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Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition

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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2026 | Viewed by 6131

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Editors

Dr. Qingchao Li

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Guest Editor

School of Energy Science and Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo 454000, China
Interests: computational mechanics; multiphysics modeling and simulation; thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical (THMC) processes; computational fluid dynamics (CFD); natural gas hydrate engineering; wellbore integrity analysis; geomechanics and reservoir simulation; deepwater energy systems
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Dr. Qiang Li

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Guest Editor

College of Engineering, China University of Petroleum-Beijing at Karamay, Karamay 834000, China
Interests: geological reservoir modeling; reservoir transformation simulation; unconventional shale geology; geothermal reservoir simulation; CO₂ utilization and storage
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Yandong Yang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

School of Petroleum Engineering and Environmental Engineering, Yan An University, Yan An 716000, China
Interests: numerical simulation; percussion drilling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Natural gas is considered as a clean energy source that enables humanity to transition from fossil fuel-dominated processes to those that favor sustainability and renewable energy. Fortunately, natural gas hydrates could become an important source of natural gas in the near future. The global reserves of natural gas hydrates are estimated to be as high as 3 × 10¹⁵ m³, which is about double the reserves of conventional fossil fuels (such as oil, gas, and coal). In the stable structure of gas hydrate, natural gas is firmly fixed in the center of the cage structure that is composed of water molecules. Once its stable state is disturbed, natural gas escapes from the cage structure, allowing it to be extracted and utilized. At present, commonly used development strategies mainly include depressurization, thermal stimulation, inhibitor injection, and CO₂ replacement. Unfortunately, the long-term use of these strategies will likely lead to many environmental challenges. For example, inhibitors injected into hydrate-bearing sediments can contaminate pore fluids and cause damage to the reservoir. Therefore, exploring strategies for producing energy from natural gas hydrates in an environmentally friendly and efficient manner has become particularly important.

This Special Issue on “Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates” seeks high-quality research focusing on environmentally friendly production strategies for natural gas hydrates. Topics include, but are not limited to, the following:

(1) The impact of hydrate development on the environment and ecology, including analysis of engineering geological issues, methane leakage, reservoir damage, and contamination by chemical reagents.
(2) The development of environmentally friendly chemicals for hydrate development, such as drilling fluid additives, fracturing fluid additives, and various inhibitors.
(3) The application of industrial waste (such as power plant flue gas and waste heat) or low-quality energy (such as geothermal energy) in the efficient development of hydrates.
(4) The economic and technical evaluation of various environmentally friendly production strategies for natural gas hydrates.

Dr. Qingchao Li
Dr. Qiang Li
Dr. Yandong Yang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

natural gas hydrate
production strategy
additives
inhibitors
wellbore stability
sand production
reservoir damage
geothermal
economic and technical evaluation

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 4450 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coupled Temperature–Density Effects on Acoustic Maturation of HGM-Modified Lightweight Oil Well Cement: Mechanisms and Implications for Sonic Logging Optimization

by Lingfang Tan, Jin Yang, Yuhuan Bu, Gengchen Li, Li He, Hong Zhu, Xiaolong Yang, Shanfeng Ke and Qiwen Zhan

Processes 2026, 14(16), 2572; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14162572 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 284

Abstract

This study quantitatively investigates the coupled effects of curing temperature and slurry density on the early-age acoustic maturation of ultra-low-density Hollow Glass Microsphere (HGM)-modified oil well cement systems, addressing the critical challenge of determining reliable sonic logging timing under lightweight cementing conditions. Longitudinal wave velocity evolution was systematically characterized across a broad thermo–density domain, revealing a consistent three-stage acoustic trajectory comprising percolation-driven acceleration, transition-controlled consolidation, and acoustic stabilization. The results demonstrate that curing temperature primarily regulates the kinetic rate of acoustic maturation through hydration activation, whereas slurry density modulates the initial structural configuration, HGM-induced acoustic impedance heterogeneity, and development of effective solid connectivity. A derivative-based dual-criterion approach was proposed to define the optimal sonic logging time based on intrinsic acoustic stabilization behavior rather than conventional empirical strength-based thresholds. Furthermore, a thermo–density coupled semi-empirical model incorporating Arrhenius-type thermal activation and density-dependent structural effects was developed, providing reliable prediction of sonic logging timing with clear physical interpretability. The model captures the nonlinear interaction between thermal activation and structural constraints, revealing that acoustic maturation is accelerated under elevated-temperature and higher-density conditions but substantially delayed under low-temperature and ultra-low-density scenarios. This study establishes a physics-informed temperature–density–acoustic coupling framework that links hydration-controlled structural evolution with sonic logging optimization, providing a rational basis for improving cement bond evaluation reliability and operational efficiency under challenging wellbore conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 11419 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Characteristics and Structural Innovation of a Deepwater Subsea Wellhead System

by Xuezhan Zhao, Guangjin Chen, Yi Hong, Jingtian Qin, Shujie Liu, Lei Li, Shuzhan Li, Gengchen Li, Jiale Yang, Lingfang Tan, Xiaolong Yang and Kun Jiang

Processes 2026, 14(16), 2535; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14162535 - 7 Aug 2026

Viewed by 454

Abstract

To improve the bending resistance and support the domestic development of deepwater subsea wellhead equipment, a three-dimensional finite element model (FEM) of the SXW-15 subsea wellhead system was established in ANSYS Workbench considering contact nonlinearity and rigid-locking mechanisms. Based on representative deepwater drilling and completion conditions, the effects of the friction coefficient, locking preload, blowout preventer (BOP)/lower marine riser package (LMRP) top load, casing hanger internal pressure, and tubing load on the ultimate bending capacity of the system were systematically investigated. The results show that the bending capacity increases with increasing friction coefficient and locking preload, whereas it decreases with increasing top load and tubing weight. The internal pressure of the casing hanger exhibits a pronounced nonlinear influence on the bending resistance, and the maximum bending capacity occurs at an internal pressure of approximately 4000 psi. Based on the mechanical analysis, several innovative designs were proposed, including a layered load-bearing structure, a gravity-set metal sealing assembly, a self-supporting rigid-locking mechanism, and an integrated multifunctional tool system, aiming to improve load-transfer efficiency, connection stiffness, and high-pressure sealing stability. Land-based testing and offshore field applications were subsequently conducted to verify the engineering applicability of the system. The subsea wellhead system with innovative designs maintained satisfactory structural integrity and sealing reliability under conditions of 15,000 psi internal pressure and 12.7 million lb axial load. Good agreement was obtained between finite element predictions and field test results. The present study provides theoretical support and guidance for the structural designs and engineering applications of deepwater subsea wellhead systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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35 pages, 4214 KB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Mechanical Model of Single-Span Elastic Rod and Its Application

by Kunxiang Liu, Hongshu Wei, Bin Chen, Yi Lu, Guanhong Zhang, Fan Yu and Yunhu Lu

Processes 2026, 14(14), 2268; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14142268 - 11 Jul 2026

Viewed by 462

Abstract

A rod with end restraints is defined as a single-span elastic rod based on Kirchhoff’s nonlinear mechanical theory. To address the problems of unclear degrees of freedom, unsystematic boundary condition classification, and insufficient integration of theory with engineering applications, this paper establishes a systematic static analysis method. The degree of freedom of the single-span elastic rod is rigorously proved to be 12 through discrete constraint counting. Four criteria for boundary conditions are proposed: mutual correspondence and exclusion, coordination, and necessity. Based on these criteria, the boundary condition parameters are classified into generalized forces and generalized displacements, yielding 7 types with 729 valid combinations. A quaternion-based discretization method is developed to solve the equilibrium equations, and a mesh convergence study is performed using four mesh densities to confirm the numerical accuracy. The method is verified by comparing the computed results with analytical circular and helical curves, with coordinate errors below 1 cm for the circular case and below 5 cm for the helical case when using 40 elements. Using a deep-water landing string as an example, the complete application procedure is presented, including force analysis, boundary condition setting, distributed force application, and case study. The results show that the proposed model can effectively analyze three-dimensional large-deformation static problems of elastic rods, providing a unified theoretical framework for engineering applications such as cables, drill strings, and flexible manipulators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 14898 KB

Open AccessArticle

Scenario Simulation and Analysis of Earthquake-Induced Accidents in Water Network Buried Oil and Gas Pipelines

by Tiebing Li, Lei Cao, Askar Kadir, Bo Li, Haoxi Zhang, Chunyan Xu, Tianjin Guo and Xiaoxiao Zhu

Processes 2026, 14(14), 2262; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14142262 - 10 Jul 2026

Viewed by 410

Abstract

Earthquake-induced accidents involving buried oil and gas pipelines in water-network regions are governed by coupled seismic, hydrological, geotechnical, and emergency-response factors, while complete accident records are scarce. To support scenario-based consequence analysis under sparse-data conditions, this study develops an accident scenario analysis framework that integrates numerical simulation with Bayesian probabilistic inference. Scenario elements are organized according to four categories: disaster-causing factors, elements at risk, hazard-inducing environment, and emergency management. Finite element analysis and computational fluid dynamics are used to quantify pipeline mechanical response and hydraulic-scour effects, and the resulting physical responses are embedded in a dynamic Bayesian network as state evidence and transition constraints. Triangular fuzzy numbers are used to process expert evaluations and determine node probabilities. The resulting multi-mechanism simulation-Bayesian inference framework quantifies the accident chain from earthquake loading to pipeline deformation, leakage, fire or explosion, and emergency control. Forward reasoning estimates the probability of each scenario state, sensitivity analysis identifies key drivers, including strong earthquakes triggering landslides and rainfall during flood seasons, and disaster-chain analysis clarifies the dominant causative pathways. The framework provides a reproducible basis for scenario analysis, consequence assessment, monitoring and early warning, and emergency response planning for buried oil and gas pipelines exposed to seismic hazards in water-network regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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34 pages, 11900 KB

Open AccessArticle

Wellbore Size Effect and Borehole Instability Response Characteristics of Fractured Sandstone in SP Gas Storage

by Zhi Chang, Tian’en Liu, Hengyu Song, Hong Zhang, Xinglong Cao, Jilong Ma and Yingjian Xiao

Processes 2026, 14(13), 2201; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14132201 - 6 Jul 2026

Viewed by 405

Abstract

The SP Gas Storage is situated in the SP-Xingcheng structural belt, where volcanic gas reservoirs are widely distributed and characterized by abundant primary microfractures and pore structures. The developed pores and fractures degrade the petrophysical properties of reservoirs and render volcanic basement rocks highly abrasive. In addition, pore-fracture systems alter the internal stress field of formations, which substantially increases the risk of wellbore instability and the collapse of injection and production wells. This poses great challenges to drilling operations and the safe running of the gas storage in this block. To systematically clarify the wellbore instability mechanism of large-diameter wellbores and address the drilling engineering problems in the study area, a dedicated experimental scheme for large-diameter wellbore stability was designed in this work. Laboratory true triaxial tests were conducted on wellbore stability with different borehole sizes, and basic mechanical parameter tests of reservoir rocks were also completed. This study systematically investigates the evolution of rock mechanical parameters and the surrounding stress-reconstruction mechanism induced by pore-forming unloading and identifies the dominant internal mechanism of wellbore instability under large-diameter conditions. A clear distinction is made between the formation stress redistribution caused by stratum exposure and unloading during drilling and formation stress evolution during the subsequent injection and production of the gas storage. On this basis, the fracture initiation threshold, propagation paths, and morphological evolution in thin interbedded sandstone–mudstone reservoirs are further analyzed. Combined with rock mechanical parameters and in situ stress balance conditions, criteria and quantitative evaluation methods for wellbore instability discrimination are finally established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 6227 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Evaluation Model for Mobile Offshore Drilling Units Based on Lagrange-Optimized Combination Weights

by Bin Chen, Shuhai Liu, Jiakang Wang, Qianyu Li, Kunxiang Liu, De Yan, Xiangqin Chen and Gengchen Li

Processes 2026, 14(13), 2102; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14132102 - 28 Jun 2026

Viewed by 295

Abstract

Due to the diverse functions of supporting equipment and numerous operational parameters, offshore mobile drilling units are difficult to evaluate through a systematic and comprehensive quantitative approach. Based on an analysis of the hierarchical structure of key equipment functions, this study proposes a comprehensive quantitative evaluation model for operational capability of offshore mobile drilling units by integrating the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the improved CRITIC method. To minimize the deviation between subjective and objective weights, the Lagrange multiplier method is employed for optimal weight combination. Taking mobile drilling platforms currently in service in the South China Sea as the research object, the evaluation criteria are identified to include four main aspects: rated platform capacity, actual operational performance, equipment failure rate, and economic efficiency. The case study results indicate that the evaluation method effectively synthesizes the distinct characteristics of both subjective and objective evaluations, thereby enhancing the scientific rigor and robustness of the decision-making process. The robustness of the proposed model was validated through comparative analysis. Furthermore, dynamic optimal selection charts under varying water and well depths are generated. These visual tools enable operators to identify the most suitable platform for specific operational scenarios, providing a scientific basis for engineering decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 7110 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Injection–Production Parameters in Inter-Fracture Gas Injection for Horizontal Wells of the Changqing Yuan 284 Tight Oil Reservoir

by Lingfang Tan, Jin Yang, Gengchen Li, Hong Zhu, Li He, Wei Xiong, Rui Shen, Yi Yang, Qiwen Zhan and Shanfeng Ke

Processes 2026, 14(13), 2075; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14132075 - 25 Jun 2026

Viewed by 293

Abstract

Conventional depletion development and waterflooding are often ineffective in tight oil reservoirs because of their ultra-low permeability, complex fracture–matrix architecture, and limited fluid mobility. Although inter-fracture CO₂ flooding has demonstrated considerable potential for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), the coupled effects of key operational parameters on reservoir pressure evolution, fracture–matrix mass transfer, and oil mobilization remain inadequately understood. In this study, a multi-component compositional simulation model, constrained by detailed geological characterization and calibrated through production history matching of the Yuan 284 block in the Changqing Oilfield, was developed to systematically evaluate the effects of CO₂ injection rate, injection–production time ratio, and shut-in duration on recovery performance and reservoir response. The results show that increasing the CO₂ injection rate from 1000 to 50,000 m³/d improves the recovery factor from 40.49% to 49.90%; however, the incremental recovery gain decreases markedly beyond 30,000 m³/d, which is aggravated by enhanced gas channeling through high-conductivity fracture pathways. Analysis of the injection–production time ratio indicates that an optimal ratio of 0.50 provides the best balance between reservoir energy replenishment and oil displacement efficiency, whereas excessively small ratios result in insufficient pressure support and reduced recovery. In contrast, extending the shut-in duration consistently lowers recovery performance by weakening fracture–matrix mass transfer and promoting pressure dissipation, demonstrating that immediate production following injection is more effective than prolonged soaking under the investigated conditions. The optimized operating scheme yields a recovery factor of 48.87%, substantially exceeding the representative waterflooding recovery level of 35.20%. These findings clarify the mechanisms controlling pressure maintenance, CO₂ utilization efficiency, and volumetric sweep during inter-fracture asynchronous CO₂ flooding, and provide both theoretical insights and practical guidance for the efficient development of ultra-low-permeability fractured tight oil reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 8642 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Annular Pressure Under Wellhead Uplift Load in Deepwater Subsea Wells

by Shen Guan, Zhiqiang Hu, Gengchen Li, Xuyue Chen, Minghe Zhang and Yamei Hao

Processes 2026, 14(11), 1714; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14111714 - 25 May 2026

Viewed by 347

Abstract

To address the large deviation in annular trapped pressure prediction during testing and production stages of deepwater high-temperature and high-pressure wells, conventional models neglect the elastic uplift effect of the wellhead. This study overcomes the limitations of the plane strain model and establishes a three-dimensional thermos–hydro–mechanical coupled annular pressure prediction model based on the longitudinal stiffness constraint of the subsea wellhead. The deepwater wellbore–formation system is treated as a composite elastic structure. A generalized plane strain assumption is introduced to define the elastic boundary conditions and longitudinal segmentation characteristics of the wellhead. Based on generalized Hooke’s law, the three-dimensional stress–strain constitutive equation of casing is modified. A displacement model incorporating axial–radial coupling is derived, and an equivalent longitudinal stiffness coefficient of the wellhead is introduced. A coupled axial force equilibrium equation and a three-dimensional annular volume compatibility equation are established. Considering multi-annulus coupling, a volume compatibility matrix equation is formulated, and a successive approximation iterative algorithm with a relaxation factor is developed. Using a deepwater high-temperature, high-pressure gas well in the South China Sea as a case study, the effects of wellhead stiffness, free section length, and annular temperature rise on annular pressure are investigated via a single-variable method and compared with traditional rigid models. Results show that the subsea wellhead exhibits elastic uplift behavior. Its longitudinal stiffness has a reverse S-shaped nonlinear influence on annular pressure. Increasing the free section length significantly reduces annular pressure. The proposed model predicts values 17–21% lower than traditional rigid models, providing a more realistic representation of annular pressure evolution. The findings offer theoretical support and engineering guidance for deepwater well integrity design and annular pressure risk management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 6665 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Multistage Amplification Circuit for Coils with Independent Parallel Feeds for Through-Coupling in Metal Pipelines

by Shayuan Yang, Laibin Zhang, Jingtian Qin, Wei Chen, Yu Song, Lei Li, Kun Jiang, Gengchen Li and Xiaoxiao Zhu

Processes 2026, 14(10), 1542; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14101542 - 10 May 2026

Viewed by 469

Abstract

To address the severe shielding of conventional electromagnetic signals by metallic pipelines and the inherent design trade-off under fixed-voltage excitation, whereby increasing coil size suppresses current and limits magnetic field intensity, this study proposes an independently parallel-fed multistage coil enhancement scheme for the transmitter of through-wall magnetic induction communication. Based on electromagnetic theory and COMSOL6.3 simulations, a coupled analysis framework for multistage coils was established to systematically evaluate the effects of axial partitioning, radial partitioning, nonuniform turn allocation, and magnetic-core loading on branch-current amplitude and phase consistency as well as spatial magnetic field intensity. The results show that, under in-phase, equal-frequency excitation, the resultant magnetic field intensity increases approximately linearly with the number of partitions. The partition scheme significantly alters the mutual inductance distribution among sub-coils, thereby affecting current synchronization and magnetic field synthesis efficiency. The introduction of a high-permeability magnetic core markedly improves the amplitude and phase consistency of the radially partitioned structure and enhances output stability. Considering magnetic field output, current synchronization, and engineering feasibility, the axial–radial hybrid four-partition structure with a magnetic core was identified as the preferred configuration. These findings provide a theoretical basis and structural guidance for transmitter design in low-frequency through-wall magnetic induction communication under metallic shielding conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 7752 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Mechanical Behaviors of Conglomerate, Considering Stress State and Gravel Content

by Quan Zhang, Jun Wei, Ning Li, Kaifeng Chen, Hui Yan, Liang Wen, Fang Shi, Tonglin Song and Yandong Yang

Processes 2026, 14(9), 1403; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14091403 - 27 Apr 2026

Viewed by 371

Abstract

Gravel particles are widely developed and randomly distributed in deep reservoirs of the Tarim Oilfield, western China. The mechanical behavior of conglomerate, the main component of the gravel layer, under varying confining pressure and different gravel content, remains poorly understood, especially in terms of the microscopic aspect, which limits the analysis of the variation patterns of underground engineering parameters. This study conducts triaxial compression tests on outcrop specimens from various stress levels to analyze the effects of stress state and stress differences on the mechanical parameters and failure modes. After that, a kind of numerical modeling method based on the discrete element method (DEM) is proposed, which considers the random distribution of gravel particles, to study the microscopic observation of mechanical characteristics and crack propagation of conglomerate under different stress state conditions. The experimental and numerical simulation results indicate that the horizontal strain before failure remains nearly constant in the axial direction while increasing linearly for the horizontal stress. And, it was observed that the volumetric failure was accompanied by gravel fragmentation, sliding, and falling. Numerical simulations reveal that cementation strength and gravel content significantly influence mechanical properties and failure modes, which are the main factors. This study provides some useful references for further understanding of the mechanical behavior and failure mechanisms of rocks in the gravel layer, in particular, the numerical modeling method for heterogeneous materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 2330 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Dual-Core Driving Mechanism of Intelligent Oilfield Development: From Data Perception to Decision-Optimized Ecosystems

by Junxiang Wang, Fei Li, Jing Hu, Xincheng Ma, Siyan Hong, Jun Luo, Tianyu Bao, Shuoyao Dong, Yuming Yang, Jun Chu, Yushin Evgeny Sergeevich and Li He

Processes 2026, 14(7), 1120; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14071120 - 30 Mar 2026

Viewed by 843

Abstract

Intelligent oilfield development is experiencing an increasingly deep integration between localized automation and integrated, data-centric ecosystems. To systematically delineate the knowledge structure and technological trajectories within this field, this study analyzes 225 high-quality publications. This study innovatively employs a custom toolchain based on the Dart language for heterogeneous data cleaning and standardization, ensuring high accuracy and scientific rigor in the analysis samples. The investigation reveals a distinct dual-core driving mechanism underpinning recent advancements: a cognitive cluster centered on Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning for complex data interpretation and prediction, and a decision-making cluster focused on Operational Optimization and Predictive Modeling for production enhancement. These two clusters respectively encompass eight sub-clusters: “artificial intelligence,” “machine learning,” “deep learning,” “performance,” “enhanced oil recovery,” “model,” “optimization,” and “predication.” This dual-core framework signifies a paradigm shift from experience-based practices to a synergistic “AI-enabled + mathematical optimization” approach. The analysis further explores emerging trends, including the potential of deep reinforcement learning for dynamic decision-making and the critical role of cybersecurity and model robustness in safety risk management. By mapping the current landscape and core mechanisms, this study provides a foundational reference for researchers and practitioners to navigate the future development of intelligent oilfields towards more resilient and efficient ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 3783 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Influence of Crude Oil Emulsion Types on Hydrate Formation

by Jie Yuan, Liangchen Lv, Wen Cheng, Lin Sun, Yulin Zhu, Qian Huang, Hang Yang and Xueyuan Long

Processes 2026, 14(5), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14050809 - 2 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 612

Abstract

Methane hydrate formation in multiphase transportation pipelines represents a critical challenge to flow assurance under low-temperature conditions. Gaining insight into the kinetic effects of crude oil on hydrate formation aids in developing countermeasures for mixed oil–gas transportation. For this purpose, experiments were carried out at 50 vol% to 90 vol% water cut and pressure of 6.0–7.5 MPa under crude oil–methane–water systems. Results demonstrate that crude oil has kinetic inhibition on hydrate formation, which is caused by mass transfer resistance in emulsion gels. The gas consumption increased by 81.38% when the water cut increased from 60 vol% to 70 vol%. Tween-80 converts crude oil W/O emulsions into O/W emulsions. The addition of Tween-80 to a 50 vol% water cut system resulted in only a 10.04% increase in gas consumption compared to the 90% water cut condition. The results indicate that Tween-80 significantly promotes the formation of hydrates. Furthermore, analysis of gas consumption reveals that the O/W system is more conducive to hydrate growth than the W/O system. Observations through the viewing window revealed that lowering the temperature and hydrates synergistically disrupt the stability of the emulsion. This is caused by the phase transition of wax and asphaltene in crude oil. These findings provide insights for developing flow assurance strategies in crude oil multiphase transportation pipeline operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmentally Friendly Production of Energy from Natural Gas Hydrates, 2nd Edition)

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