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Processes
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Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition)
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Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition)

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2025 | Viewed by 9653

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Mohan Lal Kolhe

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Agder, P.O. Box 422, 4604 Kristiansand, Norway
Interests: clean energy technologies; renewable energy systems; electrical energy engineering; energy efficiency; energy economics; techno-economic operation of energy systems; renewable energy technologies integration; smart grids; micro grids; electric vehicles; energy storage
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The first edition of the special issue "Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies" in the journal Processes was a resounding success, featuring high-quality research papers on cutting-edge technologies and applications in the field of sustainable energy. Building on this momentum, we are now excited to announce the launch of the second edition of the special issue, which will delve deeper into the critical area of electrification of energy systems.

The rapid transition towards a sustainable energy future necessitates the electrification of various sectors, including transportation, heating, and industry. This special issue of Processes aims to showcase recent advancements in the processes and technologies that underpin the electrification of energy systems. We invite contributions that explore into the integration of renewable energy sources, electric mobility, and other sustainable energy technologies to create a more electrified and resilient energy landscape.

Topics of Interest

Renewable Energy Integration:

  • Power-to-X (PtX) technologies for energy storage and conversion;
  • Grid integration of large-scale renewable energy sources (solar, wind).

Electric Mobility:

  • Battery technologies and charging infrastructure;
  • Electric vehicle (EV) integration into the power grid;
  • Autonomous vehicles and energy management.

Electrification of Industry and Buildings:

  • Electric heat pumps and district heating systems;
  • Electrification of industrial processes;
  • Energy-efficient building design and operation.

Energy Storage Systems:

  • Battery energy storage systems (BESS);
  • Flow battery technologies;
  • Thermal energy storage.

Smart Grid Technologies:

  • Demand-side management (DSM);
  • Energy management systems (EMS);
  • Microgrids and community energy systems.

Policy and Regulatory Frameworks:

  • Policies and incentives for promoting electrification;
  • Regulatory challenges and opportunities;
  • Business models for sustainable electrical energy technologies.

Prof. Dr. Mohan Lal Kolhe
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sustainable electrification
  • renewable energy
  • electric mobility
  • energy storage
  • smart grid
  • sustainable energy technologies
  • electro-chemical energy conversion
  • electro-mechanical energy conversion processes

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

52 pages, 36644 KiB  
Article
Influence of the Layout of Cells in a Traction Battery on the Evolution of a Fire in the Event of a Failure
by Ana Olona and Luis Castejón
Processes 2025, 13(3), 889; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030889 - 18 Mar 2025
Viewed by 231
Abstract
Research on the safety and impact of lithium-ion battery failure has focused on individual cells as lithium-ion batteries began to be used in small devices. However, large and complex battery packs need to be considered, and how the failure of a single cell [...] Read more.
Research on the safety and impact of lithium-ion battery failure has focused on individual cells as lithium-ion batteries began to be used in small devices. However, large and complex battery packs need to be considered, and how the failure of a single cell can affect the system needs to be analyzed. This initial failure at the level of a single cell can lead to thermal runaway of other cells within the pack, resulting in increased risk. This article focuses on tests of mechanical abuse (perforation of cylindrical cells), overcharge (pouch cells), and heating (cylindrical cells with different arrangements and types of connection) to analyse how various parameters influence the mechanism of thermal runaway (TR) propagation. Parameters such as SoC (State of Charge), environment, arrangement, and type of connection are thoroughly evaluated. The tests also analyse the final state of the post-mortem cells and measure the internal resistance of the cells before and after testing. The novelty of this study lies in its analysis of the behavior of different types of cells at room temperature, since the behavior of lithium-ion batteries under adverse circumstances has been extensively studied and is well understood, failures can also occur under normal operating conditions. This study concludes that temperature is a crucial parameter, as overheating of the battery can cause an exothermic reaction and destroy the battery completely. Also, overcharging the cell can compromise its internal structure, which underlines the importance of a well-functioning battery management system (BMS). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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19 pages, 20228 KiB  
Article
A Study on the Removal of Heat Generated by a Lithium-Ion Battery Module: A Fan-Assisted Battery Cooling Approach
by Erdi Tosun, Sinan Keyinci, Ali Cem Yakaryilmaz and Mustafa Ozcanli
Processes 2025, 13(3), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030848 - 13 Mar 2025
Viewed by 574
Abstract
Temperature is a crucial parameter for ensuring the long lifespan and safe operation of lithium-ion batteries (LiBs). An efficient battery thermal management system (BTMS) tries to maintain temperature in between optimum limits. Despite some disadvantages, air-cooled BTMSs are still preferred due to their [...] Read more.
Temperature is a crucial parameter for ensuring the long lifespan and safe operation of lithium-ion batteries (LiBs). An efficient battery thermal management system (BTMS) tries to maintain temperature in between optimum limits. Despite some disadvantages, air-cooled BTMSs are still preferred due to their advantages such as light weight, simple design, low cost, and ease of maintenance. This study experimentally evaluated a fan-assisted BTMS for the purpose of cooling a 4S2P battery module that includes 18650 type cells. The battery module was initially tested with no cooling system to observe the temperature characteristics of the module, followed by testing with forced air cooling using a fan. Experiments were also conducted with perforated plates installed between the fan and the module to see their effects on the thermal behaviors. Tests were initiated when the ambient temperature was approximately 25 °C and the discharges were carried out by drawing constant currents of 4 A, 8 A, 12 A, and 16 A from the module via an electronic load. The results of this study highlighted the importance of an effective BTMS in ensuring battery safety and performance across different operational conditions. While all tested cooling configurations maintained acceptable temperature levels at lower discharge currents (4 A and 8 A), they struggled to do so at higher currents (12 A and 16 A). Among them, the Fan–HC mode demonstrated the highest efficiency, reducing the maximum temperature (Tmax) by 38.82% at 12 A and 28.89% at 16 A compared to the no-cooling scenario. Moreover, it ensured a more uniform temperature distribution within the module. These findings emphasize the necessity of optimized cooling strategies, particularly for high-power applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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31 pages, 4444 KiB  
Article
A Holistic Model for Ergonomic and Sustainable Personnel Scheduling in Urban Transportation
by Emir Hüseyin Özder
Processes 2025, 13(3), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030814 - 11 Mar 2025
Viewed by 607
Abstract
Personnel scheduling plays a pivotal role in numerous industries, impacting productivity, job satisfaction, and employee welfare. However, conventional scheduling approaches often neglect ergonomic and sustainability considerations, overlooking their influence on workforce health and environmental impact. This study presents a novel goal programming framework [...] Read more.
Personnel scheduling plays a pivotal role in numerous industries, impacting productivity, job satisfaction, and employee welfare. However, conventional scheduling approaches often neglect ergonomic and sustainability considerations, overlooking their influence on workforce health and environmental impact. This study presents a novel goal programming framework for optimizing personnel scheduling in urban transportation systems, integrating ergonomic risk assessments (REBA method) and sustainability metrics (aligned with SDGs). This model is validated through a case study of an urban transportation company with 140 employees working in a three-shift system. The results demonstrate a 44% reduction in high-risk task assignments, a 45.1% improvement in sustainability balance, and a 37.7% increase in employee satisfaction. This study offers theoretical contributions by expanding scheduling research to include multi-objective workforce optimization and practical implications by providing a decision-support tool for transportation agencies and workforce managers. Future research can explore real-time scheduling adaptations and AI-based predictive workforce planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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18 pages, 9055 KiB  
Article
A Study on Equivalent Series Resistance Estimation Compensation for DC-Link Capacitor Life Diagnosis of Propulsion Drive in Electric Propulsion Ship
by Chan Roh, Hyeon-min Jeon, Seong-wan Kim, Jong-su Kim, Sung-woo Song, Na-young Lee and Seok-cheon Kang
Processes 2025, 13(2), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020291 - 21 Jan 2025
Viewed by 669
Abstract
This study proposes a novel fault diagnosis algorithm based on Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) estimation to enhance the accuracy of capacitor life diagnosis techniques for the DC link in marine electric propulsion systems. Accurate ESR estimation is critical for maintaining the reliability and [...] Read more.
This study proposes a novel fault diagnosis algorithm based on Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) estimation to enhance the accuracy of capacitor life diagnosis techniques for the DC link in marine electric propulsion systems. Accurate ESR estimation is critical for maintaining the reliability and efficiency of DC-Link capacitors, which play a key role in stabilizing voltage, reducing harmonics, and ensuring the smooth operation of electric propulsion systems. By preventing capacitor failures, this algorithm contributes to reducing the risk of catastrophic damage to entire systems. The ESR value is determined by extracting AC voltage and current data within the frequency range of 10 kHz to 30 kHz using a band-pass filter. To improve reliability, the algorithm compensates for input errors based on the modulation index and switching pattern, with error data stored in a lookup table. By addressing limitations in existing ESR estimation techniques, the proposed method reduces estimation errors across the entire range and enhances fault diagnosis accuracy. Experimental results validate the algorithm’s improved accuracy, reliability, and stability, demonstrating its effectiveness in preventing damage to power conversion devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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13 pages, 4627 KiB  
Article
Transient Energy-Based Ultra-High-Speed Unit Protection for Overhead Outgoing Lines in Inverter-Interfaced Renewable Energy Plants
by Yuan Kong, Yumeng Wu, Zhenfeng Liang and Rong Jia
Processes 2025, 13(1), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13010286 - 20 Jan 2025
Viewed by 719
Abstract
The transient fault characteristics of an inverter-interfaced renewable energy (IIRE) overhead outgoing line may cause misoperations of existing protection schemes. This paper uses directional comparison of the post-fault transient energy to construct the ultra-high-speed (UHS) unit protection for an IIRE plant’s overhead outgoing [...] Read more.
The transient fault characteristics of an inverter-interfaced renewable energy (IIRE) overhead outgoing line may cause misoperations of existing protection schemes. This paper uses directional comparison of the post-fault transient energy to construct the ultra-high-speed (UHS) unit protection for an IIRE plant’s overhead outgoing line. The proposed method could identify the internal faults accurately in various fault scenarios. Compared to conventional traveling wave-based protection, distance protection and differential protection, the proposed scheme can overcome the high sampling rate difficulty and remain effective when the fault inception angle is zero. The scheme is also tested under conditions of noise, parallel lines, and CT saturation. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method is immune to these factors, which make the scheme more reliable and applicable in commercial industries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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17 pages, 4525 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Decoupled Current Control for Smooth Torque of the Open-Winding Variable Flux Reluctance Motor Using Integrated Torque Harmonic Extended State Observer
by El Moundher Aouiche, Xu Liu, Abdelaziz Aouiche, Mustafa Alrayah Hassan, Mohammed Echarif Aguida, Junaid Ali Khan and Yang Cao
Processes 2025, 13(1), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13010263 - 17 Jan 2025
Viewed by 735
Abstract
Variable Flux Reluctance Machines (VFRMs) face multiple interconnected challenges that limit their performance, particularly in high-performance applications such as electric vehicles (EVs), where smooth torque output and robust operation are critical. Chief among these challenges are complex inter-axis couplings, including cross-coupling in the [...] Read more.
Variable Flux Reluctance Machines (VFRMs) face multiple interconnected challenges that limit their performance, particularly in high-performance applications such as electric vehicles (EVs), where smooth torque output and robust operation are critical. Chief among these challenges are complex inter-axis couplings, including cross-coupling in the dq-axis, differential term coupling in the d0-axis, and disturbances propagating from the 0-axis to the q-axis. Additionally, harmonic disturbances associated with torque ripple exacerbate performance issues, resulting in degraded dynamic behavior. These challenges hinder current loop controllers, preventing effective management of winding impedance voltage drops and inter-axis coupling terms without advanced decoupling strategies. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a novel integrated torque harmonic extended state observer (ITHESO) within a decoupled current control designed to ensure fast and accurate current tracking, system stability, and torque ripple reduction. The ITHESO identifies and compensates for total current disturbances, including harmonic components, through feed-forward compensation within the current loop. Furthermore, the influence of control parameters and the effects of parameter mismatches on stability, torque ripple reduction, and disturbance rejection are thoroughly analyzed. Experimental validations demonstrate that the proposed strategy significantly enhances torque dynamics and reduces torque ripple, outperforming the conventional Active Disturbance Rejection Control (ADRC), which does not explicitly address disturbances associated with torque ripple. These advancements position the VFRM with the ITHESO as a competitive option for high-performance EV propulsion systems, offering smooth operation, noise reduction, and reliable performance under varying speeds and loads. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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24 pages, 6371 KiB  
Article
A Metaheuristic Approach to Analyze the Techno-Economical Impact of Energy Storage Systems on Grid-Connected Microgrid Systems Adapting Load-Shifting Policies
by Bishwajit Dey, Senthil Krishnamurthy, Nande Fose, Mukovhe Ratshitanga and Prathaban Moodley
Processes 2025, 13(1), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13010065 - 31 Dec 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 704
Abstract
Battery energy storage systems (BESSs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are essential for microgrid operations to be financially viable. PHEVs can serve as mobile storage devices, storing excess energy during times of low demand and delivering it during times of high demand. [...] Read more.
Battery energy storage systems (BESSs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are essential for microgrid operations to be financially viable. PHEVs can serve as mobile storage devices, storing excess energy during times of low demand and delivering it during times of high demand. By offering reliable on-site energy storage, BESSs improve cost efficiency by allowing the microgrid to store cheap, off-peak electricity and release it when prices increase. To minimize generation costs and alleviate grid stress during periods of high demand, load-shifting policies shift inelastic loads to off-peak hours when energy prices are lower. When combined, these tactics support dependable, affordable, and effective microgrid management. A recently developed RIME algorithm is used as the optimization tool to reduce the total operating cost (TOC) of an MG system for three cases and three situations. The cases emphasize a modified load demand style influenced by the optimal load-shifting method (OLSM) and order characteristics load-shifting policy (OCLSP), whereas the situations refer to the inclusion of ESS in the MG system. The TOC decreased from $2624 without ESS to $2611 and $2331 with PHEVs and BESSs, respectively. These costs were further reduced to $1192, $1162, and $1147, respectively, when OLSM was implemented to restructure the base load demand. Additionally, a balance between a minimal TOC and carbon emission was obtained when an OLSM-based load demand model was used with BESSs. The RIME algorithm outperformed many recently developed algorithms and is consistent and robust, yielding better quality solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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24 pages, 10796 KiB  
Article
Impact of Advanced Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor on Load Frequency Control and Automatic Voltage Regulator Dual Area System with Interval Type-2 Fuzzy Sets-PID Usage
by Saeed Alshehri, Awadh Ba Wazir, Abdullah Ali Alhussainy, Sultan Alghamdi, Abdulraheem Alobaidi, Muhyaddin Rawa and Yusuf A. Alturki
Processes 2024, 12(12), 2647; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122647 - 24 Nov 2024
Viewed by 681
Abstract
A major priority for practicing engineers in an electric power system is preserving the stability of frequency and voltage levels. Any change in these two factors will impact the efficiency and lifespan of the machines connected to the power supply. Therefore, this paper [...] Read more.
A major priority for practicing engineers in an electric power system is preserving the stability of frequency and voltage levels. Any change in these two factors will impact the efficiency and lifespan of the machines connected to the power supply. Therefore, this paper provides a control approach utilizing the Interval Type-2 Fuzzy Sets- Proportional Integral Derivative (IT2FSs-PID) controller and Advanced Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (ATCSC) with a combined Load Frequency Control-Automatic Voltage Regulator (LFC-AVR). Several inspections were implemented to demonstrate the controller’s strength, including various disturbances in the power system. The LFC-AVR was studied using two different dynamic models, referred to as open and closed loops on the Generation Rate Constraint (GRC) forms. A comparison was made using different techniques from the literature using the same model. Before using the approach, the frequency deviation of area-1 had a very large settling time value, which was caused by system instability. However, after implementing the approach, this value decreased to 4.9236 s. Finally, an additional ATCSC was added to the proposed model to observe its effect on the power system. The simulation was implemented using MATLAB/SIMULINK tools. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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16 pages, 2915 KiB  
Article
Advanced Sliding Mode Design for Optimal Automatic Generation Control in Multi-Area Multi-Source Power System Considering HVDC Link
by Dao Huy Tuan, Anh-Tuan Tran, Van Van Huynh, Vo Hoang Duy and Nguyen Huu Khanh Nhan
Processes 2024, 12(11), 2426; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112426 - 4 Nov 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 961
Abstract
The multi-area multi-source power system (MAMSPS), which uses a variety of power sources including gas, hydro, thermal, and renewable energy, has recently been implemented to balance the growing demand for electricity and the overall capacity for power generation. In this paper, an integral [...] Read more.
The multi-area multi-source power system (MAMSPS), which uses a variety of power sources including gas, hydro, thermal, and renewable energy, has recently been implemented to balance the growing demand for electricity and the overall capacity for power generation. In this paper, an integral sliding mode control with a single-phase technique (ISMCSP) is applied to two areas, with each area including gas–wind–thermal power systems with HVDC system. Firstly, a two-area gas–wind–thermal power system with HVDC (TAGWTPSH) is the first model in this scheme to consider the parameter uncertainties of a MAMSPS. Secondly, sliding mode design law with a single-phase technique is introduced to alleviate chattering and oscillation problems. Then, power system stability is ensured by the Lyapunov control theory based on the new LMIs technique. Thirdly, the ISMCSP’s effectiveness in a MAMSPS is also assessed under random load patterns and parameter variations regarding settling time and over-/undershoot. The ISMCSP was created to alter the fundamental sliding mode control, and therefore the suggested approach performs better than recently published approaches. This is demonstrated by the frequency overshoot deviation value in frequency deviations: 0.7 × 10−3 to 2.8 × 10−3 for the TAGWTPSH with the suggested ISMCSP. In the last case, for random changes in load from −0.4 to +0.5 p. u, the proposed ISMCSP method still stabilizes the frequency of the areas meeting the standard requirements for AGC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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Review

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31 pages, 1777 KiB  
Review
Development and Commercial Application of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles: A Review
by Zhi-Wei Gao, Tianyu Lan, Haishuang Yin and Yuanhong Liu
Processes 2025, 13(3), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030756 - 5 Mar 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1562
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries are one of the critical components in electric vehicles (EVs) and play an important role in green energy transportation. In this paper, lithium-ion batteries are reviewed from the perspective of battery materials, the characteristics of lithium-ion batteries with different cathode and [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries are one of the critical components in electric vehicles (EVs) and play an important role in green energy transportation. In this paper, lithium-ion batteries are reviewed from the perspective of battery materials, the characteristics of lithium-ion batteries with different cathode and anode mediums, and their commercial values in the field of electric vehicles. Representative products, including blade battery and Tesla 4680 cells, are inspected. Moreover, the results of commercial application of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles are summarized. Furthermore, cutting-edge technologies of lithium-ion batteries are discussed, including electrolyte technology, high-energy-density in situ polymerization technology, and pouch batteries. Finally, the latest EV battery technology development is looked over, including challenges and future development directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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22 pages, 2106 KiB  
Review
Magnesium–Air Batteries: Manufacturing, Processing, Performance, and Applications
by Subin Antony Jose, Evan Doering, Noah Klein, Edgar Ignacio Mena, Chase Owens, Slade Pronk and Pradeep L. Menezes
Processes 2025, 13(3), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030607 - 20 Feb 2025
Viewed by 962
Abstract
Magnesium–air (Mg–Air) batteries are emerging as a sustainable and high-energy-density solution to address the increasing global energy demands, utilizing abundant and environmentally friendly materials. This review paper examines their fundamental electrochemical mechanisms, focusing on magnesium anodes, cathode design, and electrolyte formulations. While discussing [...] Read more.
Magnesium–air (Mg–Air) batteries are emerging as a sustainable and high-energy-density solution to address the increasing global energy demands, utilizing abundant and environmentally friendly materials. This review paper examines their fundamental electrochemical mechanisms, focusing on magnesium anodes, cathode design, and electrolyte formulations. While discussing key advancements in manufacturing techniques that enhance scalability and performance, this article underscores the wide range of potential applications of Mg–Air batteries, including portable electronics, electric transportation, and off-grid energy systems. Despite persistent challenges such as anode passivation and limited rechargeability, significant progress in material engineering and process optimization is accelerating their pathway to commercialization. These developments highlight the synergy between material science and sustainable manufacturing, positioning Mg–air batteries as a promising solution for next-generation energy storage technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Sustainable Electrical Energy Technologies (2nd Edition))
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