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Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment
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Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment

A special issue of Journal of Eye Movement Research (ISSN 1995-8692).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 June 2026 | Viewed by 3516

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Clara Martinez-Perez

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Applied Physics Department (Optometry Area), Facultade de Óptica e Optometría, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15705 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Interests: myopia; binocular vision; epidemiology; eye disorders; refractive errors
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Jacobo Garcia-Queiruga

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. GI-2092—Optometry, Department of Applied Physics (Optometry Area), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida s/n, 15705 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
2. AC-24 Optometry, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Interests: dry eye disease; ocular surface; contact lens; tear substitutes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Binocular vision relies on precise oculomotor coordination, including vergence, accommodation, fixation stability, and stereopsis. Recent advances in eye-tracking technology, virtual and augmented reality, digital stereotests, mobile-based assessment tools, and automated oculomotor analysis have opened new possibilities for evaluating binocular vision with greater accuracy and reproducibility. These innovations allow for objective measurement of disconjugate movements, vergence dynamics, accommodative responses, fixation disparity, and binocular coordination under both laboratory and real-world conditions. This Special Issue aims to gather high-quality research focused on technological, experimental, and clinical developments in binocular vision assessment. We welcome contributions from optometry, ophthalmology, visual neuroscience, biomedical engineering, and computer science. Topics of interest include eye-tracking-based metrics for binocular function, VR/AR applications, digital diagnostic systems, biomarkers derived from binocular behavior, and clinical or experimental studies exploring oculomotor control in healthy and pathological populations. This Special Issue will spotlight technologies and methodologies for assessing binocular vision and eye movements. Areas covered include the following:

  • Eye-tracking analysis of vergence, accommodation, microsaccades, fixation disparity, and disconjugate movements;
  • Virtual and augmented reality tools for binocular testing and oculomotor research;
  • Digital stereopsis evaluation and automated binocular vision tests;
  • Computational models of binocular coordination;
  • Oculomotor biomarkers for concussion, neuro-visual disorders, and visual stress;
  • Tele-optometry and mobile-based binocular assessment;
  • Machine learning approaches for classifying binocular dysfunctions.

We look forward to receiving original research articles, clinical studies, methodological papers, technological developments, review articles, pilot studies, and case series involving digital or experimental approaches to binocular vision and eye movement analysis.

Dr. Clara Martinez-Perez
Dr. Jacobo Garcia-Queiruga
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Eye Movement Research is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • eye-tracking
  • eye movement
  • vision

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 2238 KB  
Article
An Exploratory Study of the Relationship Between Phoria, Oculomotor Skills and Visual Symptoms in Children Aged 5 to 8 Years
by Carmen Bilbao, Julia Cavero, Jorge Ares, Alba Carrera and Diana Gargallo
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020036 - 2 Apr 2026
Viewed by 328
Abstract
Purpose: To investigate the relationship between oculomotor skills, phorias, and visual symptoms in pediatric population aged 5 to 8 years. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 120 children, divided into three age groups. Each participant underwent a full optometric examination, including the [...] Read more.
Purpose: To investigate the relationship between oculomotor skills, phorias, and visual symptoms in pediatric population aged 5 to 8 years. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 120 children, divided into three age groups. Each participant underwent a full optometric examination, including the Maddox test for dissociated phoria, and the Northeastern State University College of Optometry (NSUCO) and Developmental Eye Movement (DEM) tests for oculomotor function. In addition, the Convergence Insufficiency Symptom Survey (CISS V-15) questionnaire was administered to assess visual symptoms. Results: The prevalence of binocular and oculomotor dysfunctions varied by age and sex. Differences in saccadic and pursuit eye movement performance were observed between groups. Older children showed patterns of association between phoria measurements, oculomotor performance, and possible visual symptoms, particularly in girls over 6 years of age. Conclusions: This study provides additional descriptive data for the pediatric population and highlights that oculomotor dysfunction and phoria frequently coexist. Symptom scores measured by the CISS V-15 tended to increase with age. The results should be considered preliminary and potentially hypothesis-generating, pending the future availability of a validated questionnaire to assess phoria-related symptoms in children from 5 years of age. Overall, this study underscores the importance of comprehensive binocular vision assessments in school-aged children. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)
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20 pages, 2259 KB  
Article
Integrating Multi-Task Eye Tracking and Interpretable Machine Learning for High-Accuracy Screening of Amblyopia in Pediatric Populations
by Xiumei Song, Yunhan Zhang, Hongyu Chen, Chenyu Tang, Bohan Yao, Hubin Zhao, Luigi G. Occhipinti, Arokia Nathan, Changbin Zhai and Shuo Gao
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020026 - 2 Mar 2026
Viewed by 516
Abstract
Amblyopia is a developmental disorder of spatial vision in which abnormal visual experience leads to persistent reductions in acuity and contrast sensitivity, even after optimal optical correction. We introduce a brief, child-friendly battery of task-evoked eye tracking that probes fixation stability, fine pattern [...] Read more.
Amblyopia is a developmental disorder of spatial vision in which abnormal visual experience leads to persistent reductions in acuity and contrast sensitivity, even after optimal optical correction. We introduce a brief, child-friendly battery of task-evoked eye tracking that probes fixation stability, fine pattern processing, and smooth pursuit control across three simple paradigms. Oculomotor traces are transformed into physiologically interpretable markers—fixation dispersion and saccadic strategy, orientation-dependent drift and stability, pursuit gain, and tracking error—and used to train a compact classifier with subject-wise validation and probability calibration. In a cohort of school-aged participants with clinically diagnosed unilateral amblyopia and age-matched visually normal controls tested under best-corrected viewing conditions, the approach consistently separated groups with stable performance across folds; feature-importance analyses indicated that pursuit- and orientation-dependent markers contributed most. The protocol runs in minutes, is objective and noninvasive, and is well tolerated in pediatric settings. By quantifying functional consequences of amblyopic vision that complement conventional acuity testing, this work positions task-evoked eye movements as practical biomarkers for screening and monitoring, and lays the groundwork for prospective validation and age-stratified norms in community and school-based vision care. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)
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16 pages, 2845 KB  
Article
A Feasibility Study of Tablet-Based Eye Movement Assessment Using a Built-In Camera: A Pilot Study
by Kyunghyun Park, Unseok Lee, Sejoon Moon, Hyungsik Bae and Hyungoo Kang
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020024 - 24 Feb 2026
Viewed by 642
Abstract
This study developed a tablet PC–based eye movement assessment application and conducted a pilot investigation to explore whether tablet-based ocular motor metrics demonstrate functional sensitivity to variations in conventional visual function parameters. Twenty-three healthy adults (10 males, 13 females; mean age: 24.41 ± [...] Read more.
This study developed a tablet PC–based eye movement assessment application and conducted a pilot investigation to explore whether tablet-based ocular motor metrics demonstrate functional sensitivity to variations in conventional visual function parameters. Twenty-three healthy adults (10 males, 13 females; mean age: 24.41 ± 1.91 years) without a history of ocular disease performed smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movement tests at three difficulty levels. For exploratory analysis, participants were stratified into above- and below-mean groups based on conventional visual function test results. For smooth pursuit movements, mean pursuit traversal time demonstrated statistically significant differences between the low–medium (1.11 s) and low–high (1.14 s) difficulty levels (p < 0.05), with corresponding differences in derived velocity. Saccadic movements showed significant mean accuracy differences between low-high (1.02 points) and medium-high (0.95 points) difficulty levels (p < 0.05). Participants with higher-than-average horizontal phoria values (distance and near) and the blur/break points of near convergence amplitude exhibited significantly longer smooth pursuit traversal times (corresponding to slower derived velocities) (p < 0.05). The high-value group for blur point of near convergence amplitude demonstrated significantly superior saccadic accuracy (1.63 points) compared with the low-value group (1.30 points) (p < 0.05). Exploratory associations between visual function parameters and ocular motor performance were observed within the healthy participant group, suggesting exploratory associations between tablet-based smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movement performance and conventional visual function measures. These findings suggest that tablet PC–based eye movement assessment may serve as a feasible, low-cost approach for exploratory screening and functional monitoring, rather than a validated diagnostic tool. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)
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17 pages, 1232 KB  
Article
The Influence of Noise Perception and Parent-Rated Developmental Characteristics on White Noise Benefits in Children
by Erica Jostrup, Marcus Nyström, Göran B. W. Söderlund, Emma Claesdotter-Knutsson, Peik Gustafsson and Pia Tallberg
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010018 - 5 Feb 2026
Viewed by 887
Abstract
White noise has been proposed to enhance cognitive performance in children with ADHD, but findings are inconsistent, and benefits vary across tasks and individuals. Such variability suggests that diagnostic comparisons may overlook meaningful developmental differences. This exploratory study examined whether developmental characteristics and [...] Read more.
White noise has been proposed to enhance cognitive performance in children with ADHD, but findings are inconsistent, and benefits vary across tasks and individuals. Such variability suggests that diagnostic comparisons may overlook meaningful developmental differences. This exploratory study examined whether developmental characteristics and subjective evaluations of auditory and visual white noise predicted performance changes in two eye-movement tasks: Prolonged Fixation (PF) and Memory-Guided Saccades (MGS). Children with varying degrees of ADHD symptoms completed both tasks under noise and no-noise conditions, and noise benefit scores were calculated as the performance difference between conditions. Overall, white-noise effects were small and dependent on noise modality and task. In the PF task, large parent-rated perceptual difficulties and high visual noise discomfort were associated with improved performance under noise. In the MGS task, poor motor skills predicted visual noise benefit, whereas large visual noise discomfort predicted reduced noise benefit. These findings suggest that beneficial effects of white noise are influenced by developmental characteristics and subjective perception in task-dependent ways. The results highlight the need for individualized, transdiagnostic approaches in future noise research and challenge the notion of white noise as categorically beneficial for ADHD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)
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Review

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17 pages, 442 KB  
Review
Application of Eye-Tracking Technology in Assessing Binocular Vision Function in Paediatric Populations: A Scoping Review
by Ong Huei Koon, Noor Ezailina Badarudin and Byoung-Sun Chu
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020040 - 17 Apr 2026
Viewed by 249
Abstract
Background: This review discusses the application of eye-tracking technology in the detection and monitoring of binocular vision anomalies among children. Methods: A scoping review using PRISMA guidelines was conducted through Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed using the keywords “eye-tracking,” “binocular,” “vision,” “anomalies,” “paediatrics,” and [...] Read more.
Background: This review discusses the application of eye-tracking technology in the detection and monitoring of binocular vision anomalies among children. Methods: A scoping review using PRISMA guidelines was conducted through Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed using the keywords “eye-tracking,” “binocular,” “vision,” “anomalies,” “paediatrics,” and “children” from 2015 to 2025. Studies excluded were not written in English, did not apply the eye tracker as a research tool, involved an ineligible population, or involved non-human subjects. Results: The search strategy identified 77 citations, yet only 14 studies met the inclusion criteria. This review revealed a variety of binocular vision anomalies detectable through eye-tracking systems, along with the specific models and parameters employed in these assessments. Application of eye-tracking technology in diagnosing conditions such as strabismus and amblyopia demonstrated potential for improved accuracy and early detection. Discussion: Eye-tracking technology demonstrates considerable potential for the detection and monitoring of binocular vision anomalies in children, particularly as a non-invasive method for early screening, thereby strengthening its clinical applicability. By assessing fixation stability, saccadic movements, and vergence responses, eye-tracking allows for the early detection of subtle visual anomalies, especially in the paediatric population. Conclusions: Eye-tracking technology represents a valuable advancement in paediatric vision care, enabling the more objective and earlier detection of binocular vision anomalies in the paediatric population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)
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Graphical abstract

Other

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17 pages, 2640 KB  
Systematic Review
Virtual Reality Orthoptic Interventions for Binocular Vision Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Clara Martinez-Perez, Noelia Nores-Palmas, Jacobo Garcia-Queiruga, Maria J. Giraldez and Eva Yebra-Pimentel
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19020039 - 14 Apr 2026
Viewed by 337
Abstract
Purpose: To systematically review and meta-analyze randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating digital orthoptic interventions, including virtual reality (VR)–based approaches, for convergence insufficiency and intermittent exotropia. Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and AMSTAR-2 standards and was prospectively registered in [...] Read more.
Purpose: To systematically review and meta-analyze randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating digital orthoptic interventions, including virtual reality (VR)–based approaches, for convergence insufficiency and intermittent exotropia. Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and AMSTAR-2 standards and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO. PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched up to December 2025. Eligible studies were RCTs comparing VR-based or digital orthoptic interventions with conventional therapy, placebo VR, or control conditions. Primary outcomes included near point of convergence, ocular deviation, fusional reserves, and stereopsis. Risk of bias was assessed using RoB 2 and certainty of evidence with GRADE. Results: Four RCTs (184 participants) were included. In convergence insufficiency, digital orthoptic interventions, including VR-based approaches, significantly reduced near heterophoria (mean difference [MD] −1.64 prism diopters; 95% CI −3.17 to −0.12), with no significant effects on near point of convergence or positive fusional reserves. In intermittent exotropia, VR-based interventions significantly improved near point of convergence (MD −1.60 cm; 95% CI −2.64 to −0.55), although this change did not reach the ≥4 cm threshold considered clinically meaningful according to the Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial. Improvements were also observed in stereopsis (MD −0.19 log units; 95% CI −0.33 to −0.04), while changes in near deviation were not significant. Evidence certainty ranged from low to moderate. Conclusions: VR-based and digital orthoptic interventions may offer modest, outcome-specific benefits as adjunctive treatments for selected binocular vision disorders. Larger, well-designed RCTs with standardized outcomes are needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)
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