Pathogens

14 pages, 412 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Group A Streptococcal Infections in Pediatric Age: Updates about a Re-Emerging Pathogen

by Giada Maria Di Pietro, Paola Marchisio, Pietro Bosi, Massimo Luca Castellazzi and Paul Lemieux

Pathogens 2024, 13(5), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13050350 - 24 Apr 2024

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9189

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) presents a significant global health burden due to its diverse clinical manifestations ranging from mild infections to life-threatening invasive diseases. While historically stable, the incidence of GAS infections declined during the COVID-19 pandemic but resurged following the relaxation of [...] Read more.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) presents a significant global health burden due to its diverse clinical manifestations ranging from mild infections to life-threatening invasive diseases. While historically stable, the incidence of GAS infections declined during the COVID-19 pandemic but resurged following the relaxation of preventive measures. Despite general responsiveness to β-lactam antibiotics, there remains an urgent need for a GAS vaccine due to its substantial global disease burden, particularly in low-resource settings. Vaccine development faces numerous challenges, including the extensive strain diversity, the lack of suitable animal models for testing, potential autoimmune complications, and the need for global distribution, while addressing socioeconomic disparities in vaccine access. Several vaccine candidates are in various stages of development, offering hope for effective prevention strategies in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Re-emerging Infections in Pediatrics)

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20 pages, 1913 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Co-Infections and Superinfections between HIV-1 and Other Human Viruses at the Cellular Level

by Chiara Acchioni, Silvia Sandini, Marta Acchioni and Marco Sgarbanti

Pathogens 2024, 13(5), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13050349 - 24 Apr 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4970

Abstract

Co-infection or superinfection of the host by two or more virus species is a common event, potentially leading to viral interference, viral synergy, or neutral interaction. The simultaneous presence of two or more viruses, even distantly related, within the same cell depends upon [...] Read more.

Co-infection or superinfection of the host by two or more virus species is a common event, potentially leading to viral interference, viral synergy, or neutral interaction. The simultaneous presence of two or more viruses, even distantly related, within the same cell depends upon viral tropism, i.e., the entry of viruses via receptors present on the same cell type. Subsequently, productive infection depends on the ability of these viruses to replicate efficiently in the same cellular environment. HIV-1 initially targets CCR5-expressing tissue memory CD4⁺ T cells, and in the absence of early cART initiation, a co-receptor switch may occur, leading to the infection of naïve and memory CXCR4-expressing CD4⁺ T cells. HIV-1 infection of macrophages at the G₁ stage of their cell cycle also occurs in vivo, broadening the possible occurrence of co-infections between HIV-1 and other viruses at the cellular level. Moreover, HIV-1-infected DCs can transfer the virus to CD4⁺ T cells via trans-infection. This review focuses on the description of reported co-infections within the same cell between HIV-1 and other human pathogenic, non-pathogenic, or low-pathogenic viruses, including HIV-2, HTLV, HSV, HHV-6/-7, GBV-C, Dengue, and Ebola viruses, also discussing the possible reciprocal interactions in terms of virus replication and virus pseudotyping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: HIV and Viral Co-infections)

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12 pages, 1729 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Trends in Non-Tuberculous Mycobacterial Lung Disease and Treatment Outcomes in a Low-Tuberculosis Prevalence Setting: A Retrospective Analysis

by Biplob Kumar Mohanty, Tomas Mikal Lind Eagan, Bernt Bøgvald Aarli, Dag Harald Skutlaberg and Tehmina Mustafa

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040344 - 22 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2562

Abstract

Background: Information on the management of non-tuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) lung infection and disease is scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate the trends in NTM lung infections, and the factors associated with the initiation of treatment and treatment outcomes. Methods: A [...] Read more.

Background: Information on the management of non-tuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) lung infection and disease is scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate the trends in NTM lung infections, and the factors associated with the initiation of treatment and treatment outcomes. Methods: A retrospective analysis was carried out on patient medical records from Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway, from 2000 to 2021. Results: Among 154 patients with NTM lung infection, the majority (70%) were older than 65 years, and 49% had an underlying pulmonary comorbidity. The most frequently observed mycobacterial species was M. avium complex (MAC), followed by M. malmoense and M. abscessus. In total, 72 (47%) patients received antibiotic treatment. Patients with high symptom scores, aged below 65, and with MAC infection had more than three times the odds of receiving antibiotic treatment. A favourable response and culture conversion was observed in 53 of 72 (74%) patients. However, 17 (32%) of them had a relapse. Out of 82 patients who did not receive treatment, 45 (55%) had spontaneous culture conversion, and 8 (18%) of them had a relapse. No factor was identified to be significantly associated with a favourable treatment response. Conclusion: A favourable response to treatment was seen in 74% of patients with a high relapse rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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30 pages, 7697 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Isospora and Lankesterella Parasites (Eimeriidae, Apicomplexa) of Passeriform Birds in Europe: Infection Rates, Phylogeny, and Pathogenicity

by Carina Keckeisen, Alžbeta Šujanová, Tanja Himmel, Julia Matt, Nora Nedorost, Carolina R. F. Chagas, Herbert Weissenböck and Josef Harl

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040337 - 18 Apr 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4269

Abstract

Wild birds are common hosts to numerous intracellular parasites such as single-celled eukaryotes of the family Eimeriidae (order Eucoccidiorida, phylum Apicomplexa). We investigated the infection rates, phylogeny, and pathogenicity of Isospora and Lankesterella parasites in wild and captive passerine birds. Blood and tissue [...] Read more.

Wild birds are common hosts to numerous intracellular parasites such as single-celled eukaryotes of the family Eimeriidae (order Eucoccidiorida, phylum Apicomplexa). We investigated the infection rates, phylogeny, and pathogenicity of Isospora and Lankesterella parasites in wild and captive passerine birds. Blood and tissue samples of 815 wild and 15 deceased captive birds from Europe were tested using polymerase chain reaction and partial sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome b and cytochrome c oxidase I and the nuclear 18S rRNA gene. The infection rate for Lankesterella in wild birds was 10.7% compared to 5.8% for Isospora. Chromogenic in situ hybridization with probes targeting the parasites’ 18S rRNA was employed to identify the parasites’ presence in multiple organs, and hematoxylin–eosin staining was performed to visualize the parasite stages and assess associated lesions. Isospora parasites were mainly identified in the intestine, spleen, and liver. Extraintestinal tissue stages of Isospora were accompanied by predominantly lymphohistiocytic inflammation of varying severity. Lankesterella was most frequently detected in the spleen, lung, and brain; however, infected birds presented only a low parasite burden without associated pathological changes. These findings contribute to our understanding of Isospora and Lankesterella parasites in wild birds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Pathology and Parasitic Diseases of Animals)

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15 pages, 1318 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Dengue-Associated Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis: A Narrative Review of Its Identification and Treatment

by Kay Choong See

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040332 - 17 Apr 2024

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8675

Abstract

Dengue’s lack of specific treatments beyond supportive care prompts a focus on uncovering additional pathophysiological factors. Dengue-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), characterized by dysregulated macrophage activation and cytokine storm, remains underexplored despite its potential to worsen disease severity and mortality. While rare, dengue-associated HLH [...] Read more.

Dengue’s lack of specific treatments beyond supportive care prompts a focus on uncovering additional pathophysiological factors. Dengue-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH), characterized by dysregulated macrophage activation and cytokine storm, remains underexplored despite its potential to worsen disease severity and mortality. While rare, dengue-associated HLH disproportionately affects severe cases, significantly impacting mortality rates. To mitigate high mortality, early identification and familiarity with dengue-associated HLH are imperative for prompt treatment by clinicians. This narrative review therefore aims to examine the current clinical and therapeutic knowledge on dengue-associated HLH, and act as a resource for clinicians to improve their management of HLH associated with severe dengue. Dengue-associated HLH should be considered for all cases of severe dengue and may be suspected based on the presence of prolonged or recurrent fever for >7 days, or anemia without intravascular hemolysis or massive bleeding. Diagnosis relies on fulfilling at least five of the eight HLH-2004 criteria. Treatment predominantly involves short courses (3–4 days) of high-dose steroids (e.g., dexamethasone 10 mg/m²), with additional therapies considered in more severe presentations. Notably, outcomes can be favorable with steroid therapy alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Bacterial and Viral Pathogens on Sepsis Prevalence and Outcome)

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10 pages, 217 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development of a Targeted NGS Assay for the Detection of Respiratory Pathogens including SARS-CoV-2 in Felines

by Jobin J. Kattoor, Mothomang Mlalazi-Oyinloye, Sarah M. Nemser and Rebecca P. Wilkes

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040335 - 17 Apr 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3473

Abstract

Acute respiratory diseases in felines can be attributed to a diverse range of pathogens. The recent emergence of novel viruses, particularly SARS-CoV-2 and its variants, has also been associated with respiratory ailments in cats and other pets, underscoring the need for a highly [...] Read more.

Acute respiratory diseases in felines can be attributed to a diverse range of pathogens. The recent emergence of novel viruses, particularly SARS-CoV-2 and its variants, has also been associated with respiratory ailments in cats and other pets, underscoring the need for a highly sensitive diagnostic assay capable of concurrently detecting multiple respiratory pathogens. In this study, we developed a targeted next generation sequencing panel using Ion Torrent Ampliseq technology to detect multiple respiratory pathogens, including recent SARS-CoV-2 variants and Feline herpesvirus-1, Feline calicivirus, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Mycoplasmopsis (previously Mycoplasma) felis, and Chlamydia felis. A PCR amplification-based library preparation, employing primers designed for pathogen target regions, was synthesized and divided into two pools, followed by sequencing and assembly to a repertoire of target pathogen genomes. Analytical sensitivity was assessed based on Ct values from real-time PCR for the corresponding pathogens, indicating an equivalent detection limit. Most of the pathogens under study were positively identified to a limit of approximately Ct 36, whereas for Feline herpesvirus-1 and SARS-CoV-2, positive reads were observed in samples with a Ct of 37. Based on a limited number of samples, the diagnostic sensitivity values for the SARS-CoV-2, Feline herpesvirus-1, and M. felis samples were 100% with no false negative results. The diagnostic specificity of SARS-CoV-2, Feline herpesvirus-1, Feline calicivirus, and C. felis were 100%. Importantly, none of the target primers exhibited non-specific amplification, ensuring the absence of false positive results for other pathogens within the study. Additionally, the assay’s specificity was validated by cross-referencing the raw sequencing data with established databases like BLAST, affirming the high specificity of the targeted Next-Generation Sequencing (tNGS) assay. Variations in the sequencing reads of different pathogens were observed when subjected to diverse extraction methods. Rigorous assessment of the assay’s reliability involved reproducibility across testing personnel and repeated runs. The developed assay’s clinical applicability was tested using samples submitted to the diagnostic laboratory from cat shelters and suspected cases. The developed targeted next-generation sequencing methodology empowers the detection of multiple respiratory pathogens manifesting similar clinical symptoms while offering confirmation of results through genome sequencing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnostics of Animal Viral Infectious Diseases)

12 pages, 859 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hepatitis C Prevalence and Birth Outcomes among Pregnant Women in the United States: A 2010–2020 Population Study

by Paul Wasuwanich, Songyos Rajborirug, Robert S. Egerman, Tony S. Wen and Wikrom Karnsakul

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040321 - 14 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2815

Abstract

Background: The rates of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection have increased in the pregnant population. We aim to describe the age-stratified clinical outcomes and trends for inpatient pregnant women with HCV in the U.S. Methods: We utilized hospitalization data from the 2010–2020 National [...] Read more.

Background: The rates of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection have increased in the pregnant population. We aim to describe the age-stratified clinical outcomes and trends for inpatient pregnant women with HCV in the U.S. Methods: We utilized hospitalization data from the 2010–2020 National Inpatient Sample. Pregnancy and HCV were identified according to their ICD-9/ICD-10 codes. Demographic and clinical data including cirrhosis, mortality, preterm birth, and stillbirth were extracted. The age groups were defined as ≤18, 19–25, 26–34, and ≥35 years. Results: We identified 195,852 inpatient pregnant women with HCV, among whom 0.7% were ≤18, 26.7% were 19–25, 57.9% were 26–34, and 14.8% were ≥35 years of age. The hospitalization rates of pregnant women with HCV increased overall between 2010 and 2020, with the highest velocity in the 26–34 age group. The 26–34 age group had the highest HCV burden, with an age-standardized hospitalization rate of 660 per 100,000 in 2020. The rates of mortality and cirrhosis were significantly higher in the HCV cohort and increased further with age (p < 0.05). Among the HCV pregnant cohort, 151,017 (77.1%) delivered during hospitalization. Preterm births and stillbirths were significantly higher in the HCV pregnant cohort compared to the controls across multiple age groups (p < 0.05). Minority race/ethnicity was associated with increased mortality, cirrhosis, preterm birth, and stillbirth (p < 0.001). HIV co-infection, hepatitis B co-infection, and diabetes increased the odds of cirrhosis (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Hospitalizations of pregnant women with HCV are escalating, and these women are at increased risk of mortality, cirrhosis, preterm birth, and stillbirth with modifying factors, exacerbating risks further. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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52 pages, 1537 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Emerging Approaches for Mitigating Biofilm-Formation-Associated Infections in Farm, Wild, and Companion Animals

by Daniela Araújo, Ana Rita Silva, Rúben Fernandes, Patrícia Serra, Maria Margarida Barros, Ana Maria Campos, Ricardo Oliveira, Sónia Silva, Carina Almeida and Joana Castro

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040320 - 13 Apr 2024

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6160

Abstract

The importance of addressing the problem of biofilms in farm, wild, and companion animals lies in their pervasive impact on animal health and welfare. Biofilms, as resilient communities of microorganisms, pose a persistent challenge in causing infections and complicating treatment strategies. Recognizing and [...] Read more.

The importance of addressing the problem of biofilms in farm, wild, and companion animals lies in their pervasive impact on animal health and welfare. Biofilms, as resilient communities of microorganisms, pose a persistent challenge in causing infections and complicating treatment strategies. Recognizing and understanding the importance of mitigating biofilm formation is critical to ensuring the welfare of animals in a variety of settings, from farms to the wild and companion animals. Effectively addressing this issue not only improves the overall health of individual animals, but also contributes to the broader goals of sustainable agriculture, wildlife conservation, and responsible pet ownership. This review examines the current understanding of biofilm formation in animal diseases and elucidates the complex processes involved. Recognizing the limitations of traditional antibiotic treatments, mechanisms of resistance associated with biofilms are explored. The focus is on alternative therapeutic strategies to control biofilm, with illuminating case studies providing valuable context and practical insights. In conclusion, the review highlights the importance of exploring emerging approaches to mitigate biofilm formation in animals. It consolidates existing knowledge, highlights gaps in understanding, and encourages further research to address this critical facet of animal health. The comprehensive perspective provided by this review serves as a foundation for future investigations and interventions to improve the management of biofilm-associated infections in diverse animal populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Strategies to Counteract Microbial Biofilm Growth)

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18 pages, 288 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Mycotoxins and Cytotoxicity of Airborne Molds Isolated from the Zoological Garden—Screening Research

by Kinga Plewa-Tutaj, Magdalena Twarużek, Robert Kosicki and Ewelina Soszczyńska

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040294 - 30 Mar 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3853

Abstract

Objective: The objective of this paper was to assess the airborne mold contamination, secondary metabolite profiles, and cytotoxicity of the dominant fungal species isolated from the air in selected rooms at a Zoological Garden. Materials and methods: Fungal concentrations were measured with MAS-100 [...] Read more.

Objective: The objective of this paper was to assess the airborne mold contamination, secondary metabolite profiles, and cytotoxicity of the dominant fungal species isolated from the air in selected rooms at a Zoological Garden. Materials and methods: Fungal concentrations were measured with MAS-100 air samplers. The collected airborne fungi were identified using a combination of morphological and molecular methods. The cytotoxicity of 84 strains belonging to two Penicillium and Aspergillus genera was determined using the quantitative colorimetric MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium salt) assay. The mycotoxins were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a mass spectrometry detector. Results: The ITS gene was amplified and sequenced to identify the 132 species. For mycotoxicological and cytotoxicity analyses, 52 Penicillium isolates and 32 Aspergillus representatives were selected. Cytotoxicity was confirmed in 97.6% of cases analyzed. Using the LC-MS/MS method, 42 out of 84 strains produced at least one of the following toxins: ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, patulin, gliotoxin, roquefortine C, griseofulvin, sterigmatocystin, fumonisin B2, moniliformin, and mycophenolic acid. Conclusions: Analytical methods for assessing the presence of mycotoxins in fungal isolates collected directly from the air have proven to be an effective tool. Our research provides new information on the occurrence of potentially toxin-producing molds within a zoo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detection of Indoor Fungi: Part II)

11 pages, 1395 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Prospects for Controlling Hepatitis B Globally

by Vicente Soriano, Víctor Moreno-Torres, Ana Treviño, Fernando de Jesús, Octavio Corral and Carmen de Mendoza

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040291 - 29 Mar 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5155

Abstract

Infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) is highly prevalent globally. Over 250 million people suffer from chronic hepatitis B, and more than 800,000 patients die each year due to hepatitis B complications, including liver cancer. Although protective HBV vaccines are recommended for [...] Read more.

Infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) is highly prevalent globally. Over 250 million people suffer from chronic hepatitis B, and more than 800,000 patients die each year due to hepatitis B complications, including liver cancer. Although protective HBV vaccines are recommended for all newborns, global coverage is suboptimal. In adults, sexual transmission is by far the most frequent route of contagion. The WHO estimates that 1.5 million new HBV infections occur annually. Oral nucleos(t)ide analogues entecavir and tenofovir are the most frequent antivirals prescribed as HBV therapy. Almost all patients adherent to the medication achieve undetectable plasma viremia beyond 6 months of monotherapy. However, less than 5% achieve anti-HBs seroconversion, and viral rebound occurs following drug discontinuation. Therefore, nucleos(t)ide analogues need to be lifelong. New long-acting formulations of tenofovir and entecavir are being developed that will maximize treatment benefit and overcome adherence barriers. Furthermore, new antiviral agents are in development, including entry inhibitors, capside assembly modulators, and RNA interference molecules. The use of combination therapy pursues a functional HBV cure, meaning it is negative for both circulating HBV-DNA and HBsAg. Even when this goal is achieved, the cccDNA reservoir within infected hepatocytes remains a signal of past infection, and HBV can reactivate under immune suppression. Therefore, new gene therapies, including gene editing, are eagerly being pursued to silence or definitively disrupt HBV genomes within infected hepatocytes and, in this way, ultimately cure hepatitis B. At this time, three actions can be taken to push HBV eradication globally: (1) expand universal newborn HBV vaccination; (2) perform once-in-life testing of all adults to identify susceptible HBV persons that could be vaccinated (or re-vaccinated) and unveil asymptomatic carriers that could benefit from treatment; and (3) provide earlier antiviral therapy to chronic HBV carriers, as being aviremic reduces the risk of both clinical progression and transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections of Humans: Epidemiology and Control)

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23 pages, 3559 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Complete Rescue of HTLV-1_p12KO Infectivity by Depletion of Monocytes Together with NK and CD8⁺ T Cells

by Anna Gutowska, Sarkis Sarkis, Mohammad Arif Rahman, Katherine C. Goldfarbmuren, Ramona Moles, Massimiliano Bissa, Melvin Doster, Robyn Washington-Parks, Katherine McKinnon, Isabela Silva de Castro, Luca Schifanella, Genoveffa Franchini and Cynthia A. Pise-Masison

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040292 - 29 Mar 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3402

Abstract

The transient depletion of monocytes alone prior to exposure of macaques to HTLV-1 enhances both HTLV-1_WT (wild type) and HTLV-1_p12KO (Orf-1 knockout) infectivity, but seroconversion to either virus is not sustained over time, suggesting a progressive decrease in virus expression. These [...] Read more.

The transient depletion of monocytes alone prior to exposure of macaques to HTLV-1 enhances both HTLV-1_WT (wild type) and HTLV-1_p12KO (Orf-1 knockout) infectivity, but seroconversion to either virus is not sustained over time, suggesting a progressive decrease in virus expression. These results raise the hypotheses that either HTLV-1 persistence depends on a monocyte reservoir or monocyte depletion provides a transient immune evasion benefit. To test these hypotheses, we simultaneously depleted NK cells, CD8⁺ T cells, and monocytes (triple depletion) prior to exposure to HTLV-1_WT or HTLV-1_p12KO. Remarkably, triple depletion resulted in exacerbation of infection by both viruses and complete rescue of HTLV-1_p12KO infectivity. Following triple depletion, we observed rapid and sustained seroconversion, high titers of antibodies against HTLV-1 p24Gag, and frequent detection of viral DNA in the blood and tissues of all animals when compared with depletion of only CD8⁺ and NK cells, or monocytes alone. The infection of macaques with HTLV-1_WT or HTLV-1_p12KO was associated with higher plasma levels of IL-10 after 21 weeks, while IL-6, IFN-γ, IL-18, and IL-1β were only elevated in animals infected with HTLV-1_WT. The repeat depletion of monocytes, NK, and CD8⁺ cells seven months following the first exposure to HTLV-1 did not further exacerbate viral replication. These results underscore the contribution of monocytes in orchestrating anti-viral immunity. Indeed, the absence of orf-1 expression was fully compensated by the simultaneous depletion of CD8⁺ T cells, NK cells, and monocytes, underlining the primary role of orf-1 in hijacking host immunity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Directions in HTLV-1 Research)

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16 pages, 1035 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Zoonotic Threats: The (Re)emergence of Cercarial Dermatitis, Its Dynamics, and Impact in Europe

by Maria Teresa Bispo, Manuela Calado, Isabel Larguinho Maurício, Pedro Manuel Ferreira and Silvana Belo

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 282; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040282 - 26 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5192

Abstract

Cercarial dermatitis (CD), or “Swimmer’s itch” as it is also known, is a waterborne illness caused by a blood fluke from the family Schistosomatidae. It occurs when cercariae of trematode species that do not have humans as their definitive host accidentally penetrate human [...] Read more.

Cercarial dermatitis (CD), or “Swimmer’s itch” as it is also known, is a waterborne illness caused by a blood fluke from the family Schistosomatidae. It occurs when cercariae of trematode species that do not have humans as their definitive host accidentally penetrate human skin (in an aquatic environment) and trigger allergic symptoms at the site of contact. It is an emerging zoonosis that occurs through water and is often overlooked during differential diagnosis. Some of the factors contributing to the emergence of diseases like CD are related to global warming, which brings about climate change, water eutrophication, the colonization of ponds by snails susceptible to the parasite, and sunlight exposure in the summer, associated with migratory bird routes. Therefore, with the increase in tourism, especially at fluvial beaches, it is relevant to analyze the current epidemiological scenario of CD in European countries and the potential regions at risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue One Health and Neglected Zoonotic Diseases)

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10 pages, 466 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Revealing the Prevalence of Toxoplasma in Sierra Morena’s Wild Boar: An ELISA-Based Study Using Meat Juice

by José María Castillo-Castillo, Pablo José Rufino-Moya, Álvaro Martínez-Moreno, Ángela Salvador Castaño, Francisco Javier Martínez-Moreno and Rafael Zafra Leva

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040281 - 26 Mar 2024

Viewed by 2110

Abstract

This research work focused on the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild boar from the Sierra Morena region. We conducted an ELISA analysis using meat juice samples. A total of 892 samples from six hunting seasons (2013–2019) were collected from the provinces that [...] Read more.

This research work focused on the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild boar from the Sierra Morena region. We conducted an ELISA analysis using meat juice samples. A total of 892 samples from six hunting seasons (2013–2019) were collected from the provinces that constitute the Sierra Morena Mountain range. These samples were analyzed using the Pigtype^® ELISA kit, specifically developed for detecting T. gondii in meat juice. The overall prevalence of T. gondii in Sierra Morena was 23.2%. The highest prevalences were observed in Córdoba (31.6%) and Jaén (25.9%). These provinces exhibit the highest density of wild boar as well as the greatest presence of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Further in-depth studies are necessary, but it appears that the presence of wild felids and scavenger behavior may be associated with this observation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasitic Diseases of Domestic, Wild, and Exotic Animals (Volume II))

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16 pages, 1302 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Staphylococcus aureus Infections and Human Intestinal Microbiota

by Aotong Liu, Shari Garrett, Wanqing Hong and Jilei Zhang

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040276 - 24 Mar 2024

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 15436

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common pathogen that can cause many human diseases, such as skin infection, food poisoning, endocarditis, and sepsis. These diseases can be minor infections or life-threatening, requiring complex medical management resulting in substantial healthcare costs. Meanwhile, as [...] Read more.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common pathogen that can cause many human diseases, such as skin infection, food poisoning, endocarditis, and sepsis. These diseases can be minor infections or life-threatening, requiring complex medical management resulting in substantial healthcare costs. Meanwhile, as the critically ignored “organ,” the intestinal microbiome greatly impacts physiological health, not only in gastrointestinal diseases but also in disorders beyond the gut. However, the correlation between S. aureus infection and intestinal microbial homeostasis is largely unknown. Here, we summarized the recent progress in understanding S. aureus infections and their interactions with the microbiome in the intestine. These summarizations will help us understand the mechanisms behind these infections and crosstalk and the challenges we are facing now, which could contribute to preventing S. aureus infections, effective treatment investigation, and vaccine development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

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14 pages, 2824 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Novel Oral Polio Vaccine Type 2 Use for Polio Outbreak Response: A Global Effort for a Global Health Emergency

by Feyrouz Damji Kurji, Ananda Sankar Bandyopadhyay, Simona Zipursky, Laura V. Cooper, Chris Gast, Margaret Toher, Ralf Clemens, Sue Ann Costa Clemens, Rayasam Prasad and Adriansjah Azhari

Pathogens 2024, 13(4), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13040273 - 23 Mar 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6671

Abstract

A sharp rise in circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) outbreaks in the years following the cessation of routine use of poliovirus type 2-containing oral polio vaccine and the trend of seeding new emergences with suboptimal vaccination response during the same time-period led [...] Read more.

A sharp rise in circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) outbreaks in the years following the cessation of routine use of poliovirus type 2-containing oral polio vaccine and the trend of seeding new emergences with suboptimal vaccination response during the same time-period led to the accelerated development of the novel oral polio vaccine type 2 (nOPV2), a vaccine with enhanced genetic stability and lower likelihood of reversion to neuroparalytic variants compared to its Sabin counterpart. In November 2020, nOPV2 became the first vaccine to be granted an Emergency Use Listing (EUL) by the World Health Organization (WHO) Prequalification Team (PQT), allowing close to a billion doses to be used by countries within three years after its first rollout and leading to full licensure and WHO prequalification (PQ) in December 2023. The nOPV2 development process exemplifies how scientific advances and innovative tools can be applied to combat global health emergencies in an urgent and adaptive way, building on a collaborative effort among scientific, regulatory and implementation partners and policymakers across the globe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Poliovirus)

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13 pages, 1640 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Pathogens in Raccoon Dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and Raccoons (Procyon lotor) from Schleswig-Holstein, Germany

by Jana C. Klink, Alexandra Rieger, Peter Wohlsein, Ursula Siebert and Anna Obiegala

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030270 - 21 Mar 2024

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3597

Abstract

Raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and raccoons (Procyon lotor) are invasive alien species originating from East Asia and North America, respectively. They are discussed as vectors and reservoirs for various infectious diseases, including vector-borne and zoonotic pathogens, and are therefore [...] Read more.

Raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and raccoons (Procyon lotor) are invasive alien species originating from East Asia and North America, respectively. They are discussed as vectors and reservoirs for various infectious diseases, including vector-borne and zoonotic pathogens, and are therefore a potential threat to human and domestic animal health, as well as to biodiversity and conservation. In the years 2021 and 2022, 110 raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and 30 raccoons (Procyon lotor) were screened via qPCR for the presence of Leptospira spp., Rickettsia spp. and Borreliella spp. in the German federal state of Schleswig-Holstein as part of a health and risk assessment study. Borreliella spp. were confirmed in one raccoon dog and one raccoon, identified as Borreliella afzelii in the raccoon. Leptospira spp. were found in 21 (19.44%) raccoon dogs and 2 (6.90%) raccoons. In five raccoon dogs, Leptospira spp. were identified as Leptospira borgpetersenii, Leptospira kirschneri and Leptospira interrogans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ticks)

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24 pages, 15946 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Characterization of a Novel Species of Legionella Isolated from a Healthcare Facility: Legionella resiliens sp. nov

by Sandra Cristino, Maria Rosaria Pascale, Federica Marino, Carlo Derelitto, Silvano Salaris, Massimiliano Orsini, Stefano Squarzoni, Antonella Grottola and Luna Girolamini

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030250 - 14 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3795

Abstract

Two Legionella-like isolates, 8cVS16^T and 9fVS26, were isolated from a water distribution system (WDS) in a healthcare facility. Cells were Gram- and Ziehl Neelsen-stain-negative, rod-shaped, motile, and exhibited a blue-white fluorescence under Wood’s lamp at 365 nm. The strains grew in [...] Read more.

Two Legionella-like isolates, 8cVS16^T and 9fVS26, were isolated from a water distribution system (WDS) in a healthcare facility. Cells were Gram- and Ziehl Neelsen-stain-negative, rod-shaped, motile, and exhibited a blue-white fluorescence under Wood’s lamp at 365 nm. The strains grew in a range of 32–37 °C on BCYE with L-cysteine (Cys+), GVPC, and MWY agar medium, with a positive reaction for oxidase, catalase, and gelatinase. The dominant fatty acids were summed features 3 (C_16:1ω7c/C_16:1ω6c) (27.7%), C_16:0 iso (17.5%), and C_16:0 (16.3%), and Q13 as the major ubiquinone. The mip and rpoB gene sequences showed a similarity of 96.7% and 92.4%, with L. anisa (ATCC 35292^T). The whole genomes sequencing (WGS) performed displayed a GC content of 38.21 mol% for both. The digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) analysis demonstrated the separation of the two strains from the phylogenetically most related L. anisa (ATCC 35292^T), with ≤43% DNA-DNA relatedness. The Average Nucleotide Identity (ANI) between the two strains and L. anisa (ATCC 35292^T) was 90.74%, confirming that the two isolates represent a novel species of the genus Legionella. The name proposed for this species is Legionella resiliens sp. nov., with 8cVS16^T (=DSM 114356^T = CCUG 76627^T) as the type strain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Biofilm, Genomics and Virulence)

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16 pages, 6499 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Canine Schistosomiasis in the West Coast: Heterobilharzia americana in Two Natural Intermediate Hosts Found in the Colorado River, California

by Anil Baniya, Connor J. Goldy, Jiranun Ardpairin, Perla Achi, Yu Wei Chang, Rose C. Adrianza, Apichat Vitta and Adler R. Dillman

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030245 - 13 Mar 2024

Viewed by 19976

Abstract

The emergence of infectious diseases presents a significant global health, economic, and security risk. Climate change can unexpectedly lead to the spread of pathogens, vectors, or hosts into new areas, contributing to the rise of infectious diseases. Surveillance plays a crucial role in [...] Read more.

The emergence of infectious diseases presents a significant global health, economic, and security risk. Climate change can unexpectedly lead to the spread of pathogens, vectors, or hosts into new areas, contributing to the rise of infectious diseases. Surveillance plays a crucial role in monitoring disease trends and implementing control strategies. In this study, we document the first discovery of Heterobilharzia americana, a parasitic schistosome of mammals and its intermediate hosts Galba cubensis and Galba humilis along the banks of the Colorado River in California. We conducted multiple samplings of snails from various locations in the region with a previous history of canine schistosomiasis. Nucleotide sequencing of the multiple regions of the snails’ and parasites’ DNA revealed the coexistence of G. cubensis and G. humilis, both infected with H. americana. Phylogenetic analyses further validate the presence of H. americana in California, suggesting a wider distribution than previously reported. Our findings have implications for public health, veterinary medicine, and biodiversity conservation, contributing to developing effective control strategies to prevent the spread of this emerging infectious disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Biodiversity of Parasites in Humans, Wild and Domestic Animals)

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12 pages, 321 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hunting for Answers: Assessing Brucella spp. Seroprevalence and Risks in Red Deer and Wild Boar in Central Portugal

by Humberto Pires, Luís Cardoso, Ana Patrícia Lopes, Maria da Conceição Fontes, Sérgio Santos-Silva, Manuela Matos, Cristina Pintado, Natália Roque, Leonardo Filipe Fonseca, Inês Morgado, Ana Sofia Dias, Luís Figueira, Ana Cristina Matos, João Rodrigo Mesquita and Ana Cláudia Coelho

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030242 - 8 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3253

Abstract

Between 2016 and 2023, a cross-sectional study was conducted in the central region of Portugal in order to better understand the epidemiology and public health risks resulting from the handling and consumption of game animals infected with Brucella spp. The seroprevalence and risk [...] Read more.

Between 2016 and 2023, a cross-sectional study was conducted in the central region of Portugal in order to better understand the epidemiology and public health risks resulting from the handling and consumption of game animals infected with Brucella spp. The seroprevalence and risk factors for Brucella spp. seropositivity were evaluated. Antibodies against Brucella spp. were determined using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Results showed that in the 650 serum samples collected from red deer (n = 298) and wild boars (n = 352) in Portugal, 21.7% (n = 141; 95% CI: 18.6–25.1%) tested positive. Wild boar had a significantly higher prevalence (35.5%; 95% CI: 30.5–40.8%) than red deer (5.4%, 95% CI: 3.1–8.6%; p ≤ 0.001). Risk factors for seropositivity were investigated using multivariable logistic regression models. The odds of being seropositive was 8.39 (95% CI: 4.75–14.84; p ≤ 0.001) times higher in wild boar than in red deer. Correlations between sex, age, body condition, and seropositivity could not be observed. The higher seroprevalence in wild boar suggests that this species may primarily contribute to the Brucella spp. ecology in central Portugal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology and Outcomes Research in Infectious Diseases)

22 pages, 2173 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Viral Infections, Are They a Trigger and Risk Factor of Alzheimer’s Disease?

by Meagan D. Rippee-Brooks, Wenzhe Wu, Jianli Dong, Miguel Pappolla, Xiang Fang and Xiaoyong Bao

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030240 - 8 Mar 2024

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5713

Abstract

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), a progressive and debilitating condition, is reported to be the most common type of dementia, with at least 55 million people believed to be currently affected. Many causation hypotheses of AD exist, yet the intriguing link between viral infection and [...] Read more.

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), a progressive and debilitating condition, is reported to be the most common type of dementia, with at least 55 million people believed to be currently affected. Many causation hypotheses of AD exist, yet the intriguing link between viral infection and its possible contribution to the known etiology of AD has become an attractive focal point of research for the field and a challenging study task. In this review, we will explore the historical perspective and milestones that led the field to investigate the viral connection to AD. Specifically, several viruses such as Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1), Zika virus (ZIKV), and severe cute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), along with several others mentioned, include the various viruses presently considered within the field. We delve into the strong evidence implicating these viruses in the development of AD such as the lytic replication and axonal transport of HSV-1, the various mechanisms of ZIKV neurotropism through the human protein Musashi-1 (MSI1), and the spread of SARS-CoV-2 through the transfer of the virus through the BBB endothelial cells to glial cells and then to neurons via transsynaptic transfer. We will also explore beyond these mere associations by carefully analyzing the potential mechanisms by which these viruses may contribute to AD pathology. This includes but is not limited to direct neuronal infections, the dysregulation of immune responses, and the impact on protein processing (Aβ42 and hyperphosphorylated tau). Controversies and challenges of the virus–AD relationship emerge as we tease out these potential mechanisms. Looking forward, we emphasize future directions, such as distinct questions and proposed experimentations to explore, that the field should take to tackle the remaining unanswered questions and the glaring research gaps that persist. Overall, this review aims to provide a comprehensive survey of the past, present, and future of the potential link between viral infections and their association with AD development while encouraging further discussion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections and Their Effects on the Central Nervous System (CNS))

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22 pages, 4163 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Current Knowledge of Enterococcal Endocarditis: A Disease Lurking in Plain Sight of Health Providers

by Francesco Nappi

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030235 - 7 Mar 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6052

Abstract

Enterococcus faecalis is a bacterial pathogen that can cause opportunistic infections. Studies indicate that initial biofilm formation plays a crucial regulatory role in these infections, as well as in colonising and maintaining the gastrointestinal tract as a commensal member of the microbiome of [...] Read more.

Enterococcus faecalis is a bacterial pathogen that can cause opportunistic infections. Studies indicate that initial biofilm formation plays a crucial regulatory role in these infections, as well as in colonising and maintaining the gastrointestinal tract as a commensal member of the microbiome of most land animals. It has long been thought that vegetation of endocarditis resulting from bacterial attachment to the endocardial endothelium requires some pre-existing tissue damage, and in animal models of experimental endocarditis, mechanical valve damage is typically induced by cardiac catheterisation preceding infection. This section reviews historical and contemporary animal model studies that demonstrate the ability of E. faecalis to colonise the undamaged endovascular endothelial surface directly and produce robust microcolony biofilms encapsulated within a bacterially derived extracellular matrix. This report reviews both previous and current animal model studies demonstrating the resilient capacity of E. faecalis to colonise the undamaged endovascular endothelial surface directly and produce robust microcolony biofilms encapsulated in a bacterially derived extracellular matrix. The article also considers the morphological similarities when these biofilms develop on different host sites, such as when E. faecalis colonises the gastrointestinal epithelium as a commensal member of the common vertebrate microbiome, lurking in plain sight and transmitting systemic infection. These phenotypes may enable the organism to survive as an unrecognised infection in asymptomatic subjects, providing an infectious resource for subsequent clinical process of endocarditis. Full article

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11 pages, 1606 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Inflammatory CD11b⁺ Macrophages Produce BAFF in Spleen of Mice Infected with Leishmania donovani

by Kazuki Nagai, Wataru Fujii, Junya Yamagishi, Chizu Sanjoba and Yasuyuki Goto

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030232 - 6 Mar 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3835

Abstract

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is an infectious disease caused by parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania and manifests clinical symptoms such as splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, anemia, and fever. It has previously been shown that B-cell-activating factor (BAFF) is involved in splenomegaly during VL. Although BAFF [...] Read more.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is an infectious disease caused by parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania and manifests clinical symptoms such as splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, anemia, and fever. It has previously been shown that B-cell-activating factor (BAFF) is involved in splenomegaly during VL. Although BAFF is known to be expressed by a variety of cells, the mechanism of elevated BAFF expression in VL is not clear. In this study, we aimed to identify BAFF-producing cells in the spleens of mice infected with Leishmania donovani. Splenocytes of L. donovani-infected mice showed elevated BAFF expression compared to that of naive mice. In the infected spleen, the number of both CD11b⁺ and F4/80⁺ cells increased, and the major BAFF-producing cells were CD11b⁺ cells, which did not serve as host cells of Leishmania. Immunohistochemical/immunofluorescent staining of spleens of infected mice revealed that the increased CD11b⁺ cells were primarily MRP14⁺ mononuclear cells. Together, these results suggest the increased BAFF expression in the spleen of L. donovani-infected mice involves a recruitment of inflammatory macrophages distinct from host macrophages for the parasites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Leishmaniasis: Transmission, Pathogenesis and Treatment)

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12 pages, 2698 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Porcine Monocyte DNA Traps Formed during Infection with Pathogenic Clostridioides difficile Strains

by Jade Lawrence, Paul Barrow and Neil Foster

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030228 - 5 Mar 2024

Viewed by 2317

Abstract

Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile is an enteric pathogen of several mammalian species including man, frequently involving nosocomial resurgence, following oral administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics, but also with human-to-human infection occurring, and neonatal pigs with zoonotic transmission. To date, the immune response to [...] Read more.

Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile is an enteric pathogen of several mammalian species including man, frequently involving nosocomial resurgence, following oral administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics, but also with human-to-human infection occurring, and neonatal pigs with zoonotic transmission. To date, the immune response to C. difficile has mostly focused on neutrophils and cytokine/chemokines, particularly in human infection. The neonatal pig is now recognized as a valuable model for human infection. We show that porcine monocytes respond to C. difficile differently compared with many other bacterial infections. Infection of porcine monocytes with human C. difficile strains CD630 (Ribotype 078) or R20291 (Ribotype 027) for 3 or 24 h post-infection (pi) resulted in a lack of oxidative burst or nitrite ion production when compared to uninfected controls (p > 0.05). The survival dynamics of both CD630 and R20291 in monocytes were similar with intracellular bacterial numbers being similar at 3 h pi and 24 h pi (p > 0.05). However, we show that porcine monocytes entrap C. difficile via extracellular DNA traps. This process began as early as 3 h pi, and at 24 h pi the nuclei appeared to be depleted of DNA, although extracellular DNA was associated with the cell membrane. Our preliminary study also suggests that entrapment of C. difficile by extracellular DNA may occur via a process of monocyte etosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Immunological Responses and Immune Defense Mechanisms)

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13 pages, 1633 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genetic Diversification and Resistome of Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci from Nostrils of Healthy Dogs and Dog-Owners in La Rioja, Spain

by Idris Nasir Abdullahi, Carmen Lozano, Carmen González-Azcona, Myriam Zarazaga and Carmen Torres

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030229 - 5 Mar 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2703

Abstract

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) species in healthy dogs and their owners could be transferred between these hosts and carry diverse antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes of public health concern. This study determined the frequency, diversity, and AMR genes of nasal CoNS from healthy dogs and [...] Read more.

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) species in healthy dogs and their owners could be transferred between these hosts and carry diverse antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes of public health concern. This study determined the frequency, diversity, and AMR genes of nasal CoNS from healthy dogs and in-contact people as well as the rate of intra-household (between healthy dogs and dog-owners) transmission of CoNS. Nasal samples were collected and processed from 34 dogs and 41 humans from 27 households, and CoNS identification was done by MALDI-TOF-MS. The AMR determinants and genetic lineages were determined by PCR/sequencing. A total of 216 CoNS isolates were initially obtained and identified, and the AMR phenotypes were determined. From these, 130 non-repetitive CoNS were selected (one isolate of each species per sample or more than one if they presented different AMR phenotypes) and further characterized. The predominant species from dog carriers were S. epidermidis (26.5%), S. hominis (8.8%), and S. cohnii (8.8%), whereas in the human carriers, the predominant ones were S. epidermidis (80.4%), S. lugdunensis (9.8%), and S. hominis (9.8%). Intra-host species diversity (>one CoNS species) was detected in 37.5% of dogs and 21.6% of dog-owners. Conversely, 50% of dogs and 70.3% of dog-owners had intra-species AMR diversity (2–4 AMR-CoNS profiles). About 20% were susceptible to all antimicrobial agents tested, 31.5% displayed a multidrug resistance phenotype, and 17.4% were mecA-positive, located in SCCmec type V (24.2%), III (18.1%), IVc (12.1%), and II (6.1%). The other mec-A positive CoNS isolates (39.5%) had non-typeable SCCmec. The highest AMR rates were found against erythromycin (32.3%/mph(C), msr(A)) and mupirocin (20.8%/mupA), but the resistance rates for other antimicrobial agents were <10% each. Remarkably, one linezolid-resistant S. epidermidis-ST35 isolate was identified and mediated by four amino acid substitutions in L3 and one in L4 ribosomal proteins. Dogs and dog-owners as carriers of S. epidermidis with similar AMR patterns and genetic lineages (ST59, ST61, ST166 and ST278) were detected in four households (14.8%). Diverse CoNS carriage and moderate level of AMR were obtained from this study. The detection of CoNS carrying diverse SCCmec elements and intra-species AMR diversity highlights the roles of dog ownership in the potential transmission of antimicrobial-resistant CoNS in either direction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

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10 pages, 490 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Infant Non-Secretor Histoblood Group Antigen Phenotype Reduces Susceptibility to Both Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Rotavirus Infection

by Benjamin Lee, Md Abdul Kader, Masud Alam, Dorothy M. Dickson, Patrick Harvey, E. Ross Colgate, Mami Taniuchi, William A. Petri, Jr., Rashidul Haque and Beth D. Kirkpatrick

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030223 - 4 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2894

Abstract

The infant non-secretor histoblood group antigen phenotype is associated with reduced risk of symptomatic rotavirus diarrhea, one of the leading global causes of severe pediatric diarrheal disease and mortality. However, little is known regarding the role of secretor status in asymptomatic rotavirus infections. [...] Read more.

The infant non-secretor histoblood group antigen phenotype is associated with reduced risk of symptomatic rotavirus diarrhea, one of the leading global causes of severe pediatric diarrheal disease and mortality. However, little is known regarding the role of secretor status in asymptomatic rotavirus infections. Therefore, we performed a nested case–control study within a birth cohort study previously conducted in Dhaka, Bangladesh, to determine the association between infant secretor phenotype and the odds of asymptomatic rotavirus infection, in addition to the risk of rotavirus diarrhea, in unvaccinated infants. In the parent cohort, infants were enrolled in the first week of life and followed through the first two years of life with multiple clinic visits and active surveillance for diarrheal illness. Secretor phenotyping was performed on saliva. Eleven surveillance stools collected over the first year of life were tested for rotavirus by real-time RT-PCR, followed by conventional PCR and amplicon sequencing to identify the infecting P-type of positive specimens. Similar to findings for symptomatic diarrhea, infant non-secretors experienced significantly fewer primary episodes of asymptomatic rotavirus infection through the first year of life in a likely rotavirus P-genotype-dependent manner. These data suggest that non-secretors experienced reduced risk from rotavirus due to decreased susceptibility to infection rather than reduced infection severity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Burden, Prevention, and Control of Enteric Viral Infections)

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16 pages, 1667 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine: Recent Developments and the Tortuous Path to Global Acceptance

by Roland W. Sutter, Martin Eisenhawer, Natalia A. Molodecky, Harish Verma and Hiromasa Okayasu

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030224 - 4 Mar 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6676

Abstract

Inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), available since 1955, became the first vaccine to be used to protect against poliomyelitis. While the immunogenicity of IPV to prevent paralytic poliomyelitis continues to be irrefutable, its requirement for strong containment (due to large quantities of live virus [...] Read more.

Inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), available since 1955, became the first vaccine to be used to protect against poliomyelitis. While the immunogenicity of IPV to prevent paralytic poliomyelitis continues to be irrefutable, its requirement for strong containment (due to large quantities of live virus used in the manufacturing process), perceived lack of ability to induce intestinal mucosal immunity, high cost and increased complexity to administer compared to oral polio vaccine (OPV), have limited its use in the global efforts to eradicate poliomyelitis. In order to harvest the full potential of IPV, a program of work has been carried out by the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) over the past two decades that has focused on: (1) increasing the scientific knowledge base of IPV; (2) translating new insights and evidence into programmatic action; (3) expanding the IPV manufacturing infrastructure for global demand; and (4) continuing to pursue an ambitious research program to develop more immunogenic and safer-to-produce vaccines. While the knowledge base of IPV continues to expand, further research and product development are necessary to ensure that the program priorities are met (e.g., non-infectious production through virus-like particles, non-transmissible vaccine inducing humoral and intestinal mucosal immunity and new methods for house-to-house administration through micro-needle patches and jet injectors), the discussions have largely moved from whether to how to use this vaccine most effectively. In this review, we summarize recent developments on expanding the science base of IPV and provide insight into policy development and the expansion of IPV manufacturing and production, and finally we provide an update on the current priorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Poliovirus)

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10 pages, 354 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hepatitis C Epidemiology: Insights from a Comprehensive Cohort Study in ASST Melegnano and Martesana, Lombardia Region, Northern Italy

by Michele Nardone, Dario Di Stasio, Alberta Lucchese, Daniele Gentili, Giulia Cattabianchi, Carlo Signorelli, Pierangelo Sarchi, Giovanna Pulcrano, Valentino Lembo, Paola Maria Pirola, Dorina Lauritano and Francesco Carinci

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030215 - 28 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2389

Abstract

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a significant public health problem affecting 58 million people worldwide, including 3.9 million in Europe. Many of these infections go undiagnosed because chronic infection is often asymptomatic. This observational cohort study presents a detailed examination of hepatitis [...] Read more.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a significant public health problem affecting 58 million people worldwide, including 3.9 million in Europe. Many of these infections go undiagnosed because chronic infection is often asymptomatic. This observational cohort study presents a detailed examination of hepatitis C virus epidemiology in Lombardia (Italy) and was conducted within the ASST “Melegnano e della Martesana”. The study involved comprehensive HCV screening of 3290 patients accessing the collection points and/or hospitalized in the facilities of the ASST from 20 May 2022 to 13 April 2023. Screening was conducted using serological assays. The prevalence of anti-HCV-positive patients (HCV-Ab) and then HCV-positive patients (RNA) was calculated. Chi-square tests examined the associations between continuous and categorical variables. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the influence of demographic and geographic variables as predictors of HCV positivity. The study revealed an overall HCV-Ab prevalence of 0.912% (CI (0.59–1.24%)) in the examined cohort, of whom 15.15% (two females and three males) were positive for HCV RNA. The prevalence of HCV RNA positivity was 0.152% (CI (0.05–0.35%)). Sex disparity was evident, with male patients exhibiting a higher prevalence compared to females, confirmed by logistic regression (0.0147 vs. 0.0061–OR = 2.44; CI (0.0059–0.0124)). Age stratification indicated an ascending trend in prevalence with age, peaking at 1.35% in individuals aged over 50. These findings underscore the critical need for targeted HCV screening, contributing valuable insights to the global epidemiology of HCV in the era of DAAs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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10 pages, 531 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Concomitant Syndromic Diagnosis of Mpox and Other Vesicular Viruses in Patients with Skin and Genital Lesions

by Maria Beatrice Valli, Antonella Vulcano, Martina Rueca, Giulia Matusali, Valentina Mazzotta, Emanuele Nicastri, Enrico Girardi, Carla Fontana, Andrea Antinori and Fabrizio Maggi

Pathogens 2024, 13(3), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030207 - 27 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2566

Abstract

The recent multi-country outbreak of the zoonotic monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection in humans without an epidemiological link with endemic areas has raised concerns about the route of transmission. Since the infection spread largely among men who have sex with men who, in most [...] Read more.

The recent multi-country outbreak of the zoonotic monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection in humans without an epidemiological link with endemic areas has raised concerns about the route of transmission. Since the infection spread largely among men who have sex with men who, in most cases, presented primary lesions of the genital and oral mucosa, sexual transmission has been proposed. In the present study, we retrospectively evaluated specimens of vesicular lesions collected from the skin and genital tract of 35 patients (23 positive and 12 negative) presenting at our Institute for monkeypox (mpox) diagnosis by using a novel molecular syndromic vesicular virus panel (VVP) assay. All MPXV-positive samples but one was confirmed; however, the viral syndromic analysis revealed that 8.6% of them were coinfected with one or more viruses, and 17% had at least a virus different from the MPXV. The percentage of coinfections increased to more than 25% when nonviral pathogens, such as gonorrhea and syphilis, were also considered. These results show the usefulness of syndromic diagnosis in cases where MPXV is suspected (and vice versa) and at the same time highlight that the broader screening of sexually transmitted infections in the population with high-risk sexual behavior is critical to ensure a complete etiology and appropriate treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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10 pages, 276 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Inflammatory Patterns Associated with Legionella in HIV and Pneumonia Coinfections

by Breanne M. Head, Adriana Trajtman, Ruochen Mao, Kathryn Bernard, Lázaro Vélez, Diana Marin, Lucelly López, Zulma Vanessa Rueda and Yoav Keynan

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020173 - 14 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2459

Abstract

Legionella infections have a propensity for occurring in HIV-infected individuals, with immunosuppressed individuals tending to present with more severe disease. However, understanding regarding the Legionella host response in immune compromised individuals is lacking. This study investigated the inflammatory profiles associated with Legionella infection [...] Read more.

Legionella infections have a propensity for occurring in HIV-infected individuals, with immunosuppressed individuals tending to present with more severe disease. However, understanding regarding the Legionella host response in immune compromised individuals is lacking. This study investigated the inflammatory profiles associated with Legionella infection in patients hospitalized with HIV and pneumonia in Medellín, Colombia from February 2007 to April 2014, and correlated these profiles with clinical outcomes. Sample aliquots from the Colombian cohort were shipped to Canada where Legionella infections and systemic cytokine profiles were determined using real-time PCR and bead-based technology, respectively. To determine the effect of Legionella coinfection on clinical outcome, a patient database was consulted, comparing laboratory results and outcomes between Legionella-positive and -negative individuals. Principal component analysis revealed higher plasma concentrations of eotaxin, IP-10 and MCP-1 (p = 0.0046) during Legionella infection. Individuals with this immune profile also had higher rates of intensive care unit admissions (adjusted relative risk 1.047 [95% confidence interval 1.027–1.066]). Results demonstrate that systemic markers of monocyte/macrophage activation and differentiation (eotaxin, MCP-1, and IP-10) are associated with Legionella infection and worse patient outcomes. Further investigations are warranted to determine how this cytokine profile may play a role in Legionella pneumonia pathogenesis or immunity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunity to Respiratory Infections)

15 pages, 1354 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparison of the Antibiotic Resistance of Escherichia coli Populations from Water and Biofilm in River Environments

by Aline Skof, Michael Koller, Rita Baumert, Jürgen Hautz, Fritz Treiber, Clemens Kittinger and Gernot Zarfel

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020171 - 13 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5712

Abstract

Antibiotic-resistant, facultative pathogenic bacteria are commonly found in surface water; however, the factors influencing the spread and stabilization of antibiotic resistance in this habitat, particularly the role of biofilms, are not fully understood. The extent to which bacterial populations in biofilms or sediments [...] Read more.

Antibiotic-resistant, facultative pathogenic bacteria are commonly found in surface water; however, the factors influencing the spread and stabilization of antibiotic resistance in this habitat, particularly the role of biofilms, are not fully understood. The extent to which bacterial populations in biofilms or sediments exacerbate the problem for specific antibiotic classes or more broadly remains unanswered. In this study, we investigated the differences between the bacterial populations found in the surface water and sediment/biofilm of the Mur River and the Drava River in Austria. Samples of Escherichia coli were collected from both the water and sediment at two locations per river: upstream and downstream of urban areas that included a sewage treatment plant. The isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing against 21 antibiotics belonging to seven distinct classes. Additionally, isolates exhibiting either extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) or carbapenemase phenotypes were further analyzed for specific antimicrobial resistance genes. E. coli isolates collected from all locations exhibited resistance to at least one of the tested antibiotics; on average, isolates from the Mur and Drava rivers showed 25.85% and 23.66% resistance, respectively. The most prevalent resistance observed was to ampicillin, amoxicillin–clavulanic acid, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid. Surprisingly, there was a similar proportion of resistant bacteria observed in both open water and sediment samples. The difference in resistance levels between the samples collected upstream and downstream of the cities was minimal. Out of all 831 isolates examined, 13 were identified as carrying ESBL genes, with 1 of these isolates also containing the gene for the KPC-2 carbapenemase. There were no significant differences between the biofilm (sediment) and open water samples in the occurrence of antibiotic resistance. For the E. coli populations in the examined rivers, the different factors in water and the sediment do not appear to influence the stability of resistance. No significant differences in antimicrobial resistance were observed between the bacterial populations collected from the biofilm (sediment) and open-water samples in either river. The different factors in water and the sediment do not appear to influence the stability of resistance. The minimal differences observed upstream and downstream of the cities could indicate that the river population already exhibits generalized resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

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11 pages, 837 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Epidemiology of Anal Human Papillomavirus (HPV) in HIV-Positive and HIV-Negative Women and Men: A Ten-Year Retrospective Observational Study in Rome (Italy)

by Matteo Fracella, Giuseppe Oliveto, Piergiorgio Roberto, Lilia Cinti, Massimo Gentile, Eleonora Coratti, Gabriella D’Ettorre, Eugenio Nelson Cavallari, Francesco Romano, Letizia Santinelli, Luca Maddaloni, Federica Frasca, Carolina Scagnolari, Guido Antonelli and Alessandra Pierangeli

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020163 - 11 Feb 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4204

Abstract

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) commonly infect the anogenital mucosa; most infections are transient, but a fraction of those caused by high-risk (HR) types persist and may lead to anogenital cancer. The epidemiology of HPV genotypes in anal infections in groups at different risk for [...] Read more.

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) commonly infect the anogenital mucosa; most infections are transient, but a fraction of those caused by high-risk (HR) types persist and may lead to anogenital cancer. The epidemiology of HPV genotypes in anal infections in groups at different risk for anal cancer has not been well described in Italy. This retrospective study reports the results of HPV DNA testing and complete genotyping performed on anal swabs from 691 female and male patients attending proctology clinics in Rome during 2012–2021; one-third had repeated testing. Cumulative HPV positivity in 1212 anal swabs was approximately 60%, was not age related, and showed an increasing trend over the study period. HPV rates differed significantly by sex and HIV status: HIV-negative women had the lowest (43.6%) and HIV-positive men the highest (83.5%) HPV prevalence. HIV-positive men had more oncogenic HPV genotypes detected, more multiple infections, and the highest frequency of persistent infections. Two-thirds of all infections were vaccine-preventable. This study found that anal HPV infection rates are still elevated and even increasing in groups at low and high risk of developing anal cancer. Prevention programs need to be improved to reduce rates of anal infection in young women and men. Full article

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19 pages, 2526 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Deep Sequencing Strategy for Investigation of Virus Variants within African Swine Fever Virus-Infected Pigs

by Camille Melissa Johnston, Ann Sofie Olesen, Louise Lohse, Agnete le Maire Madsen, Anette Bøtner, Graham J. Belsham and Thomas Bruun Rasmussen

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020154 - 8 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3516

Abstract

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is the causative agent of African swine fever, an economically important disease of pigs, often with a high case fatality rate. ASFV has demonstrated low genetic diversity among isolates collected within Eurasia. To explore the influence of viral [...] Read more.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is the causative agent of African swine fever, an economically important disease of pigs, often with a high case fatality rate. ASFV has demonstrated low genetic diversity among isolates collected within Eurasia. To explore the influence of viral variants on clinical outcomes and infection dynamics in pigs experimentally infected with ASFV, we have designed a deep sequencing strategy. The variant analysis revealed unique SNPs at <10% frequency in several infected pigs as well as some SNPs that were found in more than one pig. In addition, a deletion of 10,487 bp (resulting in the complete loss of 21 genes) was present at a nearly 100% frequency in the ASFV DNA from one pig at position 6362-16849. This deletion was also found to be present at low levels in the virus inoculum and in two other infected pigs. The current methodology can be used for the currently circulating Eurasian ASFVs and also adapted to other ASFV strains and genotypes. Comprehensive deep sequencing is critical for following ASFV molecular evolution, especially for the identification of modifications that affect virus virulence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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18 pages, 3443 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Epidemiological Data and Antimicrobial Resistance of Campylobacter spp. in Portugal from 13 Years of Surveillance

by Andreia Duarte, Luísa Pereira, Maria-Leonor Lemos, Miguel Pinto, João Carlos Rodrigues, Rui Matias, Andrea Santos, PTCampyNet and Mónica Oleastro

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020147 - 6 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4782

Abstract

This study extensively analyzed campylobacteriosis surveillance in Portugal from 2009 to 2021, aiming to investigate demographic shifts, seasonal variations, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) within Campylobacter isolates. Surveillance network and sentinel laboratory-based system data revealed a substantial under-notification of campylobacteriosis cases, suggesting an underestimated [...] Read more.

This study extensively analyzed campylobacteriosis surveillance in Portugal from 2009 to 2021, aiming to investigate demographic shifts, seasonal variations, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) within Campylobacter isolates. Surveillance network and sentinel laboratory-based system data revealed a substantial under-notification of campylobacteriosis cases, suggesting an underestimated disease burden. Notification rates exhibited a paradigm shift, with a notable prevalence among the pediatric population, particularly in children aged 1–4 years, diverging from European reports. Additionally, an emerging trend of Campylobacter infections in younger adults (15–44 years) was observed. The study unveiled a unique seasonal distribution of cases, defying typical summer peaks seen elsewhere. AMR analysis revealed high resistance to ciprofloxacin and tetracycline, in both C. jejuni (93.7% and 79.2%, respectively) and C. coli (96.5% and 93.2%, respectively), stable throughout the studied period (2013–2021). C. coli exhibited significantly higher resistance to erythromycin, gentamicin, ampicillin and ertapenem compared to C. jejuni (p < 0.001). Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) data demonstrated the distribution of resistance markers across diverse sequence types, challenging the notion of a clonal origin for multidrug-resistant isolates. In conclusion, the study highlights the need for enhanced surveillance and raises concerns about alarming AMR levels, recommending the implementation of whole-genome sequencing (WGS)-based surveillance for a deeper comprehension of disease patterns and an evolving AMR landscape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology and Molecular Pathogenesis of Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence for Foodborne Pathogens)

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18 pages, 400 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Past, Present, and Future in the Diagnosis of a Neglected Sexually Transmitted Infection: Trichomoniasis

by Alexandra Ibáñez-Escribano and Juan José Nogal-Ruiz

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020126 - 29 Jan 2024

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 9669

Abstract

More than one million curable sexually transmitted infections occur every day. Trichomonas vaginalis is one of the main infections responsible for these epidemiological data; however, the diagnosis of this protozoan is still mainly based on microscopic and culture identification. The commercialization of immunological [...] Read more.

More than one million curable sexually transmitted infections occur every day. Trichomonas vaginalis is one of the main infections responsible for these epidemiological data; however, the diagnosis of this protozoan is still mainly based on microscopic and culture identification. The commercialization of immunological tests and the development of molecular techniques have improved the sensitivity of classical methods. Nevertheless, the fact that trichomoniasis is a neglected parasitic infection hinders the development of novel techniques and their implementation in routine diagnosis. This review article shows the different methods developed to identify T. vaginalis in population and the difficulties in diagnosing male and asymptomatic patients. The importance of including this parasite in routine gynecological screening, especially in pregnant women, and the importance of considering T. vaginalis as an indicator of high-risk sexual behavior are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and Developments in the Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Diseases)

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13 pages, 603 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ehrlichia canis and Rickettsia conorii Infections in Shelter Dogs: Seropositivity and Implications for Public Health

by Paulo Afonso, Ana Patrícia Lopes, Hélder Quintas, Luís Cardoso and Ana Cláudia Coelho

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020129 - 29 Jan 2024

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4830

Abstract

A cross-sectional study was conducted to gain insight into the epidemiology of canine ehrlichiosis and rickettsiosis in northern Portugal. Specific IgG antibodies to Ehrlichia canis were analysed using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and antibodies to Rickettsia conorii were analysed using a [...] Read more.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to gain insight into the epidemiology of canine ehrlichiosis and rickettsiosis in northern Portugal. Specific IgG antibodies to Ehrlichia canis were analysed using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and antibodies to Rickettsia conorii were analysed using a commercial indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT). A total of 113 dogs from two different shelters were sampled, and seroprevalence values of 0.9% (95% confidence (CI): 0.2–4.8%) for E. canis and 9.7 (95% CI: 5.5–16.6%) for R. conorii were found. Multiple logistic regression investigated risk factors for seropositivity. The odds ratios (ORs) of R. conorii seropositivity were higher for female dogs (OR = 6.429; 95% CI: 1.201–34.407). Dogs seropositive for co-infection (E. canis + R. conorii) were more frequently observed among females (OR = 7.606; CI 95%: 1.478–39.132) and in Shelter 2 (OR = 18.229; 95% CI: 2.190–151.756). These findings show that shelter dogs in northern Portugal are exposed to E. canis and R. conorii, which can affect both canines and humans. It is imperative to adopt a One Health approach to educate the public about the hazards of canine zoonoses and develop legislation and procedures to control their spread and preserve public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Zoonotic Vector-Borne Diseases of Companion Animals)

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18 pages, 626 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mpox Awareness, Risk Reduction, and Vaccine Acceptance among People with HIV in Washington, DC

by Elisabeth W. Andersen, Paige Kulie, Amanda D. Castel, Jose Lucar, Debra Benator, Alan E. Greenberg and Anne Monroe

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020124 - 28 Jan 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2365

Abstract

People with HIV (PWH) are disproportionally affected by mpox and at risk of severe complications. We assessed mpox knowledge, adoption of preventive behaviors, and vaccination attitudes among PWH enrolled in a longitudinal HIV cohort in Washington, DC, the DC Cohort. We conducted uni- [...] Read more.

People with HIV (PWH) are disproportionally affected by mpox and at risk of severe complications. We assessed mpox knowledge, adoption of preventive behaviors, and vaccination attitudes among PWH enrolled in a longitudinal HIV cohort in Washington, DC, the DC Cohort. We conducted uni- and multivariable analyses comparing participants by vaccination status and HIV risk group, and multinomial regression to identify factors associated with vaccine acceptance. Among 430 PWH, 378 (87.9%) were aware of mpox. Among 373 participants with vaccination status data, 101 (27.1%) were vaccinated, 129 (34.6%) planned to vaccinate, and 143 (38.3%) did not plan to vaccinate. The three vaccination groups differed significantly by age, race, education, HIV risk group, recent STI status, and level of mpox worry (all p < 0.05). A higher proportion of men who have sex with men (MSM) reported limiting their number of sexual partners compared to non-MSM (p < 0.0001). Multinomial regression models comparing vaccinated to unvaccinated PWH found age, education, mode of HIV transmission/gender, and survey period were significantly associated with vaccination status (all p < 0.05). High levels of mpox awareness were observed among this cohort of PWH with more MSM employing risk reduction behaviors and being vaccinated. Ensuring that PWH, regardless of gender, sexual orientation, or age, understand the risks of mpox may improve vaccination uptake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Epidemic of Mpox)

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11 pages, 703 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Persistence of Anti-Rabies Antibody Response in Horses Following Vaccination

by Sharon Tirosh-Levy, Leehe Shaiman Barom, Shiri Novak, Marina Eyngor, Gili Schvartz, Boris Yakobson and Amir Steinman

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020125 - 28 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2534

Abstract

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease affecting all mammalian species. It is caused by the rabies virus and is prevalent worldwide. Horses are not commonly infected with rabies but their vaccination is recommended due to the potential zoonotic risk. This study aimed to [...] Read more.

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease affecting all mammalian species. It is caused by the rabies virus and is prevalent worldwide. Horses are not commonly infected with rabies but their vaccination is recommended due to the potential zoonotic risk. This study aimed to evaluate the duration of immunity following rabies vaccination in horses. A total of 126 serum samples were collected from 93 horses, vaccinated 6 to 91 months before sampling. Rabies-virus-neutralizing antibody (RVNA) levels were evaluated using the Rabies Fluorescent Focus Inhibition Test (RFFIT). A protective RVNA titer of above 0.5 IU/mL was found in 112 (88.9%) of the samples and 84 (90.3%) of the horses. Antibody titers declined over time (rho = −0.271, p = 0.002); however, there was no significant difference in antibody titers or the prevalence of unprotected horses between the time intervals following vaccination. Purebred horses had lower antibody titers (p = 0.024). The response to booster vaccination was inspected in ten horses, and increased antibody titers were found in eight of them. The results of this study demonstrate the prolonged persistence of protective immunity in horses following rabies vaccination, in some cases, for up to eight years. Therefore, the current annual vaccination strategy should be re-evaluated. A rate of 9.7% of poor responders should be considered from an epidemiological perspective in order to minimize the risk of emergence of the disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Rabies: Infection, Immunity, Therapy and Drug Development)

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17 pages, 767 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Clostridioides difficile Infection: Diagnosis and Treatment Challenges

by John E. Markantonis, John T. Fallon, Rajat Madan and Md Zahidul Alam

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020118 - 27 Jan 2024

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 12308

Abstract

Clostridioides difficile is the most important cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea in the United States. The high incidence and recurrence rates of C. difficile infection (CDI), associated with high morbidity and mortality, pose a public health challenge. Although antibiotics targeting C. difficile bacteria are [...] Read more.

Clostridioides difficile is the most important cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea in the United States. The high incidence and recurrence rates of C. difficile infection (CDI), associated with high morbidity and mortality, pose a public health challenge. Although antibiotics targeting C. difficile bacteria are the first treatment choice, antibiotics also disrupt the indigenous gut flora and, therefore, create an environment that is favorable for recurrent CDI. The challenge of treating CDI is further exacerbated by the rise of antibiotic-resistant strains of C. difficile, placing it among the top five most urgent antibiotic resistance threats in the USA. The evolution of antibiotic resistance in C. difficile involves the acquisition of new resistance mechanisms, which can be shared among various bacterial species and different C. difficile strains within clinical and community settings. This review provides a summary of commonly used diagnostic tests and antibiotic treatment strategies for CDI. In addition, it discusses antibiotic treatment and its resistance mechanisms. This review aims to enhance our current understanding and pinpoint knowledge gaps in antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in C. difficile, with an emphasis on CDI therapies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nosocomial Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance)

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20 pages, 3614 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Metatranscriptomic Sequencing of Medically Important Mosquitoes Reveals Extensive Diversity of RNA Viruses and Other Microbial Communities in Western Australia

by Binit Lamichhane, Craig Brockway, Kimberly Evasco, Jay Nicholson, Peter J. Neville, Avram Levy, David Smith and Allison Imrie

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020107 - 25 Jan 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2956

Abstract

Mosquitoes harbor a wide diversity of microorganisms, including viruses that are human pathogens, or that are insect specific. We used metatranscriptomics, an unbiased high-throughput molecular approach, to describe the composition of viral and other microbial communities in six medically important mosquito species from [...] Read more.

Mosquitoes harbor a wide diversity of microorganisms, including viruses that are human pathogens, or that are insect specific. We used metatranscriptomics, an unbiased high-throughput molecular approach, to describe the composition of viral and other microbial communities in six medically important mosquito species from across Western Australia: Aedes vigilax, Culex annulirostris, Cx. australicus, Cx. globocoxitus, Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. We identified 42 viral species, including 13 novel viruses, from 19 families. Culex mosquitoes exhibited a significantly higher diversity of viruses than Aedes mosquitoes, and no virus was shared between the two genera. Comparison of mosquito populations revealed a heterogenous distribution of viruses between geographical regions and between closely related species, suggesting that geography and host species may play a role in shaping virome composition. We also detected bacterial and parasitic microorganisms, among which Wolbachia bacteria were detected in three members of the Cx. pipiens complex, Cx. australicus, Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, and Cx. quinquefasciatus. In summary, our unbiased metatranscriptomics approach provides important insights into viral and other microbial diversity in Western Australian mosquitoes that vector medically important viruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterizing Infectious Diseases Using a 'Total Infectome' Approach)

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17 pages, 4501 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Multivalent Epigraph Hemagglutinin Vaccine Protects against Influenza B Virus in Mice

by Erika Petro-Turnquist, Brigette Corder Kampfe, Amber Gadeken, Matthew J. Pekarek and Eric A. Weaver

Pathogens 2024, 13(2), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13020097 - 23 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3033

Abstract

Influenza B virus is a respiratory pathogen that contributes to seasonal epidemics, accounts for approximately 25% of global influenza infections, and can induce severe disease in young children. While vaccination is the most commonly used method of preventing influenza infections, current vaccines only [...] Read more.

Influenza B virus is a respiratory pathogen that contributes to seasonal epidemics, accounts for approximately 25% of global influenza infections, and can induce severe disease in young children. While vaccination is the most commonly used method of preventing influenza infections, current vaccines only induce strain-specific responses and have suboptimal efficacy when mismatched from circulating strains. Further, two influenza B virus lineages have been described, B/Yamagata-like and B/Victoria-like, and the limited cross-reactivity between the two lineages provides an additional barrier in developing a universal influenza B virus vaccine. Here, we report a novel multivalent vaccine using computationally designed Epigraph hemagglutinin proteins targeting both the B/Yamagata-like and B/Victoria-like lineages. When compared to the quadrivalent commercial vaccine, the Epigraph vaccine demonstrated increased breadth of neutralizing antibody and T cell responses. After lethal heterologous influenza B virus challenge, mice immunized with the Epigraph vaccine were completely protected against both weight loss and mortality. The superior cross-reactive immunity conferred by the Epigraph vaccine immunogens supports their continued investigation as a universal influenza B virus vaccine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Molecular Epidemiology, Diagnostics and Management of Viral Pathogens)

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10 pages, 1105 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Impact of Pathogens on Sepsis Prevalence and Outcome

by Birte Dyck, Matthias Unterberg, Michael Adamzik and Björn Koos

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010089 - 20 Jan 2024

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 9532

Abstract

Sepsis, a severe global healthcare challenge, is characterized by significant morbidity and mortality. The 2016 redefinition by the Third International Consensus Definitions Task Force emphasizes its complexity as a “life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection”. Bacterial pathogens, historically [...] Read more.

Sepsis, a severe global healthcare challenge, is characterized by significant morbidity and mortality. The 2016 redefinition by the Third International Consensus Definitions Task Force emphasizes its complexity as a “life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection”. Bacterial pathogens, historically dominant, exhibit geographic variations, influencing healthcare strategies. The intricate dynamics of bacterial immunity involve recognizing pathogen-associated molecular patterns, triggering innate immune responses and inflammatory cascades. Dysregulation leads to immunothrombosis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and mitochondrial dysfunction, contributing to the septic state. Viral sepsis, historically less prevalent, saw a paradigm shift during the COVID-19 pandemic, underscoring the need to understand the immunological response. Retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptors and Toll-like receptors play pivotal roles, and the cytokine storm in COVID-19 differs from bacterial sepsis. Latent viruses like human cytomegalovirus impact sepsis by reactivating during the immunosuppressive phases. Challenges in sepsis management include rapid pathogen identification, antibiotic resistance monitoring, and balancing therapy beyond antibiotics. This review highlights the evolving sepsis landscape, emphasizing the need for pathogen-specific therapeutic developments in a dynamic and heterogeneous clinical setting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Bacterial and Viral Pathogens on Sepsis Prevalence and Outcome)

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16 pages, 1241 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Roles and Interactions of Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum in Oral and Gastrointestinal Carcinogenesis: A Narrative Review

by Bing Wang, Juan Deng, Valentina Donati, Nabeel Merali, Adam E. Frampton, Elisa Giovannetti and Dongmei Deng

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010093 - 20 Jan 2024

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7111

Abstract

Epidemiological studies have spotlighted the intricate relationship between individual oral bacteria and tumor occurrence. Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacteria nucleatum, which are known periodontal pathogens, have emerged as extensively studied participants with potential pathogenic abilities in carcinogenesis. However, the complex dynamics arising from [...] Read more.

Epidemiological studies have spotlighted the intricate relationship between individual oral bacteria and tumor occurrence. Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacteria nucleatum, which are known periodontal pathogens, have emerged as extensively studied participants with potential pathogenic abilities in carcinogenesis. However, the complex dynamics arising from interactions between these two pathogens were less addressed. This narrative review aims to summarize the current knowledge on the prevalence and mechanism implications of P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum in the carcinogenesis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), colorectal cancer (CRC), and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). In particular, it explores the clinical and experimental evidence on the interplay between P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum in affecting oral and gastrointestinal carcinogenesis. P. gingivalis and F. nucleatum, which are recognized as keystone or bridging bacteria, were identified in multiple clinical studies simultaneously. The prevalence of both bacteria species correlated with cancer development progression, emphasizing the potential impact of the collaboration. Regrettably, there was insufficient experimental evidence to demonstrate the synergistic function. We further propose a hypothesis to elucidate the underlying mechanisms, offering a promising avenue for future research in this dynamic and evolving field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Opportunistic Oral Pathogens in Oral and Systemic Diseases)

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19 pages, 1836 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Markers of Inflammation, Tissue Damage, and Fibrosis in Individuals Diagnosed with Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Pneumonia: A Cohort Study

by Katherine Peña-Valencia, Will Riaño, Mariana Herrera-Diaz, Lucelly López, Diana Marín, Sandra Gonzalez, Olga Agudelo-García, Iván Arturo Rodríguez-Sabogal, Lázaro Vélez, Zulma Vanessa Rueda and Yoav Keynan

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010084 - 18 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2586

Abstract

Previous studies have noted that persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) experience persistent lung dysfunction after an episode of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that inflammation during pneumonia triggers increased tissue damage and accelerated pulmonary fibrosis, [...] Read more.

Previous studies have noted that persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) experience persistent lung dysfunction after an episode of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that inflammation during pneumonia triggers increased tissue damage and accelerated pulmonary fibrosis, resulting in a gradual loss of lung function. We carried out a prospective cohort study of people diagnosed with CAP and/or HIV between 2016 and 2018 in three clinical institutions in Medellín, Colombia. Clinical data, blood samples, and pulmonary function tests (PFTs) were collected at baseline. Forty-one patients were included, divided into two groups: HIV and CAP (n = 17) and HIV alone (n = 24). We compared the concentrations of 17 molecules and PFT values between the groups. Patients with HIV and pneumonia presented elevated levels of cytokines and chemokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, IL-1RA, IL-10, IP-10, MCP-1, and MIP-1β) compared to those with only HIV. A marked pulmonary dysfunction was evidenced by significant reductions in FEF25, FEF25-75, and FEV1. The correlation between these immune mediators and lung function parameters supports the connection between pneumonia-associated inflammation and end organ lung dysfunction. A low CD4 cell count (<200 cells/μL) predicted inflammation and lung dysfunction. These results underscore the need for targeted clinical approaches to mitigate the adverse impacts of CAP on lung function in this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunity to Respiratory Infections)

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16 pages, 1134 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genetic Analysis of H5N1 High-Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Virus following a Mass Mortality Event in Wild Geese on the Solway Firth

by Craig S. Ross, Alexander M. P. Byrne, Sahar Mahmood, Saumya Thomas, Scott Reid, Lorna Freath, Larry R. Griffin, Marco Falchieri, Paul Holmes, Nick Goldsmith, Jessica M. Shaw, Alastair MacGugan, James Aegerter, Rowena Hansen, Ian H. Brown and Ashley C. Banyard

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010083 - 17 Jan 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4706

Abstract

The United Kingdom (UK) and Europe have seen successive outbreaks of H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b high-pathogenicity avian influenza virus (HPAIV) since 2020 peaking in the autumn/winter periods. During the 2021/22 season, a mass die-off event of Svalbard Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis) was [...] Read more.

The United Kingdom (UK) and Europe have seen successive outbreaks of H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b high-pathogenicity avian influenza virus (HPAIV) since 2020 peaking in the autumn/winter periods. During the 2021/22 season, a mass die-off event of Svalbard Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis) was observed on the Solway Firth, a body of water on the west coast border between England and Scotland. This area is used annually by Barnacle Geese to over-winter, before returning to Svalbard to breed. Following initial identification of HPAIV in a Barnacle Goose on 8 November 2021, up to 32% of the total Barnacle Goose population may have succumbed to disease by the end of March 2022, along with other wild bird species in the area. Potential adaptation of the HPAIV to the Barnacle Goose population within this event was evaluated. Whole-genome sequencing of thirty-three HPAIV isolates from wild bird species demonstrated that there had been two distinct incursions of the virus, but the two viruses had remained genetically stable within the population, whilst viruses from infected wild birds were closely related to those from poultry cases occurring in the same region. Analysis of sera from the following year demonstrated that a high percentage (76%) of returning birds had developed antibodies to H5 AIV. This study demonstrates genetic stability of this strain of HPAIV in wild Anseriformes, and that, at the population scale, whilst there is a significant impact on survival, a high proportion of birds recover following infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Virus Infection)

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10 pages, 1842 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity of Rice Husk Extract against Staphylococcus aureus

by Gloria Burlacchini, Angela Sandri, Adele Papetti, Ilaria Frosi, Federico Boschi, Maria M. Lleo and Caterina Signoretto

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010080 - 16 Jan 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4785

Abstract

Infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus are particularly difficult to treat due to the high rate of antibiotic resistance. S. aureus also forms biofilms that reduce the effects of antibiotics and disinfectants. Therefore, new therapeutic approaches are increasingly required. In this scenario, plant waste [...] Read more.

Infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus are particularly difficult to treat due to the high rate of antibiotic resistance. S. aureus also forms biofilms that reduce the effects of antibiotics and disinfectants. Therefore, new therapeutic approaches are increasingly required. In this scenario, plant waste products represent a source of bioactive molecules. In this study, we evaluated the antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of the rice husk extract (RHE) on S. aureus clinical isolates. In a biofilm inhibition assay, high concentrations of RHE counteracted the formation of biofilm by S. aureus isolates, both methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and -sensitive (MSSA). The observation of the MRSA biofilm by confocal laser scanning microscopy using live/dead cell viability staining confirmed that the bacterial viability in the RHE-treated biofilm was reduced. However, the extract showed no or little biofilm disaggregation ability. An additive effect was observed when treating S. aureus with a combination of RHE and oxacillin/cefoxitin. In Galleria mellonella larvae treated with RHE, the extract showed no toxicity even at high concentrations. Our results support that the rice husk has antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties and could potentially be used in the future in topical solutions or on medical devices to prevent biofilm formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Biofilm Infections and Treatment)

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28 pages, 363 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biofilm Producing Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infections in Humans: Clinical Implications and Management

by Ashlesha Kaushik, Helen Kest, Mangla Sood, Bryan W. Steussy, Corey Thieman and Sandeep Gupta

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010076 - 15 Jan 2024

Cited by 80 | Viewed by 15713

Abstract

Since its initial description in the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has developed multiple mechanisms for antimicrobial resistance and evading the immune system, including biofilm production. MRSA is now a widespread pathogen, causing a spectrum of infections ranging from superficial skin issues to [...] Read more.

Since its initial description in the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has developed multiple mechanisms for antimicrobial resistance and evading the immune system, including biofilm production. MRSA is now a widespread pathogen, causing a spectrum of infections ranging from superficial skin issues to severe conditions like osteoarticular infections and endocarditis, leading to high morbidity and mortality. Biofilm production is a key aspect of MRSA’s ability to invade, spread, and resist antimicrobial treatments. Environmental factors, such as suboptimal antibiotics, pH, temperature, and tissue oxygen levels, enhance biofilm formation. Biofilms are intricate bacterial structures with dense organisms embedded in polysaccharides, promoting their resilience. The process involves stages of attachment, expansion, maturation, and eventually disassembly or dispersion. MRSA’s biofilm formation has a complex molecular foundation, involving genes like icaADBC, fnbA, fnbB, clfA, clfB, atl, agr, sarA, sarZ, sigB, sarX, psm, icaR, and srtA. Recognizing pivotal genes for biofilm formation has led to potential therapeutic strategies targeting elemental and enzymatic properties to combat MRSA biofilms. This review provides a practical approach for healthcare practitioners, addressing biofilm pathogenesis, disease spectrum, and management guidelines, including advances in treatment. Effective management involves appropriate antimicrobial therapy, surgical interventions, foreign body removal, and robust infection control practices to curtail spread within healthcare environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Treatment of Biofilm Infections)

13 pages, 1704 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Complement Suppresses the Initial Type 1 Interferon Response to Ocular Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection in Mice

by Daniel J. J. Carr, Adrian Filiberti and Grzegorz B. Gmyrek

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010074 - 13 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2992

Abstract

The complement system (CS) contributes to the initial containment of viral and bacterial pathogens and clearance of dying cells in circulation. We previously reported mice deficient in complement component 3 (C3KO mice) were more sensitive than wild-type (WT) mice to ocular HSV-1 infection, [...] Read more.

The complement system (CS) contributes to the initial containment of viral and bacterial pathogens and clearance of dying cells in circulation. We previously reported mice deficient in complement component 3 (C3KO mice) were more sensitive than wild-type (WT) mice to ocular HSV-1 infection, as measured by a reduction in cumulative survival and elevated viral titers in the nervous system but not the cornea between days three and seven post infection (pi). The present study was undertaken to determine if complement deficiency impacted virus replication and associated changes in inflammation at earlier time points in the cornea. C3KO mice were found to possess significantly (p < 0.05) less infectious virus in the cornea at 24 h pi that corresponded with a decrease in HSV-1 lytic gene expression at 12 and 24 h pi compared to WT animals. Flow cytometry acquisition found no differences in the myeloid cell populations residing in the cornea including total macrophage and neutrophil populations at 24 h pi with minimal infiltrating cell populations detected at the 12 h pi time point. Analysis of cytokine and chemokine content in the cornea measured at 12 and 24 h pi revealed that only CCL3 (MIP-1α) was found to be different between WT and C3KO mice with >2-fold increased levels (p < 0.05, ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc t-test) in the cornea of WT mice at 12 h pi. C3KO mouse resistance to HSV-1 infection at the early time points correlated with a significant increase in type I interferon (IFN) gene expression including IFN-α1 and IFN-β and downstream effector genes including tetherin and RNase L (p < 0.05, Mann–Whitney rank order test). These results suggest early activation of the CS interferes with the induction of the type I IFN response and leads to a transient increase in virus replication following corneal HSV-1 infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Molecular Epidemiology, Diagnostics and Management of Viral Pathogens)

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24 pages, 1724 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Herpesviruses and SARS-CoV-2: Viral Association with Oral Inflammatory Diseases

by Jonathan M. Banks, Kristelle J. Capistrano, Daniela A. Brandini, Filza Zaidi, Pari Thakkar, Rani Rahat, Joel Schwartz and Afsar R. Naqvi

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010058 - 7 Jan 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 9506

Abstract

The oral cavity is a niche for diverse microbes, including viruses. Members of the Herpesviridae family, comprised of dsDNA viruses, as well as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), an ssRNA virus, are among the most prevalent viruses infecting the oral cavity, [...] Read more.

The oral cavity is a niche for diverse microbes, including viruses. Members of the Herpesviridae family, comprised of dsDNA viruses, as well as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), an ssRNA virus, are among the most prevalent viruses infecting the oral cavity, and they exhibit clinical manifestations unique to oral tissues. Viral infection of oral mucosal epithelia triggers an immune response that results in prolonged inflammation. The clinical and systemic disease manifestations of HHV have been researched extensively, and several recent studies have illuminated the relationship between HHV and oral inflammatory diseases. Burgeoning evidence suggests the oral manifestation of SARS-CoV-2 infection includes xerostomia, dysgeusia, periodontal disease, mucositis, and opportunistic viral and bacterial infections, collectively described as oral post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC). These diverse sequelae could be a result of intensified immune responses initially due to the copious production of proinflammatory cytokines: the so-called “cytokine storm syndrome”, facilitating widespread oral and non-oral tissue damage. This review explores the interplay between HHV, SARS-CoV-2, and oral inflammatory diseases such as periodontitis, endodontic disease, and peri-implantitis. Additionally, the review discusses proper diagnostic techniques for identifying viral infection and how viral diagnostics can lead to improved overall patient health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Host-Virus Interactions in Viral Infectious Diseases)

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18 pages, 4287 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Therapeutic Effects of IL-1RA against Acute Bacterial Infections, including Antibiotic-Resistant Strains

by Ines Ambite, Thi Hien Tran, Daniel S. C. Butler, Michele Cavalera, Murphy Lam Yim Wan, Shahram Ahmadi and Catharina Svanborg

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010042 - 31 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3918

Abstract

Innate immunity is essential for the anti-microbial defense, but excessive immune activation may cause severe disease. In this study, immunotherapy was shown to prevent excessive innate immune activation and restore the anti-bacterial defense. E. coli-infected Asc^−/− mice develop severe acute cystitis, [...] Read more.

Innate immunity is essential for the anti-microbial defense, but excessive immune activation may cause severe disease. In this study, immunotherapy was shown to prevent excessive innate immune activation and restore the anti-bacterial defense. E. coli-infected Asc^−/− mice develop severe acute cystitis, defined by IL-1 hyper-activation, high bacterial counts, and extensive tissue pathology. Here, the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), which inhibits IL-1 hyper-activation in acute cystitis, was identified as a more potent inhibitor of inflammation and NK1R- and substance P-dependent pain than cefotaxime. Furthermore, IL-1RA treatment inhibited the excessive innate immune activation in the kidneys of infected Irf3^−/− mice and restored tissue integrity. Unexpectedly, IL-1RA also accelerated bacterial clearance from infected bladders and kidneys, including antibiotic-resistant E. coli, where cefotaxime treatment was inefficient. The results suggest that by targeting the IL-1 response, control of the innate immune response to infection may be regained, with highly favorable treatment outcomes, including infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insight in Pathogenic Escherichia coli: Infections, Pathogenesis and Therapies)

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20 pages, 11145 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Addressing Current Challenges in Poultry Meat Safety: Development of a Cultivation and Colony Hybridization Approach to Recover Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens from Broiler Chicken Carcasses

by Rosette Kakese Mukosa, Alexandre Thibodeau, John Morris Fairbrother, William Thériault and Marie-Lou Gaucher

Pathogens 2024, 13(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13010030 - 28 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2283

Abstract

Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens is one of the main causes of foodborne illness in Canada. The use of a conventional bacterial culture approach to isolate enterotoxigenic C. perfringens from poultry meat is common. This approach is based on the phenotype attributable to a double [...] Read more.

Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens is one of the main causes of foodborne illness in Canada. The use of a conventional bacterial culture approach to isolate enterotoxigenic C. perfringens from poultry meat is common. This approach is based on the phenotype attributable to a double hemolysis phenomenon, whereas few enterotoxigenic strains of C. perfringens produce it, which further complicates the study of the reservoirs of this important pathogen. The objectives of the current study were to validate the ability of a digoxigenin-labeled probe to detect the C. perfringens cpe gene and to validate the use of either a filtration or a direct plating approach, combined with colony hybridization to detect enterotoxigenic C. perfringens. Pure DNA and pure colonies of enterotoxigenic C. perfringens and broiler chicken carcass rinsate samples were subjected to colony hybridization. The results showed that the synthesized DNA probe can detect the cpe gene from both DNA and pure colonies of enterotoxigenic C. perfringens, and from colonies grown from carcass rinsates artificially contaminated with enterotoxigenic C. perfringens. Our study suggests that this isolation method is a promising tool for a better understanding of the epidemiology of this zoonotic pathogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Evaluation of Detection Method for Pathogenic Bacteria from Food)

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