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Review

Microplastic Pollution in China’s Aquatic Systems: Spatial Distribution, Transport Pathways, and Controlling Strategies

by
Zhancheng Wu
1,2,3,
Juzhuang Wang
1,2,
Shengwang Yu
1,
Qian Sun
3,* and
Yulai Han
2,*
1
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, 209 Daxue Street, Yuci District, Jinzhong 030600, China
2
College of New Materials and New Energies, Shenzhen Technology University, 3002 Lantian Road, Pingshan District, Shenzhen 518118, China
3
College of Health Science and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen Technology University, 3002 Lantian Road, Pingshan District, Shenzhen 518118, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Microplastics 2025, 4(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/microplastics4030041
Submission received: 31 March 2025 / Revised: 27 May 2025 / Accepted: 29 May 2025 / Published: 3 July 2025
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Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a critical environmental challenge in China’s aquatic ecosystems, driven by rapid industrialization and population growth. This review synthesizes recent findings on the abundance, morphology, and polymer types of MPs in China’s freshwater systems (rivers, lakes, reservoirs) and coastal marine environments. Spatial analysis reveals significant variability in MP abundance, ranging from 0.1 items/L in Tibet’s Lalu Wetland to 30.8 items/L in Beijing’s Qinghe River, with polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) dominating polymer profiles. Coastal regions exhibit distinct contamination patterns, with the Yellow Sea (5.3 ± 2.0 items/L) and the South China Sea (180 ± 80 items/m3) showing the highest MP loads, primarily as fibers and fragments. Fluvial transport, atmospheric deposition, and coastal anthropogenic activities (e.g., fisheries, tourism) are identified as major pathways for marine MP influx. Secondary MPs from degraded plastics and primary MPs from industrial/domestic effluents pose synergistic risks through the adsorption of heavy metals and organic pollutants. Human exposure routes—ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact—are linked to inflammatory, metabolic, and carcinogenic health outcomes. Policy interventions, including bans on microbeads and non-degradable plastics, demonstrate progress in pollution mitigation. This work underscores the urgency of integrated source control, advanced wastewater treatment, and transboundary monitoring to address MP contamination in aquatic ecosystems.

1. Introduction

Plastic polymers, widely regarded as one of the most transformative innovations of the 20th century [1,2], have permeated modern civilization through their deployment in aerospace systems, industrial manufacturing, agricultural practices, and daily consumer products [3,4,5]. However, the continuous increase in plastic production has led to the occurrence of problems such as factory sewage and improper disposal and management of plastic waste, eventually leading to serious plastic waste pollution in the natural environment [5,6]. Microplastics (MPs) are divided into two categories. (1) Primary MPs refer to the plastic particles in industrial raw materials and domestic garbage directly discharged into the water environment, including polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE) abrasive beads in personal cosmetics, and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) particles for industrial sandblasting [7,8]. (2) Secondary MPs are mainly formed by the degradation of large plastics [9].
Primary MPs mainly come from two anthropogenic sources: domestic wastewater, with consumer products like personal care items containing synthetic “microbeads” (e.g., PE, PP) as a major contributor, where PE dominates (>90% in formulations) and secondary polymers (PP, PMMA, PS, PET) may arise from bead wear during production [10]; industrial wastewater, which releases MPs along with heavy metals and toxicants; and emerging pathways, such as 3D printing waste and textile/printing industries [11,12,13]. Secondary MPs form through chemical (e.g., photodegradation), physical (mechanical stress), and biological weathering of larger plastic debris. In marine systems, solar UV radiation causes oxidative breakdown, and under mechanical forces (e.g., wave action, sediment abrasion), polymers fragment. Environmental factors (humidity, temperature, hydrodynamics) affect MP generation and dispersal. Secondary MPs, predominantly fragments, fibers, or foams in aquatic environments, often result from poor waste management and fishing activities [14,15].
China possesses the sixth-largest freshwater reserves in the world (2.8 trillion m3) and sustains complex aquatic ecosystems spanning 18,000 km of coastline and 30,000 km2 of marginal seas [16,17], which have become critical focal points for microplastic pollution research [18]. The early research on MPs mainly focused on the marine environment because of the enrichment of marine plastics by marine organisms and the threat to human health through the food chain [19,20]. Microplastics are used as intermediate carriers by many organisms, including zooplankton, fish, and marine mammals, collected, stored, and eventually transported to the human body [21]. Current toxicological assessments confirm microplastics induce multipath physiological damage, including gastrointestinal obstruction, metabolic dysregulation, reproductive system impairments, and elevated mortality risks [22]. Concurrently, fluvial systems function as continental transport corridors, systematically transferring land-derived microplastics to oceanic basins [23]. This hydrological connectivity exacerbates secondary contamination through particle sedimentation and freshwater aquaculture practices, adversely impacting adjacent urban areas, agricultural soils, and aquatic ecosystems [24,25].
The presence of microplastic particles in significant quantities within aquatic environments has the potential to exert a considerable effect on the environment itself, in addition to posing a threat to the physiological health of humans [26,27,28]. In addition, there are numerous investigation records that detail the harmful effects of microplastics on aquatic ecosystems [29]. Environmental transformation processes (photodegradation, mechanical weathering, and biological interactions) induce textural modifications in MP particles characterized by surface pitting and increased specific surface area, significantly enhancing their adsorptive capacity for co-contaminants [30,31,32,33,34]. This synergistic adsorption behavior facilitates the transport of heavy metal ions (e.g., Pb2+, Cd2+), hydrophobic organic compounds, and pathogenic biofilms across aquatic matrices [30,31,32,33,34].
Therefore, this review aims to (1) understand the abundance, morphology, and chemical composition of microplastics in freshwater systems (rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in China) and in surface water of Chinese offshore aquatic systems in recent years; (2) to discuss the sources and main transportation routes of microplastics in coastal systems; (3) to analyze the main sources of microplastics in China and their impact on human health; (4) to conclude with policy recommendations for microplastic pollution prevention and mitigation.

2. Literature Retrieval and Collection

The primary sources of literature for this study are drawn from three major academic databases: Web of Science (WoS), ScienceDirect, and Springer Link. The primary keywords employed in the search strategy include “microplastics”, “China”, “aquatic resources”, “rivers”, “lakes”, “reservoirs”, “oceans”, and related terms. The collected literature was then screened. The metadata sampling period was from 1 January 2017 to 28 February 2025, ensuring coverage of recent research up to the manuscript preparation stage. The following criteria were applied for the selection process: (1) the literature describes the abundance of microplastics in surface water bodies, including rivers, lakes, and coastal areas; the units employed in the literature to quantify microplastic abundance are item/L or item/m3; (2) the literature provides descriptions of the composition and morphology of microplastics in water bodies; (3) the selected literature makes guesses about the source of microplastics, and these selected studies provide data support.

3. Abundance, Morphology, and Chemical Composition of Microplastics in Freshwater Aquatic Systems in China

3.1. Abundance of Microplastics in Surface Water

The geographical expanse and hydrological heterogeneity of China create substantial spatial variability in freshwater microplastic distribution [35,36]. Surface water contamination exhibits three orders of magnitude of concentration gradients, with maximum abundance recorded in Beijing Qinghe River (30.8 ± 4.9 particles/L) [37] and minimum observed levels in Tibet Lalu Wetland (0.1–3.1 items/L) [38]. The most prevalent types of microplastics in these freshwater resources are polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE). PP is extensively utilized in various applications, including nonwoven fabrics, medical devices, vehicles, food packaging, and drug packaging [39]. PE finds application in pipes, film products, and wire insulation layers, among others [40]. The pervasiveness of these polymers explains their dominance across lacustrine and fluvial systems [41,42]. Beyond PP and PE, systematic investigations across major river basins have revealed additional polymer types in microplastic compositions: polyamide (PA), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polycarbonate (PC), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyurethane (PU), polyoxymethylene (POM), chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), polyethersulfone (PES), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA). Mechanical weathering of larger plastic debris by fluvial forces produces microplastic fragments and fibers in riverine environments [43,44]. The abundance, types, and morphologies of microplastics in surface water are listed in Table 1.
The pollution distribution of microplastics in freshwater systems of China is illustrated in Figure 1, with environmental microplastics primarily originating from microplastic degradation and supplemented by industrial and domestic discharges [76,77]. In densely populated cities, there is an observed increase in plastic waste in surrounding rivers, as well as an increase in industrial and domestic wastewater. To systematically evaluate the impact of population density on MP abundance, we conducted a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using data from Table 1, categorizing sampling sites into three groups: high-population-density urban zones (e.g., Beijing, Chengdu, Tianjin), moderate-population-density areas (e.g., Anhui, Henan, Jiangsu), and low-population-density regions (e.g., Tibet, Xinjiang, Yunnan). Data were first standardized to a uniform unit (items/L) by converting items/m3 (1 item/L = 1000 items/m3). The ANOVA revealed a significant effect of population density on MP abundance (F (2, 28) = 75.92, p < 0.001), rejecting the null hypothesis that population density has no effect on MP concentrations. Post hoc Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) tests indicated that high-population-density zones exhibited significantly higher MP abundances than moderate (p < 0.01) and low-density regions (p < 0.001), while moderate-density areas also showed higher levels than low-density sites (p < 0.05).
In addition to population density, changes in the abundance of microplastics are related to climate and geographical regions, seasons, or plastic waste management [78]. The Xinjiang Manas River (21 ± 3–49 ± 3 items/L) with low rainfall has high microplastic abundance, while the Guangdong West River (3.0–9.9 items/L) and Zhejiang Qiantang River (1.5–9.4 items/L, average 3.9 items/L) with high rainfall have low microplastic abundance [64,67,73]. Rainfall exerts a direct influence on the flow velocity of rivers, with higher values resulting in increased flow velocity and consequent transportation of microplastics from the water flow to converging rivers [79]. The unique transport mechanism of runoff on microplastics leads to significant variations in data from different sampling points within the same river (Danjiangkou Reservoir: 530–24,800 items/m3) [53]. Furthermore, the abundance of microplastics at a given sampling point varies significantly between seasons. During winter and dry seasons, when water flow is minimal, microplastics are not readily transported by runoff. Conversely, during summer and rainy seasons, when water flow is substantial, microplastics are more easily transferred by runoff [37,52,62,68]. Literature on the subject indicates that surface water microplastics in proximity to garbage transfer stations or industrial areas are comparatively high, while microplastic levels are comparatively low in areas with fewer living and industrial facilities [63,68,70,75]. Furthermore, the transportation capabilities of different types of microplastics vary due to their density, adsorption capacity, and other properties, resulting in an uneven distribution of microplastics in water resources [53,80].

3.2. Chemical Composition of Microplastics in Surface Water

The types of microplastics present in inland rivers are typically diverse and require various detection methods for identification. The predominant polymer types found in rivers and lakes include PP, PE, PVC, PET, and PMMA, with compositional variations depending on localized environmental conditions [81,82,83]. The most prevalent types of microplastics in urban rivers are PA, PE, PP, PET, and PVC, among others. These plastics are primary constituents of daily necessities and clothing, and their origin is domestic waste streams [84]. As evidenced in Table 1, such contamination patterns are particularly evident in densely populated urban areas including Beijing, Chengdu, the Jiaodong region, and Taiwan [37,49,60,61,62]. Environmental aging of microplastics primarily occurs through photo-oxidative degradation [85]. Different types of plastics have different resistance to photooxidation. PP, PE, and PS exhibit low weathering resistance; PET, PVC, PA, and PC demonstrate moderate stability, while PMMA displays superior durability [86,87,88,89,90]. Consequently, PP and PE dominate freshwater systems by abundance, followed by secondary contributions from PA, PVC, and PET [47,48,50,65,66].
The pronounced spatial variability in microplastic chemical compositions across Chinese aquatic systems (as illustrated in Figure 2) reflects a complex interplay of anthropogenic activities, material properties, and environmental processes. PE and PP dominance (owing to their low density, 0.9–1.0 g/cm3, facilitating surface water accumulation [91]) underscores their status as legacy pollutants from ubiquitous plastic applications, such as packaging, textiles, and agricultural films [92]. However, basin-specific compositional anomalies (e.g., PET/PA accounting for 28–38% in Southern Jiangsu Canal, Dongshan Bay, and Danjiangkou Reservoir) signal distinct source–pathway relationships. For instance, the prevalence of PET in these systems likely stems from industrial effluents (e.g., textile dyeing, beverage packaging waste) and urban runoff, while the presence of PA may correlate with synthetic fiber emissions from clothing laundering and automotive industries [53,57,71]. PS enrichment in tourism-dependent watersheds (Wuliangsuhai Lake, Dongting Lake) highlights the role of recreational activities, as PS is widely used in disposable packaging and marine leisure equipment [93]. Figure 2 confirms elevated PS concentrations in tourism-intensive watersheds, including Wuliangsuhai Lake, Dongting Lake, Hainan Xincun Bay, and Yulong River [51,52,72,74].

3.3. Morphology of Microplastics in Surface Water

The common morphologies of microplastics in freshwater rivers are shown in Figure 3. Fibers and fragments are the predominant morphological types in riverine systems. The transport of microplastics by rivers can also increase the rate of fragmentation of microplastics, producing secondary microplastics with irregular morphology and uneven sizes [94].
Morphological characteristics directly influence transport dynamics and environmental fate: fibrous microplastics, with high aspect ratios, exhibit enhanced suspension in water columns due to reduced settling velocities, facilitating long-distance fluvial transport and bioavailability for filter-feeding organisms [95]. In contrast, dense, angular fragments tend to sediment rapidly, accumulating in riverbeds or coastal sediments where they may undergo prolonged degradation [96]. Bead-shaped microplastics from cosmetics or industrial abrasives, with smooth surfaces, show lower adsorptive capacity for hydrophobic pollutants compared to weathered fragments or fibers, which develop rough textures over time that enhance contaminant uptake [97]. Foam-type particles, derived from expanded polystyrene, persist in surface waters due to low density, while films may entangle aquatic biota or fragment further under hydrodynamic stress [98]. Morphological characterization thus provides not only source insights but also clues to microplastic behavior in ecosystems: urban river fibers, linked to textile waste, may translocate efficiently through drainage networks to coastal zones, whereas reservoir sediments accumulate fragmented plastics due to reduced water flow [49,63]. These patterns highlight how morphology mediates transport pathways, bioaccumulation potential, and degradation kinetics, underscoring its role in pollution dynamics beyond mere source identification.

4. Abundance, Morphology, and Chemical Composition of Microplastics in Coastal Areas of China

Chinese researchers have systematically investigated microplastic distribution patterns within the coastal waters of China, generating substantial datasets on contamination characteristics [2]. As summarized in Table 2, significant regional disparities exist in microplastic abundance across the four major marine basins of China [9]. The Yellow Sea exhibits the highest contamination levels (mean abundance: 5.3 ± 2.0 items/L), followed by the South China Sea (180 ± 80 items/m3) and Bohai Sea (140 ± 60 items/m3). The East China Sea demonstrates comparatively lower contamination (35 ± 4 items/m3), while the South China Sea exhibits the widest concentration range (0–2570 items/m3) due to its vast maritime expanse and complex hydrodynamic conditions. Size distribution analyses further reveal a dominance of microplastics <1 mm in China’s coastal waters, with proportional abundance decreasing sequentially across the Bohai Sea (64%), Yellow Sea (60%), East China Sea (40%), and South China Sea (22%) [99]. Wave-induced mechanical erosion drives the generation of nanoplastics (<1 μm) [100], which demonstrate enhanced bioaccumulation potential in marine organisms. These submicron particles exhibit prolonged tissue adhesion in marine biota (e.g., fish and crustaceans), inducing multisystem toxicity through chronic exposure pathways [101,102].
Figure 4 illustrates the variability in microplastic types and morphologies across the marine regions of China. Figure 4a reveals distinct compositional patterns in the South China Sea, where PP (46%), PE (43%), PET (81%), and PA (55%) dominate polymer types. PE demonstrates consistently high prevalence across all marine basins, a phenomenon attributable to intensive aquaculture operations [111]. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) constitutes approximately 60% of fishing net materials [104], while PP demonstrates lower utilization rates compared to PE in fishery operations. Coral reef ecosystems, often termed “marine rainforests,” face significant contamination pressures from maritime activities [112]. Daily discharges from fishing vessels (e.g., bilge water, discarded nets, and fishing lines) constitute primary pollution sources for coral reef ecosystems [113]. Degraded fishing gear fragments frequently entangle coral colonies or remain buoyant at seawater interfaces, posing persistent threats to marine biodiversity. PET and PA particles predominantly originate from textile industry effluents and coastal tourism infrastructure [114]. Recreational facilities along shorelines (beach umbrellas, lounge chairs) generate microplastic emissions through material weathering, while improperly managed waste from these sites readily enters marine environments [115,116]. Empirical studies confirm seasonal microplastic abundance fluctuations across coastal regions, with peak periods correlating with tourism intensity [117,118]. For instance, the Bohai Sea experiences maximum contamination between June and October, whereas the Yellow Sea exhibits elevated levels from May to October, with overall plastic debris density diminishing during winter months. Atmospheric deposition further contributes to nearshore microplastic contamination through aeolian transport mechanisms [119].
The predominant microplastic morphology in the South China Sea, East China Sea, and Yellow Sea is fiber, with respective proportions of 42%, 88%, and 98%. In contrast, particulate forms dominate the Bohai Sea (39%). Microplastics across these marine basins exhibit pronounced weathering characteristics including surface pitting, hollow structures, jagged edges, and oxidative cracking [120]. The adsorptive capacity of these textured microplastics for co-pollutants intensifies with progressive aging [121]. Marine microplastics predominantly appear transparent or white due to ultraviolet-induced pigment degradation and hydrodynamic abrasion, which remove surface colorants through exfoliation processes [122]. Fibrous morphologies representing the principal microplastic form in oceanic environments primarily originate from the weathering of fishing gear and vessel-related materials [104]. In the Bohai Sea, a region with intensive tourism activities among the four major marine basins of China, human population flux drives microplastic generation through beachwear (slippers), recreational tools (plastic shovels, buckets), toys (water guns), and food packaging debris [103]. The mechanical fragmentation of these microplastics combined with cosmetic microbead emissions constitutes primary sources of particulate microplastics [123]. Oceanic current dynamics facilitate interbasin microplastic transport. For instance, water exchange between the Bohai Strait (northward inflow, southward outflow) and the Yellow Sea enables cross-regional contamination [124]. Additionally, atmospheric deposition introduces sub-500-μm fibrous and fragmented microplastics into marine ecosystems through aeolian transport [125,126].
A critical challenge in comparing microplastic (MP) contamination data globally is the lack of standardized units and sampling methodologies across studies. Current literature employs diverse units to report MP abundance, including items per liter (items/L), items per cubic meter (items/m3), items per kilogram (items/kg) for sediments, and even items per surface area (e.g., items/m2) for beach or soil samples. For example, in freshwater systems, this review notes values ranging from 0.1 items/L in Tibet’s Lalu Wetland to 30.8 items/L in Beijing’s Qinghe River, while coastal marine environments report values such as 5.3 ± 2.0 items/L in the Yellow Sea and 180 ± 80 items/m3 in the South China Sea. Such variability in units (e.g., L vs. m3) introduces ambiguity: 1 item/L equals 1000 items/m3, yet studies often fail to convert units consistently, hindering meta-analyses and cross-regional comparisons.

5. Transport of Microplastics in Rivers and Oceans

Marine microplastic contamination primarily originates from three pathways: inland riverine discharge, atmospheric deposition, and coastal waste inputs, with fluvial transport recognized as the dominant conduit [127]. The Pearl River and Yangtze River constitute the major freshwater inputs to the South China Sea and East China Sea, respectively, while the Yellow River serves as the primary contributor to both the Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea [108,127,128,129]. Fluvial transport operates through hydrodynamic processes involving turbulent mixing, plume dynamics, and water column stratification, which collectively govern microplastic advection, dispersion, suspension, and settling [130,131]. Annual microplastic flux from the Pearl River Delta to the South China Sea approximates 39 billion particles, with summer inputs exceeding winter fluxes [127]. Seasonal variability is pronounced in the Yellow River system, where rainy season microplastic concentrations (2510 ± 2970 items/L) substantially surpass dry season levels (430 ± 240 items/L) [132]. In the Yellow River basin, riverine transport plays a dual role in microplastic dynamics, not only as a conduit for delivering land-derived microplastics to marine environments but also as a site of in-river retention through sedimentation and vegetation interception. The Yellow River deposits substantial microplastic loads in its riparian sediments, which are subsequently transported to the Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea via erosional processes. Recent research in the Amazon River demonstrates that aquatic macrophytes, such as Paspalum repens and Pontederia rotundifolia, retain a significant fraction of plastic particles (49% and 32%, respectively) due to their morphological structures and biomass, with upstream vegetated banks exhibiting higher retention rates than downstream areas [133]. This vegetation-mediated retention likely occurs in the Yellow River as well, where dense macrophyte communities in slower-moving sections or floodplains could trap microplastics, reducing downstream transport during low-flow seasons.
The Yangtze River system demonstrates stratified transport dynamics: upper reaches contribute 2.3 Gg/year of microplastics, middle reaches contribute 3.9 Gg/year, and lower reaches contribute 0.8 Gg/year to East China Sea inputs. Riverine processes retain 10.5 Gg/year through sedimentation and water abstraction, resulting in a net annual flux of 7.0 Gg from the Yangtze Basin to marine environments [128].
Coastal hydrodynamic forces, including tidal action, wave motion, and salinity gradients, drive large-scale water mass exchanges that disrupt microplastic dispersion patterns, enabling transport contrary to concentration gradients [134]. Beyond tidal influences, wind constitutes an additional driver of microplastic distribution through Ekman circulation and wave-induced Stokes drift, which collectively induce reverse particle movement and modulate propagation velocities [135]. Microplastic density critically governs surface water abundance profiles. High-density microplastics often sink faster, thereby reducing the concentration of microplastics in the sea [136]. The unique current systems of the South China Sea (e.g., the South China Sea Warm Current, Vietnam Coastal Upwelling, and Mesoscale Eddy Current) promote interparticle collisions and vertical settling [137]. Globally, 20 heavily polluted rivers (predominantly Asian watersheds) account for the majority of marine microplastic inputs, as established by previous studies [127].
These studies, while providing valuable insights into microplastic pollution in China’s aquatic systems, have several research limitations. First, there is a lack of standardized detection methodologies across different regions, leading to inconsistent data interpretation regarding microplastic abundance, morphology, and chemical composition. For example, while Table 1 lists various polymers and morphologies in freshwater systems, the analytical techniques (e.g., FTIR, Raman spectroscopy) are applied inconsistently, hindering cross-study comparisons. Second, spatial variability in microplastic distribution is well documented (e.g., high urban vs. low rural concentrations), but the underlying mechanisms driving regional differences—such as the combined effects of climate, hydrology, and plastic waste management—remain underquantified. Third, most investigations focus on surface water, neglecting subsurface environments like groundwater (e.g., the Jiaodong Peninsula groundwater study is an exception) and deep marine sediments, where microplastics may accumulate and persist long-term. Fourth, the transport pathways discussed (fluvial, atmospheric, coastal activities) lack detailed modeling of microplastic fate, such as the role of sediment resuspension, biofilm formation, or hydrodynamic processes in coastal zones (e.g., South China Sea currents). Lastly, climate change impacts (e.g., altered river flow, extreme weather affecting runoff) on microplastic transport and deposition are rarely integrated into current analyses, leaving gaps in predictive understanding.

6. Sources and Hazards of Microplastics

Microplastics pose significant toxicological risks to a wide range of organisms across aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. In aquatic environments, plankton, fish, shellfish, and marine mammals are key organisms of microplastic exposure [138]. Zooplankton, as a foundational component of marine food webs, readily ingest microplastic particles, leading to gastrointestinal obstruction, reduced feeding efficiency, and impaired reproductive functions [139]. For example, studies in Yangcheng Lake have shown that microplastic fibers and fragments accumulate in the digestive tracts of zooplankton, inducing cellular stress and disrupting energy metabolism [140]. Fish species, such as zebrafish and marine bivalves (e.g., oysters, mussels), exhibit similar pathological responses, including intestinal inflammation, oxidative stress, and altered gene expression, when exposed to microplastics [141,142]. These effects can propagate up the food chain, with top predators (e.g., marine mammals, seabirds) experiencing heightened risks due to bioaccumulation. In freshwater systems, sediment-dwelling organisms (e.g., benthic invertebrates) are particularly vulnerable to microplastic contamination. Microplastics in river and lake sediments physically abrade tissues and serve as vectors for toxic chemicals, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals (e.g., Pb2+, Cd2+), which synergistically enhance cellular damage [143,144].
The toxicity of microplastics is influenced by their size, morphology, and chemical composition. Toxicological studies confirm increased toxicity for particles <10 μm, which readily traverse epithelial barriers, thereby inducing cellular and tissue damage [145]. For example, in marine fish, nanoparticles can translocate from the gut to the liver and spleen, inducing systemic toxicity [146]. Fibrous microplastics, prevalent in urban rivers and coastal waters, pose mechanical risks by entangling aquatic organisms or causing physical damage to epithelial tissues [147]. Chemical additives in plastics, such as bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates, further exacerbate risks by leaching into biological tissues and disrupting endocrine systems [148].
Humans are similarly susceptible to the ingestion of microplastics in substantial quantities via the aquatic environment. Studies estimate that individuals may ingest tens to hundreds of microplastic particles daily via fish, shellfish, and salt [149]. These particles can translocate across the gastrointestinal epithelium, potentially inducing inflammatory responses and oxidative stress in human tissues [150]. Furthermore, the adsorption of pathogens (e.g., bacteria, viruses) onto microplastic surfaces creates additional risks of infectious disease transmission in both aquatic and human populations [151].
In summary, the toxic effects of microplastics extend beyond direct physical harm to include complex interactions with biological systems, pollutant transfer, and trophic transfer, underscoring the need for comprehensive risk assessments and mitigation strategies to protect both ecosystem health and human well-being.

7. Progress in Controlling Microplastic Contamination

Current research methodologies lack comprehensive and efficient treatment strategies for microplastic pollution, underscoring the critical importance of source control initiatives. China has implemented multifaceted regulatory measures targeting microplastic production and management. The National Development and Reform Commission mandated the prohibition of microbead-containing cosmetics production, effective as of 31 December 2020 [152]. Furthermore, legislative restrictions have been enacted on nonbiodegradable plastic products, including disposable tableware, hotel amenities, and plastic packaging, with nationwide bans on nondegradable plastic straws in food service establishments [153]. Additionally, the import policy of China for plastic contaminants specifies a maximum 0.5% impurity threshold for imported waste materials [154]. Ongoing legislative efforts focus on strengthening full-cycle governance frameworks encompassing plastic waste recycling, decommissioning, and disposal [155]. Future MP release projections under China’s policy framework suggest that strict implementation of the 2020 microbead ban and the nonbiodegradable plastic phase-out could reduce primary microplastic inputs by 30–40% by 2030 compared to business-as-usual scenarios. Conversely, lax enforcement might lead to a 15–20% increase in emissions due to unregulated industrial waste and rising consumer demand. These scenarios highlight the critical role of policy compliance in mitigating source contributions, particularly for high-impact sectors like textiles and aquaculture.

8. Conclusions

This paper reviews recent microplastic contamination patterns in surface water resources of China, revealing significant correlations between microplastic abundance and anthropogenic activities, climatic factors, and population density. Intensive industrial discharges, inadequate waste management, and urban runoff in densely populated areas (e.g., Beijing, Shenzhen) correlate with elevated microplastic abundances (e.g., 30.8 items/L in Qinghe River), while regions with minimal human interference (e.g., Tibet’s Lalu Wetland, 0.1–3.1 items/L) show lower contamination. Higher rainfall and river flow velocities enhance microplastic transport (e.g., summer rainy seasons increasing fluvial discharge), while arid regions with low runoff (e.g., Xinjiang’s Manas River) exhibit localized accumulation. Urban centers with high population density exhibit significantly higher microplastic concentrations (e.g., 2820 items/m3 in Beijing’s Shahe River) compared to rural or sparsely populated areas, driven by domestic and industrial waste inputs. Current evidence identifies fluvial transport as the principal pathway for marine microplastic introduction, with regional pollution severity descending in the following order: Yellow Sea, South China Sea, Bohai Sea, and East China Sea. Marine microplastic contamination demonstrates direct linkages to coastal fisheries and tourism industries. Through retrospective analysis of oceanic microplastic origins, this study synthesizes freshwater–marine transport dynamics while systematically analyzing environmental and public health risks associated with microplastic exposure. China’s source-control initiatives have achieved measurable progress in mitigating plastic pollution.

Author Contributions

All authors participated in conceptualization, literature search, writing of the original draft, revision, and final article. Conceptualization, Z.W., J.W. and Y.H.; methodology, Z.W. and J.W.; investigation, Z.W.; data curation, Z.W.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.W. and J.W.; writing—review and editing, Z.W., J.W., S.Y., Q.S. and Y.H.; visualization, J.W.; supervision, Y.H. and Q.S.; project administration, Y.H., Q.S. and S.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors of this paper declare that they have no personal relationships or competing financial interests that could have influenced the work reported in this paper.

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Figure 1. Distribution map of microplastic pollution in freshwater resources.
Figure 1. Distribution map of microplastic pollution in freshwater resources.
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Figure 2. Chemical composition of microplastics in surface water of China.
Figure 2. Chemical composition of microplastics in surface water of China.
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Figure 3. Morphology of microplastics in surface water of China.
Figure 3. Morphology of microplastics in surface water of China.
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Figure 4. (a) Polymer types and (b) morphology of microplastics in coastal areas in China.
Figure 4. (a) Polymer types and (b) morphology of microplastics in coastal areas in China.
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Table 1. The abundance, types, and morphologies of microplastics in surface water in China.
Table 1. The abundance, types, and morphologies of microplastics in surface water in China.
AreaAbundanceTypesMorphologiesReferences
Dafangying Reservoir (Anhui)18.6 ± 7.1 items/m3Not analyzedFiber, Debris, Film, Microbead, Particle[45]
Shaying River (Henan/Anhui)1.1 ± 0.8 items/LPP, PE, PA, PS, PVC, PET, PCFiber, Fragment, Granular, Lumpy, Particle[46]
Taihu Lake (Jiangsu) 160–700 items/m3PP, PE, PET, PVA, FEP, PVC, PTFEFiber, Fragment, Film[47,48]
Qinghe River (Beijing) 30.8 ± 4.9 items/LPA, PU, PP, PE, PET, PEFiber, Fragment[37]
Shahe River (Beijing) 2820 ± 2090 items/m3PET, PP, PS, PEFiber, Fragment, Film, Granule[49]
Jinjiang River (Fujian) 0.5–4.0 items/LPE, PP, PVC, PET, POM, nylon 6(PA6), PSFiber, Particle [50]
Yulong River (Guangxi) 0.0–4.0 items/LPP, PS, PET, PE, PVCFragment, Particle, Film, Fiber[51]
Hainan Xincun Bay (Hainan) 520 items/m3PS, PP, PE, PETFoam, Fiber, Film, Fragment[52]
Danjiangkou Reservoir (Hubei) 530–24,800 items/m3PA, PE, PP, PVF, PVC, PSFragment, Fiber, Film, Microbead, Pellet[53]
East Lake (Hubei) 3330 ± 2060 items/m3PET, PP, PE, PVC, PVAFiber, Fragment, Pellet,[54]
Honghu Lake (Hubei) 67–1160 items/m3PE, PP, PET, PS, PA, PVCSheet, Fragment, Film, Line, Foam[55]
Weihe River (Shaanxi) 2.3–21.1 items/LPE, PP, PS, PVC, PA, PETFragment, Fiber, Film[56]
Southern Jiangsu Canal (Jiangsu) 9.6 ± 4.0 items/LPET, PC, PE, CPE, PUFragment, Fiber, Pellet, Bead, Film, Foam[57]
Wangyu River (Jiangsu) 2.3 ± 1.2–104.6 ± 5.6 items/LPTFE, PPFragment, Fiber[58]
Xiamen Bay (Fujian) 1.6 ± 1.9 items/m3PP, PE, PP, PET, PES, PELine, Fiber, Film, Foam, Particle[59]
Groundwater in Jiaodong Peninsula (Shandong) 90–6830 items/m3PET, PU, PP, PMMA, EVA, PE, PVA, PS, PVCFragment, Film[60]
Urban rivers in Chengdu (Sichuan) 20–760 items/LPE, PP, PS, PETFiber, Lump, Fragment[61]
Houjin River (Taiwan) 150 ± 90 items/m3PET, PP, PTFE, PE, PET, POMNot analyzed[62]
Tianjin Underground River (Tianjin) 17.0 ± 2.2–44.0 ± 1.6 items/LPE, PET, PS, PPFiber, Fragment, Film, Pellet[63]
Lalu Wetland (Tibet) 0.1–3.1 items/LPP, PE, PET, PS, PA, PVC, PCFiber, Fragment, Film[38]
The West River (Guangxi/Guangdong) 3.0–9.9 items/LPE, PP, PS, PET, PVCFiber, Pellet, Fragment, Film[64]
Yangtze River 0.1–2.6 (average 1.3 ± 0.8) items/LPP, PE, PA, PS, PVC, PET, PC, PVFFiber, Film, Fragment, Bead, Foam[65,66]
The Qiantang River (Zhejiang) 1.5–9.4 items/L (average 3.9 items/L)PP, PE, PS, PET, PVCFragmented, Fiber, Sheet, Foam[67]
Ningbo City Lakes (Yuyao River, Yong River, Fenghua River) (Zhejiang) 1620 ± 880–1690 ± 980 items/m3PP, PE, copolymerFragment, Fiber, Film, Pellet, Foam[68]
Xiangshan Bay (Zhejiang) 810 ± 409–990 ± 400 items/m3PET, PP, PEFiber, Fragment[69]
Chishui River (Guizhou/Sichuan) 1.8–14.3 items/L PE, PP, PS, PVCFilm, Foam, Block, Fiber[70]
Dongshan Bay (Fujian) 1.7 ± 1.4 items/m3PE, PA, PET, PES, PP, PSFragment, Pellet, Fiber, Line, Film, Foam[71]
Dongting Lake (Hunan) 620–2320 items/m3PET, PP, PS, PE, PVCPellet, Fragment, Film, Fiber[72]
Manas River (Xinjiang) 21 ± 3–49 ± 3 items/L PP, PET, PS, PVC, PE, PAFiber, Fragment, Films Foam, Pellet[73]
Wuliangsuhai Lake (Inner Mongolia) 3.1–11.3 items/L PS, PP, PE, PVCFiber, Film, Fragment, Pellet[74]
Pearl River (Guangdong) 380–7920 items/m3PP, PEFiber, Fragment, Granule, Film[75]
Notes: Units: items/m3 = particles per cubic meter; 1 item/L = 1000 items/m3. “Not analyzed” indicates no specific polymer type reported in the original study.
Table 2. The abundance, types, and morphologies of microplastics in coastal areas in China.
Table 2. The abundance, types, and morphologies of microplastics in coastal areas in China.
AreaAbundanceTypesMorphologiesReferences
the Bohai Sea140 ± 60 items/m3PE, PP, PS, PET, PAFiber, Fragment, Granule, Foam, Film[103,104]
the Huanghai Sea5.3 ± 2.0 items/LPET, PA, PE, PPFiber, Fragment, Film[105,106]
the East China Sea35 ± 4 items/m3PE, PET, PU, PS, PP, PVAFiber, Fragment, Foam[107]
the South China Sea0–2570 items/m3 (average: 180 ± 80 items/m3)PP, PE, PA, PS, PVCFragment, Fiber, Pellet[108,109,110]
Notes: Units: items/m3 = particles per cubic meter; 1 item/L = 1000 items/m3.
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Wu, Z.; Wang, J.; Yu, S.; Sun, Q.; Han, Y. Microplastic Pollution in China’s Aquatic Systems: Spatial Distribution, Transport Pathways, and Controlling Strategies. Microplastics 2025, 4, 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/microplastics4030041

AMA Style

Wu Z, Wang J, Yu S, Sun Q, Han Y. Microplastic Pollution in China’s Aquatic Systems: Spatial Distribution, Transport Pathways, and Controlling Strategies. Microplastics. 2025; 4(3):41. https://doi.org/10.3390/microplastics4030041

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wu, Zhancheng, Juzhuang Wang, Shengwang Yu, Qian Sun, and Yulai Han. 2025. "Microplastic Pollution in China’s Aquatic Systems: Spatial Distribution, Transport Pathways, and Controlling Strategies" Microplastics 4, no. 3: 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/microplastics4030041

APA Style

Wu, Z., Wang, J., Yu, S., Sun, Q., & Han, Y. (2025). Microplastic Pollution in China’s Aquatic Systems: Spatial Distribution, Transport Pathways, and Controlling Strategies. Microplastics, 4(3), 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/microplastics4030041

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