This research analyzes the stimulating conditions of the attraction effect and provides new insights for exploring the relationship between cognition and visual characterization through the attraction effect at the HCI. Furthermore, our findings can help apply the attraction effect more effectively and assist users in making more reasonable decisions.
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Open AccessArticle
OKN and Pupillary Response Modulation by Gaze and Attention Shifts
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Kei Kanari and Moe Kikuchi
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(2), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18020011 - 7 Apr 2025
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Pupil responses and optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) are known to vary with the brightness and direction of motion of attended stimuli, as well as gaze position. However, whether these processes are controlled by a common mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we investigated how
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Pupil responses and optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) are known to vary with the brightness and direction of motion of attended stimuli, as well as gaze position. However, whether these processes are controlled by a common mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we investigated how OKN latency relates to pupil response latency under two conditions: gaze shifts (eye movement) and attention shifts (covert attention without eye movement). As a result, while OKN showed consistent temporal changes across both gaze and attention conditions, pupillary responses exhibited distinct patterns. Moreover, the results revealed no significant correlation between pupil latency and OKN latency in either condition. These findings suggest that, although OKN and pupillary responses are influenced by similar attentional processes, their underlying mechanisms may differ.
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Open AccessArticle
Eye Movement Indicator Difference Based on Binocular Color Fusion and Rivalry
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Xinni Zhang, Mengshi Dai, Feiyan Cheng, Lijun Yun and Zaiqing Chen
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(2), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18020010 - 5 Apr 2025
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Color fusion and rivalry are two key information integration mechanisms in binocular vision, representing the visual system’s processing patterns for consistent and conflicting inputs, respectively. This study hypothesizes that there are quantifiable differences in eye movement indicators under states of binocular color fusion
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Color fusion and rivalry are two key information integration mechanisms in binocular vision, representing the visual system’s processing patterns for consistent and conflicting inputs, respectively. This study hypothesizes that there are quantifiable differences in eye movement indicators under states of binocular color fusion and rivalry, which can be verified through multi-paradigm eye movement experiments. The experiment recruited eighteen subjects with normal vision (nine males and nine females), employing the Gaze Stability paradigm, Straight Curve Eye Hopping paradigm, and Smoothed Eye Movement Tracking paradigm for eye movement tracking. Each paradigm included a binocular color rivalry experimental group (R-G) and two binocular color fusion control groups (R-R, G-G). Data analysis indicates significant differences in indicators such as Average Saccade Amplitude, Median Saccade Amplitude, and SD of Saccade Amplitude between binocular color fusion and rivalry states. For instance, through Z-Score normalization and cross-paradigm merged analysis, specific ranges of these indicators were identified to distinguish between the two states. When the Average Saccade Amplitude falls within the range of −0.905–−0.693, it indicates a state of binocular color rivalry; when the range is 0.608–1.294, it reflects a state of binocular color fusion. Subsequently, ROC curve analysis confirmed the effectiveness of the experimental paradigms in analyzing the mechanisms of binocular color fusion and rivalry, with AUC values of 0.990, 0.741, and 0.967, respectively. These results reveal the potential of eye movement behaviors as biomarkers for the dynamic processing of visual conflicts. This finding provides empirical support for understanding the neural computational models of binocular vision and lays a methodological foundation for developing visual impairment assessment tools based on eye movement features.
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Open AccessArticle
Numerosity Perception and Perceptual Load: Exploring Sex Differences Through Eye-Tracking
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Julia Bend and Anssi Öörni
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(2), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18020009 - 3 Apr 2025
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This study investigates sex differences in numerosity perception and visuospatial abilities in adults using eye-tracking methodology. We report the results of a controlled dual-task experiment that assessed the participants’ visuospatial and numerosity estimation abilities. We did not observe sex differences in reaction times
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This study investigates sex differences in numerosity perception and visuospatial abilities in adults using eye-tracking methodology. We report the results of a controlled dual-task experiment that assessed the participants’ visuospatial and numerosity estimation abilities. We did not observe sex differences in reaction times and accuracy. However, we found that females consistently underestimated numerosity. This underestimation correlated with higher perceptual load in females, as evidenced by shorter fixation durations and increased fixation rates. These findings suggest that perceptual load, rather than visual or spatial abilities, significantly influences numerosity estimation. Our study contributes novel insights into sex differences in both numerosity estimation and visuospatial abilities. These results provide a foundation for future research on numerosity perception across various populations and contexts, with implications for educational strategies and cognitive training programs.
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Open AccessSystematic Review
Eye-Based Recognition of User Traits and States—A Systematic State-of-the-Art Review
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Moritz Langner, Peyman Toreini and Alexander Maedche
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(2), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18020008 - 1 Apr 2025
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Eye-tracking technology provides high-resolution information about a user’s visual behavior and interests. Combined with advances in machine learning, it has become possible to recognize user traits and states using eye-tracking data. Despite increasing research interest, a comprehensive systematic review of eye-based recognition approaches
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Eye-tracking technology provides high-resolution information about a user’s visual behavior and interests. Combined with advances in machine learning, it has become possible to recognize user traits and states using eye-tracking data. Despite increasing research interest, a comprehensive systematic review of eye-based recognition approaches has been lacking. This study aimed to fill this gap by systematically reviewing and synthesizing the existing literature on the machine-learning-based recognition of user traits and states using eye-tracking data following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The inclusion criteria focused on studies that applied eye-tracking data to recognize user traits and states with machine learning or deep learning approaches. Searches were performed in the ACM Digital Library and IEEE Xplore and the found studies were assessed for the risk of bias using standard methodological criteria. The data synthesis included a conceptual framework that covered the task, context, technology and data processing, and recognition targets. A total of 90 studies were included that encompassed a variety of tasks (e.g., visual, driving, learning) and contexts (e.g., computer screen, simulator, wild). The recognition targets included cognitive and affective states (e.g., emotions, cognitive workload) and user traits (e.g., personality, working memory). A set of various machine learning techniques, such as Support Vector Machines (SVMs), Random Forests, and deep learning models were applied to recognize user states and traits. This review identified state-of-the-art approaches and gaps, which highlighted the need for building up best practices, larger-scale datasets, and diversifying tasks and contexts. Future research should focus on improving the ecological validity, multi-modal approaches for robust user modeling, and developing gaze-adaptive systems.
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Open AccessArticle
How Do Stress Situations Affect Higher-Level Text Processing in L1 and L2 Readers? An Eye-Tracking Study
by
Ziqing Xia, Chun-Hsien Chen, Jo-Yu Kuo and Mingmin Zhang
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(2), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18020007 - 24 Mar 2025
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Existing studies have revealed that the reading comprehension ability of readers can be adversely affected by their psychosocial stress. Yet, the detailed impact of stress on various stages of text processing is understudied. This study aims to explore how the higher-level text processing
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Existing studies have revealed that the reading comprehension ability of readers can be adversely affected by their psychosocial stress. Yet, the detailed impact of stress on various stages of text processing is understudied. This study aims to explore how the higher-level text processing ability, including syntactic parsing, sentence integration, and global text processing, of first language (L1) and second language (L2) English readers is affected under stress situations. In addition, the roles of trait anxiety, the central executive function moderating stress effects, in text processing were also examined. Twenty-two L1 readers and twenty-one L2 readers were asked to perform reading comprehension tasks under different stress situations. Eye-tracking technology was adopted to record participants’ visual behaviors while reading, and ten eye-movement measurements were computed to represent the effect of different types of text processing. The results demonstrate that the stress reduced the efficiency of syntactic parsing and sentence integration in both L1 and L2 groups, but only impaired global text processing in L2 readers. Specifically, L2 readers focused more on the topic structure of text to facilitate comprehension under stress situations. Moreover, only L1 readers’ higher-level text processing was affected by trait anxiety, while L2 readers’ processing was mainly related to their reading proficiency level. Future studies and applications were discussed. The findings advance our understanding of stress effects on different stages of higher-level text processing. They also have practical implications for developing interventions to help language learners suffering from stress disorders.
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Quantitative Assessment of Fixational Disparity Using a Binocular Eye-Tracking Technique in Children with Strabismus
by
Xiaoyi Hou, Xubo Yang, Bingjie Chen and Yongchuan Liao
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2025, 18(2), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr18020006 - 10 Mar 2025
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Fixational eye movements are important for holding the central visual field on a target for a specific period of time. In this study, we aimed to quantitatively assess fixational disparities using binocular eye tracking in children with strabismus (before and after surgical alignment)
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Fixational eye movements are important for holding the central visual field on a target for a specific period of time. In this study, we aimed to quantitatively assess fixational disparities using binocular eye tracking in children with strabismus (before and after surgical alignment) and healthy children. Fixational disparities in 117 children (4–18 years; 57 with strabismus and 60 age-similar healthy controls) were recorded under binocular viewing with corrected refractive errors. Disparities in gaze positions relative to the target location were recorded for both eyes. The main outcome measures included fixational disparities along horizontal and vertical axes in the fixation test. Children with strabismus exhibited significant (p < 0.001) fixational disparities compared to healthy children in both horizontal and vertical directions. Additionally, children with esotropia had poorer fixational function compared to those with exotropia. The occurrence of fixational disparities significantly decreased in the horizontal direction following strabismus surgery. A significant negative correlation was observed between binocular best-corrected visual acuity and fixational disparities in children with strabismus. Children with strabismus had significant fixational disparities that were observably diminished in the horizontal direction after surgical alignment. Binocular assessment of fixational disparities can provide a more comprehensive evaluation of visual function in individuals with strabismus.
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